Masters Degrees (Geography)

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Open Access
An analysis of attitudes towards recycling: Westdene, Bloemfontein
(University of the Free State, 2012-05) Marchand, Ashleigh Katherine; Kruger, E.
English: South Africa, like any developing country, has a high level of waste generation and limited resources for disposal. This is where a definite problem arises - a large amount of waste is left discarded and unmanaged. Recycling plays an important role in the preservation of the environment. This may be one of the most basic fundamental building blocks of environmental protection. It may not appear to be an impressive process but if performed properly with sufficient management, recycling can be the most efficient form of aiding the environment in the long term. The government, alone, does not and should not have the sole obligation in safeguarding our country against pollution and waste management. The private and public sectors have a common responsibility towards the environment. To initiate any waste management development programme, agreements between the various sectors must be drafted. Just as important to what is mentioned above is the co-operation between all national and local authorities. Certain international countries' lack of legislation and policies concerning waste management have resulted in an independent, informal economy being created, which means that an innovative economic sector has been developed. The purpose of this study is to reveal the current and future recycling behaviour of residential and commercial recipients in Westdene, Bloemfontein. Secondly, the study aims to critically review the current integrated waste management plans and policies that exist. Thirdly, a model is developed to illustrate recycling behaviour and attitude. Results gathered from the analysis reveal that all groups and demographics have similar ideas, covering all questions and variations of questions. All recipients are generally very pro-recycling, but only if the municipality contributes by initiating the required programmes/techniques to be used and facilities. Recipients are all in agreement that more information is needed to effectively succeed in implementing recycling in Westdene, Bloemfontein.
Open Access
Aspekte rakende die ruimtelike ekologie van die rooijakkals (Canis mesomelas) as probleemdier in die Suid-Vrystaat
(University of the Free State, 2010) Deacon, Francois; Barker, C. H.
English: According to the Red Meat Producers’ Organisation, damage-causing predators annually catch small stock to a value of approximately R1,1 billion in South Africa. On most of the small stock farms in the Southern Free State, black-backed jackals, Canis mesomelas, are shot on sight and actively hunted to provide a safe environment for domesticated animals. The veld and habitats previously occupied by natural prey for these carnivores are now used for commercial farming practices. Carnivores are conserved in established formal protection and conservation areas within the ecosystem to lessen their contact with small stock. In South Africa the black-backed jackal successfully adapts to this farming environment with visible adaptation patterns. These behavioural patterns are influenced by the circumstances of the animal and variables within its environment. In the study area these fixed patterns of the black-backed jackal presumably annually repeat itself. This study researched these behavioural patterns of the jackal. For the first time, geographic information systems (GIS) are used in the research of the black-backed jackal. Since 2006, black-backed jackal regional data (of all jackals killed during hunting operations) was collected in a high depredation area in the Southern Free State. Data points collected from 1927 to 2009 were accordingly entered on electronic charts in ArcView. The total number of data points were obtained from 433 black-backed jackals killed, with the localities of 344 charted. The data is grouped into four sets: the first set, collected over 26 years, 1927 to 1953, consisted of 15 black-backed jackals; the second set, collected over 5 years, 1993 to 1997, consisted of 124 black-backed jackals; the third set, collected from 1999 to 2008, 10 years, consisted of 210 black-backed jackals; and the fourth set, from 2006 to 2009, four years, had a total of 84 black-backed jackals. Therefore, the number of black-backed jackals killed significantly increased, from 15 killed the first 26 years, to 418 over the last 16 years, within the same specific area. The increase in numbers of black-backed jackals removed from the area is used as indication of the increase in damage over the years in the study area. The average mass of 68 males, killed between 1993 and 1997, was 7.15kg and 63 females, 6.72kg. According to the 35 farmers in this specific area of the Southern Free State, the jackal problem is at present more under control than 30 years ago, which also applies to some other parts of the Southern Free State and South Africa. The reason for this can be ascribed to a better understanding of the animals and planning of hunting expeditions. In the late 1980’s, the average loss per farmer was ± 200 sheep per annum. At present, about 40 sheep on average are lost per farmer. The aim of this study is to further alleviate the damage-causing problem in the study area by making accurate predictions and planning to decrease losses. In the study area, peak losses are noted annually from August to October and March to May. The black-backed jackals mainly follow certain fixed movement patterns in the study area and breeding pairs seemingly react to the same stimuli from their direct environment. The same dens are repeatedly used and there is a clear relationship between the location of the dens and human activities. When a breeding pair is removed from an area, a new breeding pair will soon establish there. The processing of historic data leads to predictions on where the black-backed jackals will establish, where they will breed and where they will probably cause damage. It also predicts where they can probably be caught. This study shows a strong correlation between the physical nature of the environment and the black-backed jackals.
Open Access
Assessing the effects of grazing on vegetation cover and associated socio-economic livelihoods in the Clarens Nature Reserve in the Free State, South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2018) Sekhele, Ntebohiseng Mpho; Okello, T. W.; Adelabu, S. A.
The presence of the Clarens nature reserve at the foothill of the mountainous Maluti is one of the treasured natural ecology of the Free State Province. A primary challenge to the ecological integrity of this small reserve is the nearby location of Kgubetswana Township, which boasts an increasing number of livestock owners. Hence, this study aims to assess the vegetation cover and socio-economic conditions associated with livestock grazing in the Clarens nature reserve. The objectives were to; i) identify vegetation cover; ii) assess the community' perception of environmental effects associated with livestock grazing at the Clarens nature reserve; iii) and assess the socio-economic conditions associated with livestock grazing at the Clarens nature reserve. Maximum likelihood classification and NDVI techniques were applied to remotely sensed images from the Landsat 5 TM, Landsat 7 ETM+ and Landsat 8 OLI sensors to map vegetation cover for the Autumn season of the years 2004, 2008 and 2016. A questionnaire survey was conducted to capture the perceptions of livestock owners and the reserve' management committee. Firstly, over 50% increase of unpalatable vegetation was detected in the vegetation cover of the Clarens reserve. Secondly, qualitative data reveal that 71 % of livestock farmers attribute land degradation to rainfall variability, while the management maintain that livestock overgrazing is the source of negative environmental degradation in the reserve. Change in the vegetation cover has not demonstrated any noticeable effects on the socio-economic conditions of the community. Hence, major dissimilarities in the perceptions of both stakeholders, which are influenced by the sense of responsibility of the two parties towards the reserve. The knowledge and understanding of livestock grazing in a protected area developed in thfs study could be used as a case study to establish grazing management strategies that could sensitize livestock owners to actively participate in the daily maintenance and managing of the reserve for sustainable use of natural resources. And, to forge good working relationships between the management of protected areas and the surrounding communities.
Open Access
An assessment of a technique to derive stream longitudinal profiles: a GIS approach
(University of the Free State, 2012-05) Moolman, Juanita; Barker, C. H.
English: The South African Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) (NWA, 1998) requires the calculation of the amount of water required for ecological sustainability in aquatic systems. Part of this process is the classification of slopes according to geomorphological class, which in turn requires, inter alia, the derivation of river longitudinal profiles from which to calculate these slopes. This has prompted the need to develop a method for obtaining these slopes that is fast and repeatable, and can be applied at both a national as well as sub-catchment level. Input data sets are required that are consistently available at a national as well as a sub-catchment level. This study will assess the results of using a semi-automated GIS procedure to derive longitudinal river profiles and slopes, based on nationally available data sets, in a test catchment. In recent years the use of Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) is replacing contour lines on topographic map sheets as the source of elevation inputs required to construct longitudinal profiles. The main question put forward is: can river longitudinal profiles and slopes generated from a DEM and based on 1:500 000 mapped river lines adjusted to within 50m of 1:50 000 mapped river lines, be used as effectively as river longitudinal profiles extracted from 1:50 000 mapped contours and based on 1:50 000 mapped rivers lines? Primary catchment X, situated in eastern South Africa, is used as the test area for this study. River channels in this catchment represent a range of slopes, from steep mountains streams to flat lowland rivers. The assessment is undertaken on 109 rivers identified at 1:500 000 scale in primary catchment X. These river lines are based on those originally scanned and vectorised from 1:500 000 topographic map sheets. These lines are available at a national level, have been connected to form a continuous network and horizontally adjusted to improve locational accuracy to within 50m of the river lines on 1:50 000 topographic map sheets (DWAF, 2003; DWAF, 2006). Profile elevation values extracted from three medium to low resolution Digital Elevation Models are examined in this study. This study compares slopes based on the elevation values extracted from DEMs according to adjusted 1:500 000 river lines, to those extracted from contour lines on 1:50 000 topographic map sheets according to 1:50 000 scanned river lines. These input data sets and any limitations associated with them are discussed. A semi-automated method used to extract and compile the elevation and distance values required to construct longitudinal profiles and the statistical tests and procedures used to compare elevation and slope values, are also described. Comparisons are formed around two reference scenarios. In the first elevations are extracted at the intersections of river lines with 1:50 000 scanned contour lines. The second reference scenario uses these same derived longitudinal profiles, but divided into five sets of equal horizontal intervals: 100m, 200m, 300m, 400m and 500m. Finally, the conclusions that can be drawn form these results, together with any recommendations for either improving or even replacing the data sets and methods described in this study, are presented. It is found that, that when comparing slopes derived from 1:50 000 contour line elevations to those based on DEM elevations, steep slopes tend to be more underestimated by the DEM than flatter slopes. More than 90% of profiles based on contour intervals and more than 90% of slopes derived at 500m horizontal distance intervals show no significant difference between slopes. It is finally suggested that the adjusted 1:500 000 river lines available from DWA (DWAF, 2003; DWAF 2006) combined with elevations from medium to low resolution DEMs can be used as a substitute for 1:50 000 river line and contour linebased profiles. It is also suggested that the automated GIS procedure used to extract and combine these values can be applied in other areas where the 1:500 000 river lines and medium to low resolution DEMs are available.
Open Access
The climate change-urban planning nexus in a mountain environment: the case of the Eastern Free State Region of South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2023) Shezi, Ntombizodumo; Mukwada, Geofrey; Adagbasa, Efosa G.
Thabo Mofutsanyana District is a rugged and mountainous area located in the eastern part of the Free State Province, South Africa. The area owes its ruggedness to the Drakensberg and Maloti Mountains. Mountain areas have been reported to be more sensitive and vulnerable to climate change, making it necessary to assess climate change in such areas and the surrounding urban areas. This study aimed to identify the negative impacts of climate change in the Thabo Mofutsanyana District and assess how urban planners responded to these impacts. This study used mixed-research methods, including climate data collected from the Koninklijk Nederlands Meteorologisch Instituut (KNMI) Climate Earth Explorer analysed using Microsoft Excel. It used social data from formal interviews with local urban planners and survey questionnaires distributed to urban residents. The social data was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft Excel. Lastly, the study used spatial data from Google Earth Explorer, and PlanetScope analysed using ArcGIS (ArcMap 10.7.1). The results revealed a statistically significant increase in monthly mean temperature (from 1990 to 2020) experienced in Thabo Mofutsanyana District towns, while the decrease in annual total precipitation (from 1990 to 2020) was not statistically significant. This implies that the increase in temperature results from climate change, while the decrease in precipitation is only climate variability. The results further revealed that the urban planners’ strategies implemented to alleviate the impact of climate change were ineffective due to the magnitude of the effects of climate change, especially flooding during heavy rains and extreme temperatures. Furthermore, it was discovered that the exclusion of climate change during urban planning led to a decline in the protection of Green and Blue Urban Ecological Infrastructure (UEI). The increasing Grey UEI is not sustainable as the blocking of drainage systems and the limited porosity of roads do not reduce the effects of climate change, such as flooding. If not effectively maintained, the Green and Blue UEI will continue to decrease in Thabo Mofutsanyana District, affecting the area’s sustainability. The study concluded that sustainable urban planning could mitigate the effects of climate change in cities and small towns, and help communities adapt to these effects effectively. Incorporating climate change during urban planning is necessary.
Open Access
A comparative analysis of the treatment of biodiversity impacts in mining Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) before and after 2013: experiences from the Mpumalanga province, South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2019-07) Pohlo, Reanetsie T.; Kruger, Eldalize
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the environmental management tools employed by the relevant authorities to achieve the principles of sustainable development. Biodiversity Impact Assessment (BIA) studies are undertaken as part of the EIA process to ensure that the proposed development considers the potential impacts on the biodiversity. Studies on the state of South Africa’s biodiversity have revealed that biodiversity and ecosystems in the country are under serious threat; and mining is one of the major threats to the biodiversity. In 2013, the Mining and Biodiversity Guideline (DEA et al., 2013) was published, with the aim of improving the integration of biodiversity into the mining industry. This research analyses the treatment of biodiversity impacts in mining EIAs before and after the publication of this guideline. In order to achieve the aim of this research, a customised mining BIA report-review package was developed; and it was employed to review 46 mining BIA reports produced before and after 2013. Secondary data – by means of questionnaires were also employed to get an in-depth understanding of the treatment of biodiversity impacts in mining EIAs. The results of the study revealed that most BIAs failed to consider biodiversity issues properly in their assessments. For instance, the BIAs conducted before, and after 2013 received an overall satisfactory score of 43% and 57%, respectively. Areas of weakness include project description, sensitivity mapping, stakeholder consultation, consideration of alternatives, as well as monitoring. Faithful representation of the biodiversity specialist input to the main mining EIA report showed an improvement after 2013, by receiving an overall satisfactory score of 78%, compared to the 52% received before 2013. The results also revealed that the majority of the BIA reports complied with the minimum requirements for specialist studies stipulated by the National Environmental Management Act (Act No.107 0f 1998). The analysis of the questionnaires revealed several inadequacies and areas of weakness regarding the treatment of biodiversity impacts. These include poor consideration of indirect and cumulative impacts, failure to incorporate environmental thresholds, and the ecosystem approach – when assessing biodiversity impacts. A series of recommendations for improving the treatment of biodiversity impacts in mining EIAs was subsequently formulated. The development and implementation of sensitivity mapping guidelines, capacity building for biodiversity specialists and Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAPs), and the application of the mitigation hierarchy, among others, is proposed to improve the consideration of biodiversity impacts in mining EIAs.
Open Access
A comparative study of the quality and outcomes of environmental impact assessment reports from the Free State and Northern Cape provinces
(University of the Free State, 2008-05) Freemantle, Sophia Johanna; Kruger, E.
English: An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) determines the economic, social and environmental impacts of proposed developments. Environmental Impact Assessment reports are complied by independent consultants in order to provide the authorities with information on the anticipated impacts on the environment caused by a proposed activity or development. The authorities therefore base their decision largely on the EIA document and trust that the information about forecasted impacts are to a large extent accurate. Authorities also trust that the mitigation measures proposed in the Record of Decisions (RODs) and Environmental Management Plans (EMP`s), in order to minimize impacts on the environment, are implemented during the construction and operational phases of a project. Post-authorization activities such as monitoring and auditing are the only feedback mechanisms to provide authorities with information on the extent to which predicted impacts materialised and whether mitigation measures were implemented. Post authorization activities, especially auditing is to a large extend neglected because it was not mandatory in South Africa under the Environmental Impact Assessment regulations promulgated on September 1997 in terms of Environment Conservation Act 107 of 1989. Therefore the accuracy of predicted impacts and the implementation rate of mitigation measures in South Africa are to a large extent unknown. The aim of the study is to assess the accuracy of predicted impacts and the implementation rate of mitigation measures of activities that received authorization from the Departments of Environmental Affairs in the Free State and Northern Cape provinces, in South Africa. The objective of the study is to determine if any improvements are necessary to EIA reports, to establish whether authorities base their decisions on correct information. The adequacy or success of proposed mitigation measures will also aid decision makers in suggesting preventative measures. The research problem posed in this study was two-fold. First the question relating to the accuracy of predicted impacts and implementation of mitigation measures in the Free State and Northern Cape had to be answered. This was done through a method called impact-backwards auditing. Secondly the question whether the two provinces had similar outcomes in terms of predicted impact accuracy and implementation of mitigation measures, had to be assessed. The comparison between the two provinces was conducted through a series of Pearson chi-square tests on contingency tables to assess if statistically significant differences occurred in the outcome of predicted impacts and mitigation measures between the Free State and Northern Cape provinces. This study concluded that no statistically significant differences occurred between the two provinces in relation to the outcome of predicted impacts and mitigation measures. Predicted impacts were to a large extent accurately predicted and the majority of mitigation measures were to a large extent implemented successfully to prevent or minimize an impact.
Open Access
The construction of a Geographic Information System (GIS) model for landfill site selection
(University of the Free State, 2007-11) Thoso, Makibinyane; Barker, C. H.
In the past decade, locating landfill site has been recognized as a significant planning problem and has subsequently received much attention from researchers in the planning sector. In particular, the siting of landfills is becoming more of an issue due to the prevalent “not in my backyard” (NIMBY) and “not in anyone’s backyard” (NIABY) concerns from the public. The purpose of this study, after identifying important criteria for siting landfills, was to develop a user-friendly landfill site selection model using a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) framework. Due to unavailability of electronic spatial data for Lesotho, Bloemfontein area was used as a test case. The model is tested in Bloemfontein with the intension to be applied in the city of Maseru as soon as the spatial data become available. The three main objectives were to develop GIS criteria for locating the landfill, identify possible sites that were suitable for this type of development and evaluate the effectiveness of these GIS methods used in the study. Production of constraint and factor maps took place. Afterwards, final suitability map was created using ArcGIS analysis tools. The optimum suitability map indicated that there were more optimal sites found within Bloemfontein city. The results discovered in Bloemfontein city using the GIS-based study revealed that although highly suitable areas were limited, a site was still able to be chosen under the predefined parameters. The site is not located on, or near, any environmental interest areas and is located a significant distance away from streams and urban areas, which minimizes social conflict and environmental impacts. The site is also located close enough (1-2km) to major road (N8) to Kimberley from Bloemfontein city and railroad, which ensures that economic costs of implementation are minimal. The selected region has a slope less than 12%, which are both an infrastructural advantage and a means of minimizing environmental impacts. Furthermore, the landfill is located in an area within 22 kilometres of the Bloemfontein study area. Since the site is located in a highly suitable area, environmental, social, and economic concerns have been met. Ultimately, the study proposes an acceptable landfill site for solid waste, taking Bloemfontein as the test study area. This research will contribute in developing Lesotho’s spatial database of environmental and social information to assist in the formulation of environmental policy. It is also expected that such municipal GIS when planned and implemented efficiently with sufficient public awareness and support would be instrumental in bringing reforms at the local and national level, realizing a major improvement without much capital investment.
Open Access
Critical perspectives on the (re)development of Westdene, Bloemfontein
(University of the Free State, 2006-01) Hoogendoorn, Gijsbertus; Visser, Gustav
English: The study focuses on the development of Westdene, Bloemfontein. Westdene is one of Bloemfontein’s oldest neighbourhoods and has undergone a range of changes since its establishment in 1903. Following a review of the development of Westdene over the past century, this investigation provides a critical reflection on the urban changes that have taken place in this neighbourhood, including the decentralisation of office and retail functions, the development of entertainment amenities, gentrification in parts of the neighbourhood, crime and fear of crime in the former CBD and the neighbourhood itself. Drawing on the findings of the investigation the study attempts to make a contribution towards our understanding of neighbourhood changes in post-apartheid cities. Moreover, the investigation challenges the commonly held notion that urban compaction and diversification of land-uses lead to integrated and efficient neighbourhoods, or city districts. On the contrary, the result of this study contradicts this perception, demonstrating that despite the multiple uses of Westdene as a location of employment, recreation and residence, it has developed into a highly fragmented urban space.
Open Access
A critical review of the quality of enviromental impact assessment reports in Lesotho
(University of the Free State, 2011-01) Talime, L. A.; Kruger, E.
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is one of the tools used by relevant authorities all over the world in an attempt to ensure that the principles of sustainable development are achieved. Since the Environment Act (EA) No. 15 of 2001 was passed in the parliament many EIAs have been conducted in Lesotho. This Act has been replaced with the EA No. 10 of 2008. Though it was not until June 2009 that the environmental law was promulgated, government institutions and environmental practitioners have been operating within the provisions of this Act. The preparation of high quality EIA reports is one component of an effective translation of EIA policy into practice. The Lee and Colley review package (Lee et al 1999) was used to assess the quality of 15 EIA reports submitted to the National Environment Secretariat which is now referred to as the Department of Environment (DoE). The reports comprised of the project briefs (PBs) and the environmental impact statements (EISs). Interviews with the EIA consultants, stakeholders and concerned government officials have also been conducted to underpin the root cause of poor quality of EIA reports. The analysis reveals that several key areas of EIA do not receive sufficient attention. The inadequacies are particularly in areas relating description of the development, identification, evaluation and mitigation of key impacts, consideration of alternatives, and consultation and participation of the public. The government institutions also show less interest in environmental matters and as a result matters relating to environment are given less priority. This leaves the effectiveness of the EIA process to be highly questionable. The study offers suggestions that would improve the EIA process in the country.
Open Access
Estimation of greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture in the eastern Free State, South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2017-12) Malaka, Sewela Francinah; Mukwada, G.; Moeletsi, M. E.
The agriculture sector is responsible for global emissions and the emissions continue to grow rapidly. The food agriculture organization (FAO) reported emissions with 7.1 gigatonnes CO2eq per annum, representing 14.5 % of human-induced GHG emissions; the livestock sector plays an important role in climate change. Beef and cattle milk production account for the majority of emissions, respectively contributing 41 and 20 % of the sector’s emissions. While pig meat and poultry meat and eggs contribute respectively 9 % and 8 % to the sector’s emissions. Feed production and processing, and enteric fermentation from ruminants are the two main sources of emissions, representing 45 and 39 % of sector emissions, respectively. Manure storage and processing represent 10 % in 2013. Contribution of agriculture sector to South Africa’s total CO2eq emissions was 11.6 % in 1990, 9.3 % in 1994 and 4.9 % in 2000. The livestock category was the major contributor to the Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use (AFOLU) sector, providing the average of 54.1 % to the total CH4 emissions in 2010. The contribution from livestock has declined by 11.8 % over the 2000 -2010 period. The department of environmental affairs (DEA) reported that, the total enteric CH4 emissions attained for the years (2000, 2004, and 2010) were 903.23 Gg, 1183.56 Gg and 1172.95 Gg. The contributions of dairy cattle to the total cattle emissions in 2004 was 14.3 % and 13.5 % in 2010. The overall objective of this research study was to estimate GHG emissions (CO2, CH4 and N2O) resulting from agricultural farms in Tshiame Ward in the eastern Free State region of South Africa for the years 2010 to 2014. The importance of this research was to assess GHG emissions in agricultural farms for purposes of developing mitigation options. The available data allowed Tier 2 method to calculate all the GHG emission factors (EFs) and emissions from cattle, sheep and cropland farming. However, Tier 1 method was used to estimate EFs and emissions from other livestock categories. Emissions were estimated from the agricultural sources including CH4 emissions from enteric fermentation, CH4 emissions from manure management, N2O emissions from manure management, non-CO2 emissions from biomass burning, Soil N2O emissions from managed soils, and emissions from fuel use. The results have shown relatively high CH4 EFs from enteric fermentation for mature female beef cattle (95- 109 kg/head/year) at all farms. The dairy mature females followed with 71-105 kg/head/animal, dairy mature bulls (63-96 kg/head/animal), beef mature bulls (53-89 kg/head/animal), beef heifers (37-52 kg/head/animal), dairy heifers (33-56 kg/head/animal), dairy calves (10-25 kg/head/animal), and beef calves (10-24 kg/head/year). Ewes recorded an enteric CH4 EF of about 7 kg CH4/head/year, heifers 0.86 kg CH4/head/year, rams with about 9 kg CH4/head/year and lambs were calculated to have an enteric CH4 EF of about 0.22 kg CH4/head/year. The manure CH4 EFs for MMSs varied per animal subcategories. Beef mature females had the highest average CH4 manure EFs ranging from 1.2 to 1.5 kg CH4/animal/year at all farms, followed by the dairy mature females with CH4 manure EFs ranging from 0.8 to 2.2 kg CH4/animal/year. The beef mature bulls had the CH4 manure EFs of 0.9 to 1.2 kg CH4/animal/year which was higher than the dairy mature bulls which ranged from 0.9 to 1 kg CH4/animal/year. The other animal subcategories had the manure CH4 EFs ranging from 0.1 to 1 kg CH4/animal/year by MMSs. In summary, manure CH4 EFs for beef category were higher than the dairy category at all animal subcategories. The livestock EFs in this study were higher than the EFs found in most studies and this might be due to the lower quality of the feeding situation used in the study area. However, the cropland EFs were consistent with those in literature for most of the studies. It was estimated that farm total emissions in the year 2010 ranged from (69220-580877 kg CO2eq), (70977-585732 kg CO2eq) in the 2011, (45338-676245 kg CO2eq) in 2012, (54731-485264 kg CO2eq) in 2013, and (36270-464119 kg CO2eq) in 2014 at all farms. CH4 enteric fermentation was the highest contributor to the total farm emissions at all farms by approximately 50% in all years, followed by CH4 and N2O from manure management respectively. GHG emissions from cropland farming were lower than the emissions produced during livestock farming. In this study, the mitigation options were analysed and evaluated, and as a result, six (6) mitigation options were regarded as the potential mitigation options for Tshiame farms. The six (6) potential mitigation options met the requirements of sustainability, environmental friendly as well as the profitability of farmers. Managing manure as solid storage had reduced the total emitted manure emissions by 21-75% in all years at all farms. Feeding manure to anaerobic digester had resulted in the reduction of manure emissions emitted by 9-24% at all farms. Manure left on pasture had reduced the manure emissions by 20-75%. However, the dry lot reduced the manure emissions by 20-74% in all years. Addition of supplements in feeding situations had reduced the emitted enteric emissions ranging from 81 to 92 percent.
Open Access
An evaluation of the spatial variability of sediment sources along the banks of the Modder River, Free State Province, South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2005-05) Tsokeli, Raboroko David; Barker, C. H.
The study focuses on the characteristics of the Modder River in the Free State. The Modder River plays an important role in supplying water for domestic, agricultural and industrial uses in the Bloemfontein, Botshabelo and Thaba Nchu areas. According to present (2001) estimates by the Centre of Environmental Management of the University of the Free State, the Modder River is exploited to its full capacity owing to the construction of dams. As the name of river suggests, the Modder River is said to have high sediment loads. In Afrikaans, modder means mud. The drainage pattern of the Modder River reveals well-developed dendritic drainage on the eastern part of the catchment and an endoreic drainage pattern on the western part. This study aims to evaluate the spatial variability of sediment sources along the main course of the Modder River as well as assess the possible role of fluvial geomorphology in river management. The study is based on the hypothesis that the high sediment load in the Modder River main course is caused more by riverbank processes than by the surface of the basin. Helicopter and fieldwork surveys were carried out in order to obtain the required materials (variables). The spatial variability of bank-forming material, vegetation cover, type and channel form were investigated in order to realise the aim of this study. The channel form of the Modder River indicates a decrease in sediment loads since the channel form shows some shrinkage immediately below the Krugersdrift Dam. The Modder River transports less and less sediments downstream as a result of a high number of constructed dams. Dams are barriers that create discontinuities in the channel system. Observations of the characteristics of the banks of the Modder River reveal that these banks are resistant to erosion owing to the luxuriant vegetation growth and low stream power because of the channel gradient. A question arises as to whether the Modder River really has such high sediment loads as its name suggests. Given the current state of the Modder River, high sediments are highly localised at certain sections of the stream. The transfer of sediments from one part of the river to another depends on the availability of sediment sources in space and time.
Open Access
'n Geografiese analise van die Bantoebevolking van die Oranje-Vrystaatse Goudveld
(University of the Free State, 1970-01) De Villiers, Gabriel Du Toit; Nel, D. E.
Abstract not available
Open Access
'n Geografiese ondersoek na die uitwerking van enkele ruimelike veranderlikes op die gang van nywerheidsvestiging in Qwaqwa
(University of the Free State, 1987-11) Claassen, Johannes Hendrik Daniel; Senekal, W. F. S.; Enslin, A. G.
Afrikaans: As aanloop tot die tema is die tydruimtelike evolusie van die Suid- Afrikaanse ekonomiese sisteem in breê trekke geskets. Daar Qwaqwa deel is van die breër Suid-Afrikaanse ekonomiese struktuur is die identifisering en omskrywing daarvan noodsaaklik en word die gebied ooreenkomstig bestaande inligting as 'n afwaartse oorgangsone geklassifiseer. Die mens se organisasie van ekonomiese ruimte vertoon duidelike fokusse van ruimtelike konsentrasie. Die Suid-Afrikaanse ruimtelike patroon is geen uitsondering nie en die voorkoms van 'n aantal kernstreke met hoë intensiteit daaromheen word aangetoon. Die bevolkingsbeleid van afsonderlike ontwikkeling het die destydse regering verpIig om onverwylde aandag aan die aangeleentheid te skenk en die uitkoms daarvan was 'n beleid van nywerheidsdesentralisasie. Enersyds was die doelwit van laasgnoemde beleid die skepping van nywerhede en gepaardgaande werkgeleenthede in minder ontwikkelde gebiede ten einde die ekonomiese basis van hierdie gebiede te versterk en die instroming van swarters na blanke-gebiede te beperk. Andersyds was die beleid ook gemik op die ewewigtige verbreiding van ekonomiese aktiwiteite oor 'n groter geografiese ruimte. Ten einde die aantrekkingskrag van hierdie gebiede te verhoog word desentralisasievoordele aan voornemende nyweraars beskikbaar gestel, maar die vraag ontstaan tot watter mate sodanige stimulering, met inagneming van die talle beperkings eie aan 'n buiterandstreek, suksesvol is. In Hoofstuk 2 (afdeling 2.7) word dit as hipotese gestel dat die vestiging en ontwikkeling van nywerhede in Qwaqwa benadeel word deur 'n kombinasie van enkele ongunstige vestigingsfaktore, waaronder: 1. gebrekkige infrastruktuur. 2. beperkte natuurlike hulpbronne. 3. ontoereikende lokale mark. 4. relatiewe geïsoleerdheid ten opsigte van metropolitaanse gebiede. Daarteenoor word dit ook gestel dat die volgende faktore 'n beduidende rol in die vestiging en groei van nywerhede in Qwaqwa vervul, naamlik: 1. sentrale ligging, veral met betrekking tot die PWV-gebied asook Durban en omgewing. 2. desentralisasievoordele en owerheidsbesluitneming. 3. die beskikbaarheid van arbeid en 'n stabiele arbeidsmag. In Hoofstuk 3 en 4 word ondersoek ingestel na die voordele en nadele verbonde aan 'n nywerheidspIasing in Qwaqwa en in Hoofstuk 5 word die resultate van die ondersoek saamgevat en word die volgende negatiewe vestigingsfaktore geïdentifiseer: Negatiewe vestigingsfaktore - enkele aspekte betreffende infrastruktuur - gebrek aan grondstowwe - relatiewe geïsoleerdheid - hoë vervoerkostes - ontoereikende behuising - tekort aan opgeleide ambagsmanne en tegnici - gebrekkige hulpdienste In dieselfde hoofstuk (5) word bovermelde negatiewe vestigingsfaktore met die gestelde hipoteseformulerings vergelyk en as volg geverifieer: 1. Enkele aspekte betreffende infrastruktuur blyk beslis 'n negatiewe uitwerking te hê op die vestiging en ontwikkeling van nywerhede in Qwaqwa en wel om die volgende redes: 1.1 die gebrek aan 'n direkte spoorverbinding met Phuthaditjhaba word deur 69,1 % van die nyweraars as 'n belangrike tekortkoming uitgesonder (tabel 3.14). 1.2 38,2 % van die nyweraars is van mening dat vervoergeriewe by fabrieksperseie ontoereikend is (tabel 3.15). 1.3 tekortkominge met betrekking tot sekuriteit, brandweerdienste, kantoorfasiliteite, eetplekke, klankdigtheid en die verhitting van fabrieksgeboue (tabelle 3.15 en 3.16). 1.4 'n gebrek aan die tydige beskikbaarheid van geskikte fabrieksgeboue word deur 49,1 % van die nyweraars aangemeld (afdeling 3.2.2.2). 2. Die gebrek aan grondstowwe benadeel die vestiging en ontwikkeling van nywerhede en ondersteun die gestelde hipotese. 2.1 volgens aankoopwaarde voorsien Qwaqwa en die omliggende Oos- Vrystaat in slegs 9,3 % van die totale grondstofbehoeftes van nywerhede (tabel 3.19). 3. Relatiewe lang afstande en hoê vervoerkostes ondersteun die hipotese ten opsigte van relatiewe geïsoleerdheid met betrekking tot metropolitaanse gebiede. 3.1 alhoewel Qwaqwa sentraal geleë is tussen Durban en die PWV-gebied, bestempel 72,7 % van die nyweraars hul teenswoordige nywerheidsligging as redelik tot aansienlik geïsoleerd (tabel 3.28) . 3.2 as gevolg van bovermelde word hoë vervoerkoste as die belangrikste negatiewe bedryfsaspek uitgesonder (tabelle 3.30, 3. 36 en 3. 40) 4. Ontoereikende behuising is nie as 'n hipotese gestel nie, maar is tydens die ondersoek as 'n negatiewe vestigingsfaktor geïdentifiseer. Die tekort aan behuising is veral van toepassing op Indiër sakemanne en word as 'n ernstige knelpunt beleef (afdeling 3.2.1.2). 5. Alhoewel dit nie as 'n hipotese gestel is nie, word 'n tekort aan opgeleide ambagsmanne en tegnici asook gebrekkige hulpdienste as negatiewe vestigingsfatore geïdentifiseer. 5.1 52,7 % van die nyweraars ondervind ernstige tekorte aan personeel in die tegniese beroepskategorieë (tabel 3.6). 5.2 in terme van geldwaarde is 75,3 % van alle hulpdienste van gebiede buite Qwaqwa afkomstig (tabel 3.32). Benewens die vermelde negatiewe vestigingsfaktore word ook die volgende positiewe vestigingsfaktore in Hoofstuk 5 geïdentifiseer: Positiewe vestigingsfaktore - sentrale ligging - belowende plaaslike mark - aspekte betreffende arbeidsaangeleenthede - desentralisasievoordele Bostaande positief gerdentifiseerde vestigingsfaktore word met die gestelde hipoteses vergelyk en as volg geverifieer: 1. Die sentrale ligging van Qwaqwa met betrekking tot die PWV- en Durban-omgewing ondersteun die gestelde hipotese en vervul beduidende rol in die vestiging en ontwikkeling van nywerhede. 1.1 ten spyte van relatiewe gersoleerdheid (tabel 3.28) het 60 % van die nyweraars laat blyk dat hulle tevrede is met hul nywerheidsplasing en het die sentrale ligging van Qwaqwa met betrekking tot die res van Suid-Afrika as die vernaamste rede aangevoer (tabel 3.25). 1.2 sentrale ligging word as die vernaamste rede aangevoer waarom Qwaqwa bo ander nywerheidsontwikkelingspunte verkies word 29,1 % van die totale telling (tabel 3.38). 2. Die identifisering van 'n belowende plaaslike mark weerlê die gestelde hipotese en lewer 'n positiewe bydra tot die vestiging en ontwikkeling van nywerhede in Qwaqwa (tabelle 2.4, 3.26 en 3.37. 3. Die beskikbaarheid van arbeid en die teenwoordigheid van 'n stabiele arbeidsmag bevestig die gestelde hipotese. Die volgende aspekte het die plasingskeuse van nyweraars ten opsigte van vestiging in Qwaqwa gunstig bernvloed: 3.1 die aanwesigheid van 'n groot arbeidsbron (tabel 3.10). 3.2 positiewe arbeidsgesindhede (tabel 3.40). 4. Soos in die hipotese gestel lewer die beskikbaarheid van desentralisasie voordele 'n beduidende bydra tot nywerheidsvestiging in Qwaqwa. Die sterk trekkrag van desentralisasievoordele word duidelik weerspieël in tabelle 3.10, 3.38, 3.39 en 3.42. Subsidies op lone (tabel 3.33) word as die belangrikste desentralisasievoordeel geëdentifiseer. 4.1 60 % van die nyweraars wat hervestig het, het gunstige desentralisasie voordele as die vernaamste rede vir vestiging in Qwaqwa uitgesonder (tabel 3.42). Teen hierdie agtergrond en die aanbevelings vervat in Hoofstuk 5 word 'n ontwikkelingstrategie vir Qwaqwa daargestel. Laasgenoemde strategie word geformuleer met as agtergrond die gegewe realiteit van nywerheidsontwikkelingspunte asook die inherente beperkings daaraan verbonde en behels die volgende:
Open Access
The geomorphology and aeolian deposits in the vicinity of Florisbad
(Univeristy of the Free State, 2011-05) Rabumbulu, Mulalo; Holmes, P. J.
The discovery of the Florisbad hominid prompted further archaeological and palaeoanthropological research in the Florisbad area. However, research that looks specifically at the geomorphology and aeolian deposits around Florisbad has been very limited, although aeolian processes and sand dunes have been widely recognized as being of significance in understanding past environmental conditions in this area. Geologists have also shown an interest in trying to explain the formation of the Florisbad spring and fossil site. The Florisbad spring site has a complex stratigraphy because the deposits are lithologically variable due to the fact that they are the product of an unusual depositional environment. Many hypotheses have being proposed in trying to understand the complex depositional environment at Florisbad. This research suggests that, in order to better understand the complex depositional environment of Florisbad, there is a need to understand the surrounding geomorphological setting in terms of geohydrological and geomorphic processes and features. The methodology comprises a review of current literature on lunette dunes, and previous work undertaken on the geomorphology and geology at and around Florisbad, an examination of aerial photographs to identify lunette dunes in the vicinity of Florisbad, and fieldwork to ground-truth the dunes. Field sampling, laboratory work (sedimentological techniques, pH, conductivity and geochemical analysis) as well as statistical analyses (principal component and cluster analyses) were employed to compare the characteristics of the lunette dune sediments with those at the spring site itself, and to assist in a general palaeoenviromental reconstruction.The results of the laboratory analyses do not reveal any obvious differences with respect to sediment particle size and pH, between the lunette dunes and the spring site. However it was noted that there were minor differences when it came to dune structures, electrical conductivity and chemical composition. There is convincing evidence that the sediments are primarily wind-blown in origin. The geochemical results suggest the lunettes are older than the dune at the spring site. Two optically stimulated luminescence dates were determined for a lunette dune close to Florisbad. The samples were dated to 500 years, and it is suggested that this is because of reworking of sediments down the slope. The overall geomorphology, as described in this study, suggests a shallow depression (Florisbad-Soutpan) in which both fluvial and aeolian processes have conspired to create a unique landscape which has promoted the formation and preservation of dune deposits and the unique archaeological site which is Florisbad.
Open Access
The influence of climate variability on flood risk in the //Khara Hais municipality (Upington area): a GIS-based approach
(University of the Free State, 2009-11) Jacobs, Kirsten Jacobs; Barker, C. H.
English: The climate of the continents and the world is controlled by complex maritime and terrestrial interactions that produce a variety of climates across a range of regions and continents. Climate influences agriculture, environment, water and even the economy of countries all over the world. The climate of the world varies from one decade to another and a changing climate is natural and expected. However, there is a well-founded concern that the unprecedented human industrial and development activities of the past two centuries have caused changes over and above natural variation. Climate change is the natural cycle through which the earth and its atmosphere accommodate the change in the amount of energy received from the sun. A hazard is a physical situation with a potential for human injury, damage to property, damage to the environment or some combination of these. It is important to distinguish between the terms disaster and hazard. A disaster is seen as a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society, causing widespread human, material or economic losses which exceed the ability of the affected community to cope, using its own resources. Disasters can be either natural, for instance a flood, or human induced, such as a nuclear accident. Disasters may furthermore be classified as slow-onset disasters, such as a drought, or sudden disasters, such as an earthquake . The word risk is one of the most notable examples of words with multiple and disparate meanings that may not be commonly acknowledged. Risk may have a technical meaning, referring to a chance or probability, such as risk from exposure, a consequence or impact, an example being the risk from smoking, or a perilous situation like a nuclear power plant that creates a risk. This study examines the influence of climate variability on flood risk in the //Khara Hais Municipality in the Northern Cape. The area that was investigated included the entire Orange River and Vaal River catchment areas where monthly rainfall data, as well as runoff data were used to produce a flood model for predicting a flood event within a two-month period, giving enough warning time to farmers and the inhabitants of the areas that may be influenced by this flood event. Maps were produced to show the high and low rainfall amounts in the these two catchment areas where randomly selected years and months were taken, as well as showing the one-month and two-month periods before these selected dates. Examples of the highest rainfall recorded, which was in 1988, the medium amount in 1977, and the lowest amount in 1997 were selected. Furthermore, five other such examples were taken to examine the rainfall and climate variation between the years and months ranging from 1950 to 1999.
Open Access
Invoer en verspreiding van petroleumprodukte in die Republiek van Suid-Afrika; 'n verkeers-geografiese ontleding
(University of the Free State, 1966-03) Erwee, Johannes Albertus; Coetzee, J. A.
Abstract not available
Open Access
Land beneficiaries as game farmers in the "new" South Africa : land reform in relation to conservation, the hunting industry and chiefly authority in KwaZulu-Natal
(University of the Free State, 2012-02) Ngubane, Mnqobi Mthandeni; Brooks, S. J.
In South Africa, as in other parts of the continent and beyond; land claims on nature conservation land have in many cases become part and parcel of Community-Based Conservation (CBC) and related discourses such as Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM). This thesis investigates key socio-spatial and political dynamics involved in the acquisition of private game farms by land reform beneficiaries. This acquisition of private game farms by land reform beneficiaries has in many cases given rise to the so called community game farms/reserves. The two community game farms/reserves studied here are the Ngome Community Game Reserve and Nqabayamaswazi Game Farm in KwaZulu-Natal. The two community game farms are managed by community trusts in partnership with the KZN Hunting and Conservation Association (KZNHCA), a private partner which has in return gained hunting rights on the community game farms. From a scientific wildlife management context, the role of KZNHCA in community game farms is based on a need to transfer „expert‟ wildlife management skills to land beneficiaries. In the process, KZNHCA seeks to align community game farms with their previous status as private game farms in terms of economic benefit and wildlife conservation. But, is it realistic to expect that community game farms will resume their old form, from a time when they were managed as family businesses, holiday homes and leisure havens? The thesis explores the processes involved in the continuation of game farming by land beneficiaries and the extent to which community game farming was „imposed‟ on beneficiary communities by their representatives, namely: community trusts, chiefs and the former DLA for continuities in land use and „wildlife production‟- after the land transfer. The role of chiefs in community game farming is explained by paying close attention to their vanguard roles in land reform, leading to an increase of land under their control. Land beneficiary perceptions‟ towards this role of chiefs raises important questions of democracy in the countryside against provisions of the Communal Property Association (CPA) Act partly designed to curtail the power of chiefs on land acquired through land reform.
Open Access
Limitations on the growth of economic multipliers in the small business sector in the eastern Free State
(University of the Free State, 2009-10) Lekhotla, Puleng Josephine; Ruhiiga, T. M.; Claassen, J. H. D.
Maluti-a-Phofung (MAP) municipal area is currently experiencing high unemployment and poverty rates. The structural weaknesses and problems of the economy of MAP local municipality highlight the importance and urgency of Local Economic Development (LED) in MAP. This paper reports the results of a study carried out to investigate constraints in the growth of multipliers around local shopping centres in the area south of Phuthaditjhaba, Maluti-a-Phofung. The methodology involved field observations, the administration of interviews to a random sample of ten households in the vicinity of each of the eight shopping centres and another sample of five business units at each centre. The results were analyzed using Pearson's correlation in order to test three hypotheses based on business structure, location and multipliers. The findings indicate that these shopping centres are not able to meet the diverse shopping needs of the community and patronage levels are extremely low. This has serious implications for these centres in generating economic growth multipliers in the local community.
Open Access
‘n Ruimtelike-analitiese ondersoek na seisoenale reënval- en temperatuurpatrone oor suidelike Afrika
(University of the Free State, 2014-07) Van der Walt, Adriaan Johannes; Barker, C. H.
English: Changes in climatic variability and extremes of weather and climate events have received increased attention in the last few years. Many studies have been done on climate trends, especially for precipitation and temperature, compared to the time before the issue of climate change became more prominent during the 1980s. Since then, one of the biggest motivations for such studies is to establish if and how global warming might have influenced the climate on a global as well as regional scale. Southern Africa is predominantly semi-arid region with generally a high inter-annual rainfall variability and pronounced seasonal cycle. Climate variability and long-term change thus pose serious challenges for southern Africa. The main aim for this study is to investigate the seasonal trends of rainfall and surface temperature from 1950 to 1999 and to compare these seasonal trends with yearly trends. Rainfall and temperature data of the 1 946 Quaternary catchments in South Africa, Swaziland and Lesotho were used as input data. Correlation coefficients were determined and mapped using Geographic Information Systems ArcMap. HotSpot analysis was used to calculate the Getis-Ord Gi* statistic (Z score) for each feature in the data set. Results show more pronounced trends in rainfall and surface temperature during the different seasons.