Psychology

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Open Access
Academic resilience of children who overcome adversity
(University of the Free State, 2022) Channon, Dane; Louw, A. E.; Esterhuyse, K. G.; Louw, D. A.
Children in South Africa walk a fragile path to adulthood. This sentiment by UNICEF in 2012 remains relevant for children in the country a decade later. Youth face a myriad of threats to development. Despite many children succumbing to such risks, some children bounce back from adversities to foster resilient outcomes. This qualitative, multiple case study research aimed to explore how children navigate, negotiate, and engage with their social ecologies to overcome adversity and demonstrate academic resilience. Four adolescent participants were purposefully selected from East London schools in the Eastern Cape. These learners were identified by their school ecologies as having achieved positive academic outcomes despite experiences of significant adversity. The social ecology of resilience framework (SERT) was used to conceptualise the study. Multiple data collection sources were used, contributing to the descriptive and explanatory analyses of the data. Five phases of analytical data analysis aligned with case study research were employed to uncover contextually relevant themes of resilience building. The case studies yielded rich and detailed information on the biological vulnerabilities, challenging social and physical environments, specific negative life events and compound socio-demographic risks experienced by these children, the personal, relational, structural, and spiritual/cultural resilience enablers in their ecologies, and the processes by which these children identified and used these enablers across their social ecologies. This study contributed to theory building for SERT as a framework for understanding how children transact resources and opportunities within their social ecologies in culturally and contextually meaningful ways. The strengths, implications and limitations of the study are indicated, and recommendations are offered.
Open Access
Adolescents’ experiences of stereotypes during identity development
(University of the Free State, 2015-07) Lombaard, E. C.; Naude, L.
English: In this study, adolescents‟ experience of stereotypes during identity development was investigated. During Apartheid South Africa, people were grouped in certain areas according to their racial features. Previous research focused solely on the experiences of white groups. Identity development theories are based on research done primarily on white samples and thus this study focused on black groups. Identity is formed internally through external experiences. Considering the adverse circumstances in which various South African adolescents live, it is essential to consider their identity development process and the factors contributing to it. Since adolescents try out new roles in different groups during their search for an identity, it is clear that it is of importance to investigate how the individuals in the groups experience the stereotypes attached to various groups. Literature regarding identity and stereotypes was utilised to conceptualise these concepts. Thus, this research study was done from a developmental and social psychology perspective. Identity as it develops in the adolescent‟s life phases was viewed within developmental psychology. Stereotypes and stereotyping were investigated from a social psychology perspective, as they are learnt and reinforced socially. A qualitative framework was chosen to give the individuals experiencing these stereotypes a voice. A case study design was used, and focus group sessions were held to discuss group members‟ experiences of identity formation and stereotyping in their lives openly. Seventy-three participants participated in this study and were identified by means of a non-probability sampling method, namely purposive sampling. Data were analysed and interpreted by means of thematic analyses, and various themes and subthemes arose from these data sets. The findings of the study correspond with findings of previous research studies in the same area of interest. Yet, doing this study also made various contributions. This includes that an identity is something internal (traits) and external (social) that should be considered in a three-dimensional time perspective, as the past, present and future are important to who the individual is. Stereotypes are viewed as genetic, learnt, and cognitive shortcuts to simplify the world based on the observable and can be experienced both negatively and positively as a motivation for uniqueness. Resisting conformation is an adaptive response to stereotyping, and the self-fulfilling prophecy can be counteracted if opposition to the expectation is present. It was found that individuals do have a need to stop stereotyping even though they resist conforming, and social acceptance is seen as both a reward striven for and a restriction that limits opportunities, roles and choices. Furthermore, the environment and neighbourhood in which stereotyping takes place and where individuals find themselves is of immense importance. All these factors contribute to stereotyping and the reaction to stereotyping, whether positive or negative, determines the identity that is formed within the individual.
Open Access
Die affektiewe funksionering van jong werkende egpare
(University of the Free State, 1999-11) Slabbert, Anna Maria Elizabeth; Fourie, M. C.; Niemann, S. M.
Abstract not available
Open Access
Antisocial personalities among maximum security prisoners
(University of the Free State, 2010-11) Loots, Sonja; Louw, D. A.
English: The longstanding elevated violent crime rate in South Africa urges research attention beyond the mere incidence of reported offences and environmental contributors to crime. Psychological factors require similar attention. Internationally, antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy and dissocial personality disorder, collectively known as antisocial personalities, have been strongly associated with criminality, and particularly violent crime. However, very little research focus has been awarded to these constructs in the developing world. To explore antisocial personalities in the South African context, a research project was launched, which will be discussed through five related, yet independent research articles. The research sample consisted of 500 male maximum security offenders from the Mangaung Correctional Centre situated near Bloemfontein. The first study focused on determining to which extent psychopathy is similar in construct in a developing country as in the Western world. Several studies have reaffirmed the construct validity of psychopathy among industrialised nations, yet almost no research has included developing countries. The neglect of local mental health research has led to the application of diagnostic criteria with limited clinical and nearly no scientific consideration of cultural contributions of the South African context. To determine the construct validity of psychopathy, as measured by the revised version of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI-R), factor analyses were conducted. Several items indicated low factor loadings and were consequently omitted from further analysis. The second study aimed to identify the prevalence of the antisocial personalities among the sample of offenders. Participants were assessed with the PPI-R, and subscales representing antisocial and dissocial personality disorders from the DSM-IV and ICD-10 Personality Questionnaire (DIP-Q). Results indicated a similar incidence of psychopathy and dissocial personality disorder than international studies. However, the incidence of antisocial personality disorder is much lower than international findings. The third and fourth study aimed to identify whether individuals meeting the criteria for antisocial personalities in the South African context also present stronger relationships with known associated constructs, such as aggression and criminal thinking styles. The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) and the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) were incorporated for this assessment. Results largely confirmed the relationship between antisocial personalities, aggression and criminal thinking styles. The fifth study consisted of a binary logistic regression analysis to determine whether psychopathic traits and/or criminal thinking styles could predict recidivistic behaviour in the South African context. Contrary to most international studies, results indicated that none of the PICTS subscales predicted possible recidivism, while only the Social Influence subscale of the PPI-R significantly predicted group membership between first offence and re-offence. All five studies include the comparison of results with those from similar studies, a discussion on the implications of the results, the limitations of the study, and recommendations for further research.
Open Access
Assertiveness and perception of style of assertiveness among future South African employees
(University of the Free State, 2017) Van Heerden, Rian E.; Beukes, R. B. I.; Esterhuyse, K. G. F.
This study explored the assertiveness and the person perception of the style of assertiveness among future South African employees. An ethnic comparison was made and gender differences investigated with respect to perceptions of assertion. Regarding the style of assertiveness, prior findings indicate that assertion plus extra consideration (empathic assertiveness) seems to be preferred by test subjects to pure assertion. It is important to note, however, that how a leader is perceived matters a great deal and flexibility in assertiveness is key; it should be appropriate to the situation and take into consideration the assertiveness of the team members. It was also found that persons with low assertion reacted relatively negatively to assertive behaviour. When it comes to the two variables, race and gender, previous research indicates that racial variables are important for assertion (even if it was not as predicted by researchers). Regarding gender, a consistent pattern of sex differences could initially not be found. Later on, research found that the gender variable indeed plays a role in the perception of assertiveness. A non-probability sampling method, namely convenience sampling, was used. The study initially made use of the AI (Assertion Inventory), a 40 item self-report inventory to test the assertiveness of the participants. The mean scores of the different groups were then compared using one-way MANOVAs. In case of a significant value of F, the analyses were followed up by one-way variance analyses to determine on which of the dependent variables significant differences in averages appeared. The Scheffe post hoc t-test was applied to determine between which of the four groups (combination of gender and ethnicity) these differences appeared. Regarding own assertion, the entire group (black males, white males, black females, white females) was more assertive than non-assertive. Concerning the subgroups themselves, major differences were not found between the genders regarding the levels of discomfort experienced, although they did differ in the likelihood of a response. The research did not indicate any differences between the two ethnic groups with regard to their levels of discomfort or probability of action. However, if ethnicity and gender are combined, a clear picture emerged with regard to differences in assertive behaviour. Black males were found to be the most assertive, followed by white females, white males and lastly, black females. Black females experienced higher levels of discomfort and were less likely to act in the situations described by die Assertion Inventory. Regarding the perception of the style of assertiveness in the workplace, the majority of the participants preferred empathic-assertive behaviour. In the case of gender, both genders regarded empathic-assertiveness as the most appropriate and effective. The same applied to the two ethnic groups. It is important to note that significant differences were found between the two genders and two ethnic groups regarding the appropriateness and effectiveness of some of the statements. In the case of the combination of the two, it seems as if black females are less of the opinion that empathic-assertive, assertive or non-assertive behaviour is appropriate in a corporate environment. Black females also seem to regard aggressive behaviour as effective in a corporate environment. According to this study, it seems as if the appropriate and effective manager should communicate with his multi-cultural staff using an empathic-assertive approach with the understanding that employees with low levels of assertiveness (especially young black females) will tend to have a negative view of all forms of assertiveness. Flexibility is indeed the key and the behaviour of a leader should be adjusted depending on the assertiveness of the team members.
Open Access
Attitudes towards the death penalty: a cross-cultural investigation
(University of the Free State, 2005-11) Ambrosio, Célia Ventura; Le Roux, A.
The purpose of this study was to determine people’s attitudes towards the death penalty. The aims of this research study were achieved by gathering data from a number of respondents aged 16 and older at several churches in the Bloemfontein area. Four denominations and six churches with a total of 400 respondents were involved in the study. A biographical questionnaire as well as a Death Penalty Attitude Scale were used. The influence of three independent variables such as gender, age and race were investigated. A factorial analysis of variance was used. After the statistical analysis, the variables found to have the greatest influence on people’s attitudes towards the death penalty were race and gender. The group as a whole had a negative attitude towards the death penalty. The white group was significantly more positive towards the death penalty than the black and coloured groups, while male’s attitudes towards the death penalty were significantly more positive than the females’. The variable age was not found to have a significant effect on the respondents’ attitudes towards the death penalty.
Open Access
Die audiblox-program as aanvullende tegniek tot remediërende onderwys
(University of the Free State, 1999-12) Van Wyk, Hanmarie; Beukes, R. B. I.; Grobler, A. A.
English: Each school has a significant percentage of learners with learning disabilities who receive Remedial Education in addition to their classroom teaching. There are numerous approaches to the treatment of learning disabilities of which Remedial Education is one. Remedial Education comprises of a number of techniques. The Audiblox Programme is one such technique which is based upon one of the approaches to the treatment of learning disabilities, namely process training. As a process training approach Audiblox is considered by many researchers as a controversial programme. The purpose of this research is to determine the supplementary value of the Audiblox Programme in Remedial Education. If learners who are already receiving Remedial Education undergo the Audiblox Programme at the same time, what effect would this have on their scholastic performance, specifically reading and spelling abilities? A study of the literature was undertaken to find a frame of reference within which this research could be accommodated. The relevant phenomena, i.e. Remedial Education and Audiblox, as well as generally controversial techniques, were defined and investigated. After a thorough analysis of the literature no evidence could be found to prove the effectiveness of the Audiblox Programme as a remedial technique. The findings in this research however, cannot be verified with findings from previous investigations. The empirical part of this research was conducted by means of the z-test for related groups. The following hypothesis was tested: the reading and spelling abilities of Remedial Education learners (RE learners) who are subjected to the Audiblox Programme in addition to the ordinary Remedial Programme, will improve more than that of RE learners who only underwent the Remedial Programme. This hypothesis was tested over the short, as well as the long term. In a companson between the experimental and the control groups, t-d values were calculated for both reading and spelling. All four of the calculated t-d values are less than the critical value and subsequently the nil hypothesis cannot be rejected This means that no indication was found that the Audiblox Programme is effective in improving the reading and spelling abilities of RE learners - neither in the short-, nor in the long term. Thus, the supplementary value of Audiblox - as it was implemented in this research _ was found to be insignificant. When the Audiblox Programme is classified as process training (as it has been indicated in this research) these findings do correspond with the majority of research results on this subject. Due to the practical constraints of this research (resulting, inter alia, in a small sample) it is advisable that this study be repeated, using a much larger sample.
Open Access
Behavioural and psychological control during adolescence: an ecological systems perspective
(Routledge, 2022) Van Damme, Elizabeth Cornelia; Naude, Luzelle
This study investigated the extent and the nature of the behavioural and psychological control experienced by adolescents within four contexts (parental, peer, school, and community) of their everyday lives. The adolescents (n = 463; female = 52.5%, black African = 69.3%; mean age = 15.69 years, SD = 2.86 years) were from six public high schools in the Eastern Cape of South Africa. The participants completed adapted versions of the Parents’ Psychological Control Scale and the Peer Control Scale. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed that in the school and community contexts, early adolescents and female participants experienced significantly higher levels of control than older adolescents and male participants. Female early adolescents experienced significantly higher levels of control (school behavioural control, community behavioural control, and community psychological control) specific to the school contexts which was in the form of psychological control. Findings of this study can inform community mentors and school counsellors of the important psychological and behavioural impact that community norms and school values have on how adolescents experience their social worlds and negotiate the boundaries of various social systems.
Open Access
'n Belewenismatige versus kognitiewe benadering tot die aanleer van empatiese response
(University of the Free State, 1983-06) Marais, Johanna Christella; Nel, C. M.
Open Access
Die beleweniswêreld van serebraal gestremde adolossente en die rol van psigososiale faktore in hulle sielkundige weerbaarheid
(University of the Free State, 2013-01) Visser, Dirkie Amalia; Nel, L.; Beukes, R. B. I.
English: Cerebral palsy is a complex condition and stressor, posing specific challenges to the affected individual and those involved. According to the literature, existing studies do not reflect the subjective experience and self-reporting of the person with a disability (Lutz & Bowers, 2005; Reeve, 2006; Singh & Ghai, 2009; Stalker, 2012; Tisdall, 2012; Watermeyer & Swartz, 2008; Watson, 2012). Thus, this study attempts to let the voices be heard of adolescents with cerebral palsy in order to gain new insight into the way in which they ascribe meaning to disability, manage their disability and overcome social, physical and emotional barriers. A qualitative approach within a psychofortigenic framework was followed in the study. The role of psychosocial factors in the psychological resilience of the adolescent with cerebral palsy was investigated in order to include the strength perspective. The theories, frameworks and models of the positive psychology paradigm were used as theoretical foundation to the study. Analysis and interpretation of data from the six semi-structured interviews was done by means of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Furthermore, the identified themes were contextualised within an ecological systems framework according to intrapsychic, interpersonal and broader community factors. A preliminary conceptual process model was compiled from the cross-case analysis and describes the interrelationship and general dynamics of the experience of disability as well as the role of psychosocial factors (risk and protective factors) in the psychological resilience of the adolescents with cerebral palsy. The results confirm the impact and experience of disability as a multi-layered phenomenon and that each individual ascribes unique meaning to it according to personality traits, needs, emotional and social support, life contexts and life demands. The need of the adolescent with cerebral palsy to be recognised and treated as a unique individual is central in this study. The experience of disability within the broader social community does not only have a psycho-emotional effect on the person with a disability, but also psycho-social implications. Risk and protective factors are interacting in a multi-levelled way and the adolescent applies personal and contextual sources of power in order to ensure positive outcomes. The value of this study is letting the voices be heard of people with a disability regarding their lived reality of disability and psychological sources of resilience. The knowledge gathered in this study can also contribute to improved aid, support and understanding of the person with a disability.
Open Access
Black African adolescents' experiences of gender identity exploration from a hegemonic masculinity perspective
(University of the Free State, 2018-09) Higgs, Carmen; Naude, Luzelle
In this study, the gender identity of black African adolescents residing in the Manguang district in central South Africa is explored. Transformation in the political, socioeconomic and social spheres of South Africa continues to influence the identity development of adolescents living in collectivistic and marginalised contexts. Adolescence is regarded as a complex and significant life stage in the human lifespan during which individuals explore and commit to identity-defining roles, values and norms in search of an authentic sense of self. In light of an ever-changing environment, adolescents may experience an array of opportunities and challenges as they pertain to exploring gender identity. The theoretical framework for the research study is the lifespan perspective. Gender identity has been conceptualised differently by several theorists. Some theorists are of the opinion that gender identity should be understood from a biological stance, while others are in support of gender identity being conceptualised as a psychosocial construct. From a biological base, gender identity is described in terms of essentialist and binary theories, and from a psychosocial base, it is explained in terms of socialisation processes and gender continuum theories. The psychosocial base of gender identity is valued and prioritised in this research. An additional perspective, namely ‘hegemonic masculinity’, is utilised in this study to indicate how some forms of gendered behaviour are favoured over others. The social constructivist paradigm governed the study, and the researcher approached the study in a qualitative manner. The researcher followed exploratory and descriptive research designs. The population group of interest consisted of both male and female black adolescents, as increased exploration processes characterise the developmental stage of adolescence. Including vulnerable individuals that occupy a turbulent life stage was important to the researcher as the research offered them the opportunity to voice their personal experiences that were regarded as worthy to the researcher. In order to recruit the participants from the secondary school in Mangaung for the study, the researcher employed purposive sampling. Both inclusion and exclusion criteria were utilised to select the participants. Four focus group discussions were conducted (two with male participants and two with female participants) to collect data for the research study. The data were analysed by following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phases of thematic analysis. In this study, the researcher employed a hybrid approach to data analysis, which consisted of both inductive and deductive methodologies. Four themes emerged from the thematic analysis, namely (a) Traditional views on what it means to be a boy or girl; (b) Exploring who I am: Balancing social context with personal agency; (c) Exploring gender identity in a changing environment; and (d) The complexity in exploring gender identity. The results indicated that the participants regard their gender identity exploration to be multidimensional in nature, consisting of biological, psychological and social dimensions. The exploration of gender identity was deemed to be not only personal and sensitive but also importantly influenced by the sociocultural environment. While the influences of culture, family, school and peers were deemed to contribute towards gender identity exploration processes, adolescents were also regarded to exercise personal agency in their striving for exploration. The social construction of gender identity exploration makes it a perplexing and complex task. Adding to these complexities was the fact that adolescents explore their gender identity in relation to culturally valued masculine ideologies. While increasing Westernisation influences gender roles and identity constructs, adolescents continue to be influenced by the deeply entrenched hegemonic structures in society, such as heteronormativity and the hegemonic form of masculinity. Especially in black African cultures, these are viewed as normative and, therefore, respected, which makes the exploration of alternative gender roles a challenging task for developing adolescents. By conducting this study, novel contributions were made to the scientific knowledge base on gender identity development and exploratory processes during adolescence.
Open Access
Change in higher education: the psychological experience of facilitators and co-ordinators in a resource-based learning course
(University of the Free State, 1999-01) Holtzhausen, Sophia Maria; Lategan, L. O. K.; Jooste, J. C.
English: Higher Education in South Africa is currently being characterised by massification, globalisation, more non-traditional students entering the system, striving towards quality and cost-effective educational programmes, as well as a paradigm shift from lecturebased to resource-based learning (RBL) education (which is a learning methodology where the learning content is made accessible to students and the emphasis is shifted to the facilitator as the manager of knowledge and not the main source of knowledge). During the transformation of the South African higher education system, the ministry as well as various policy documents propose RBL as an appropriate delivery mode and a key principle to meet challenges (e.g. the expectations of the learners, the realities of the work place, and to maintain high standard graduates) posed to the university system. A profound understanding of the dynamics of a nation's higher educational change process is only possible when taking international developments into account. The evaluation of the experience of change is difficult, due to the complexity and pace of change in most higher education institutions. Change is affecting all facets of human expenence. In this study attention is focused on the psychological experiences of facilitators and co-ordinators due to higher educational change in a RBL course. A quantitative and qualitative investigation was done to identify the presence of as well as the differences between the specific psychological experiences by facilitators and coordinators due to higher educational change (e.g. the paradigm shift to the RBL methodology). In this comparative study facilitators seem to be more concerned about the awareness, informational, personal, consequence and refocusing stages of concern, while the coordinators are more concerned about the management and collaboration stages of concern. These results correlate with the respective job descriptions of the facilitators and co-ordinators. In this study it is evident that both facilitators and co-ordinators have limited RBL knowledge and skills, due to their short involvement period in this delivery mode. The latter may be one of the reasons to clarify the presence of negative experiences of the self as regard coping with RBL by facilitators and co-ordinators. The facilitators' and co-ordinators' involvement in RBL was due to an obliged change, because they were nominated instead of volunteering. Therefore, this may implicate that the shift to RBL implies hard and difficult work for the developers, in order to equip staff with the necessary knowledge and skills of RBL. The majority of facilitators indicated that they are in favour of workshops. Only half of the co-ordinators were positive towards workshops, which indicates an important concern, if one takes into account that co-ordinators have to be subject experts who are responsible for the training and orientation of the facilitators and therefore need workshops/training opportunities to keep up with the latest developments regarding RBL. Both facilitators and co-ordinators demonstrated an increase in motivation, competency, and confidence levels, because they experience RBL as positive and effective. After six months there appears to be a difference between facilitators whose excitement levels were decreasing, while co-ordinators' excitement levels remained equal. The latter could be due to the fact that facilitators are more directly confronted with the RBL practice. There is also the tendency of high frustration levels amongst facilitators and co-ordinators which appear to be caused by the prominent problems in the South African context and the complexity of the Western culture of the students. A unique factor that complicates the implementation of RBL in the Resource-based Learning Career Preparation Programme is that staff are presenting and students are receiving education through a second-language medium. The above-mentioned perspectives and insights gained from the comparative study could guide both the developers and managers of the Resource-based Learning Career Preparation Programme to improve directly the psychological functioning of staff, and indirectly to improve the whole programme
Open Access
Characteristics of learners and parents as predictors of high school pass rates
(University of the Free State, 2001-05) Calitz, Yvette; Esterhuyse, K. G. F.
English: Academic achievement is an important and often troublesome aspect for many learners. The importance hereof can be seen in the fact that this achievement will affect the future of learners, as their opportunities for higher education and employment will depend on the results that they obtain in their final grade 12 examination. Achieving well academically is however not always a simple, straightforward task, as there are many factors present that can help or hinder learners in performing at their full potential. Cognitive factors can influence the level of academic achievement attained. Biographical factors have also been found to contribute to scholastic performance. These factors include aspects such as the gender, age and birth position of the learner, as well as parental age and marital status. Furthermore, social and emotional considerations (internal factors) also influence the learner's level of achievement. Aspects such as the interaction between learners and their parents, as well as between peers, and the relationships formed with teachers are included in this respect. The final research sample used comprised 156 black learners and 147 parents from five secondary schools in the greater Bloemfontein area. The schools were selected on the basis of the grade 12 pass rates obtained over the past two years. The grade 12 learners in the respective schools formed the two groups based on pass rate, namely those with a high pass rate and those with a low pass rate. These groups were then compared with respect to the biographical and internal factors related to the learners and their parents. The data collected was then subjected to a logistic regression analysis, in order to determine which of the above-mentioned factors could significantly predict the group membership of a learner. A number of factors were found to significantly contribute to the prediction of pass rate. Younger learners were found to be more likely to belong to the group of learners with a high pass rate, while learners who intended to study further, as well as those whose parents were married, were more likely to belong to the group of learners with low pass rates. In addition to these biographical factors, certain internal factors were also found to be significant. A poor degree of communication between learners and their parents, as well as negative interaction between teachers and learners, was found to positively influence the academic achievement of learners. Learners, whose parents had a negative perception of the school climate, were more likely to belong to the group of learners with a low pass rate.
Open Access
Clinical manifestations of mental disorders among Sesotho-speakers in Mangaung
(University of the Free State, 2005-06) Mosotho, Nathaniel Lehlohonolo; Louw, D. A.; Calitz, F. J. W.
Abstract not available
Open Access
Cognitive process in excessive worry : a cross cultural investigation of three theories
(University of the Free State, 2012-10-19) Pretorius, Chrisma; Walker, S. P.; Esterhuyse, K. G. F.
English: Research interest in worry has increased over the past three decades. Theory development, laboratory studies and clinical experience have resulted in the formulation of a number of theories and models related to the development and maintenance of excessive worry and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). The available cognitive behavioural literature on worry seems to place particular emphasis on three models of worry. The avoidance model of worry (AMW) and GAD (Borkovec, Ray & Stöber, 1998), the metacognitive model (MCM) of GAD (Wells, 1995) and the intolerance of uncertainty model (IUM) (Dugas, Gagnon, Ladouceur & Freeston, 1998) have all enjoyed significant empirical attention and have all formed the basis for specific cognitive-behavioural interventions for worry and GAD. However, to date, no attempt appears to have been made to compare these models to one another or to determine the applicability of these particular models of worry to a multi-ethnic context. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the applicability of these three cognitive models of worry to the understanding of worry in a non-clinical multi-ethnic sample. To this end, a convenience sample of 1224 university students (87.7% undergraduate) was drawn. Ethnicity was equally distributed in the sample (49.9% black and 50.1% Caucasian). However, the majority (709) of the participants were female. Participants were also assigned to one of three groups (low worry: n = 1105; high-worry non-GAD: n = 49; high-worry GAD: n = 70) based on their worry intensity and GAD self-report diagnoses. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed that gender and worry/GAD status moderated the relationship between the cognitive processes hypothesised to underpin the development and maintenance of worry and worry intensity across all three models of worry, as well as in a model comprised of the cognitive processes relevant to all three individual cognitive models. However, ethnicity was found not to moderate these relationships. Furthermore, hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the three cognitive models of worry, individually and in combination, accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in the worry intensity of the current sample. This finding was evident across gender and worry/GAD status. Thus, the AMW, MCM and IUM, as well as a combination of the three models, appear to be applicable to the understanding of non-clinical worry in the multi-ethnic South African context. Furthermore, when the AWM, MCM and IUM were compared to the combined model of worry, only the AWM was found to account for a significantly lower proportion of the variance in the worry intensity of the sample than the combined model did. Consequently, although all three models appear to be applicable to the understanding of nonclinical worry in the multi-ethnic context, using a combined model to explain worry intensity appears superior only to the AWM. With regard to the interaction between specific cognitive processes and worry intensity, only positive beliefs about worry were found to account consistently for a significant proportion of the worry intensity reported by the low-worry, female and male participants. Furthermore, positive beliefs about worry were not found to account for a significant proportion of the variance in the worry intensity of the high-worry participants. Gender-specific trends were evident with respect to positive beliefs about worry in relation to the non-clinical worry reported by the participants, with females generally viewing worry as a source of motivation and men perceiving worry to be a positive personality trait. The current findings also suggest a significant relationship between negative problem orientation and worry intensity among high-worry GAD individuals. Contrary to most of the existing literature, the current study suggests that negative beliefs about worry, intolerance of uncertainty, negative problem orientation and cognitive avoidance do not significantly contribute to the worry experienced by non-clinical individuals. In addition, negative beliefs about worry, intolerance of uncertainty and cognitive avoidance were not found to contribute significantly to the worry experienced by excessive worriers, irrespective of their self-report GAD diagnostic status. The current study raises a number of questions regarding the applicability of the three cognitive models of worry and their specific components to the understanding of worry, particularly excessive worry, in the multiethnic South African context. Nonetheless, this study has succeeded in exploring the contribution of cognitive processes to the experience of worry in a specific multi-ethnic context by investigating the applicability of theoretical cognitive models of worry in this context. Furthermore, this study has provided a starting point from which a clearer understanding of the role of cognitive processes in worry can be achieved in the South African context.
Open Access
Coping and resilience as predictors of adolescent self-harm
(University of the Free State, 2017-02) Van der Wal, Wilmie; George, A. A.
English: Self-harm by adolescents is manifesting as one of the contemporary global mental health problems as incident rates are increasing worldwide. This self-harming trend is increasingly becoming a concern to South African adolescents who seemingly have adopted many practices of the Western World. Given the growing pains of transformation and high violence and crimes rates affecting the youth of the South African democracy, adolescents are being challenged continuously to cope with these circumstances. The aim of the study was to investigate whether coping and resilience can predict adolescent self-harm in the Free State Province in South Africa. A non-experimental, cross-sectional, correlational design was used in this study. A stratified randomised sample of 962 learners from nine schools in the Free State Province was selected. The measuring instruments included a biographical questionnaire, from which the criterion variable was measured in a single closed-ended question, the Coping Schemas Inventory – Revised, and the Resiliency Scale for Children and Adolescents. A logistic regression analysis method was used to investigate the extent to which coping and resilience can predict self-harming behaviour. Results indicate a prevalence rate of self-harm of 17.35% among respondents. Females were more likely than males were to engage in self-harm (19.4% and 14.5% respectively); thus, gender significantly predicted self-harm (p = 0.025). Tension-reduction coping (p = 0.029) and emotional reactivity (resilience: p = 0.000) predicted membership to the self-harming group(s), whereas social support coping protects adolescents from self-harm (p = 0.017). Collectively, these variables explained 11.2% of the variance in self-harming behaviour. Given the limited research on self-harm in South Africa, it is suggested that further mixed-methods design approaches and longitudinal research be done with a cohort representative of South African adolescents to explore self-harm in the South African context in more detail.
Open Access
Coping as a moderator variable in the relationship between occupational stressors and burnout amongst psychologists
(University of the Free State, 2004-12) Philip, Anu Anna; Odendaal, D. C.
English: The aim of this research was to determine whether the coping utilized by South African psychologists had a moderating effect on the relationship between occupational stress and the levels of burnout they experienced. Human service professionals, such as psychologists, are involved with working closely and intensely with people. Due to the intense nature of these relationships as well as the severity of the problems dealt with, these professionals tend to get overly stressed and if the stress prevails, burnt-out. Little South African literature is available on this topic. The psychologists that were involved in this study were selected from their membership in the Psychologica l Society of South Africa (PsySSA). The study was aimed at psychologists employed in private practice in the Free State area. The sample consisted of 100 psychologists. The Maslach Burnout Inventory, the Cope questionnaire, a work of experience questionnaire and a biographical questionnaire (both developed by the researcher) were administered to the research sample. Burnout is measured by three subscales, namely, emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and a sense of reduced personal accomplishment. Two types of coping styles were measured, namely emotion-focused and problem -focused coping. The results obtained indicate that the participants experience elevated levels of stress, the highest stress levels were reported on practice issues, such as nature and severity of client’s diagnosis, prognosis of clients, client load and socio-economic -status of clients. The levels of burnout were also elevated, and a majority of the psychologists appear to have a diminished sense of personal competence. No significant relationship existed between work stress and burnout for this research sample. The coping mechanisms utilized by the psychologists in this study do not have a moderating effect on the relationship between their stress and burnout levels.
Open Access
Coping as voorspeller van die risiko vir substansmisbruik by adolessente
(University of the Free State, 2012-02) Le Roux, Helene Engela; Naidoo, P.; Van den Berg, H. S.
English: International and national studies indicate that substance use and abuse are considered important psychosocial issues among adolescents. It is therefore critical to investigate the risk and protection factors that may contribute to the development of this behavioural problem. The main purpose of this study was to determine whether coping could serve as a predictor of substance abuse, while the role of ethnicity was also investigated. To put substance abuse into context, the extent of substance use among adolescents in the Free State was determined. In order to achieve the goal of this study, a non-experimental research design was followed, consisting of both correlation and criterion group components. The research group comprised 494 grade 8 learners from ten schools in the Free State. The measuring instruments utilised were a self-compiled biographical and substance use questionnaire, a selected sub-scale of the Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory for Adolescents (SASSI-A2) (Miller & Lazowski, 2001) and the Revised-Coping Scheme Inventory (R-CSI) (Wong, Reker, & Peacock, 2006). The results indicated that two coping strategies, namely passive emotional and active emotional coping, could serve as statistically significant predictors of substance abuse symptoms. The active emotional coping strategy played a protecting role, while the passive emotional coping strategy increased the risk of substance abuse. Regarding ethnic differences, white and black adolescents differed significantly in the prevalence of substance abuse symptoms, where black adolescents reported a higher incidence. Furthermore, it was found that adolescents in the Free State use various substances, where the use and overuse of alcohol had an especially high incidence. Ethnicity also affected the use of coping strategies. White adolescents used more situational coping strategies in comparison to coloured adolescents. Further, more coping through the formation of meaning was used by white as opposed to black adolescents. Black adolescents, however, used more social support as a coping strategy in comparison to coloured adolescents. The results emphasise that coping does indeed play a role in the prevalence of substance abuse, although, in this study, it explained only a small percentage of the total variance. Based on the results, it is suggested that intervention programmes focus on the development of emotionally regulating characteristics of the adolescent. Further research can investigate the contextual variables that influence the emotional regulation of the adolescent.
Open Access
Coping in die verband tussen blootstelling aan traumatiese gebeurtenisse en substansmisbruik by adolossente
(University of the Free State, 2013-02) Van Niekerk, Zandri; Naidoo, P.; Van den Berg, H. S.
English: International and national studies indicate that exposure to traumatic events, substance use and abuse are considered important psychosocial issues among adolescents. It is therefore critical to investigate the risk and protective factors that may contribute to the development of this behavioural problem. The main purpose of this study was to determine whether coping could serve as a predictor for the exposure to traumatic events and substance abuse, while the role of ethnicity and gender was also investigated. To exposure to traumatic events and substance abuse into context, the extent of exposure to traumatic events and substance use among adolescents in the Free State was determined. A non-experimental research design, consisting of both correlational and criterion group components, was followed. The initial sample consisted of 496 grade 8 learners. Since only white and black adolescents are being investigated, the final sample consisted of 414 adolescents. The measuring instruments utilised were a self-compiled biographical questionnaire, a shortened form of the Exposure to Traumatic Events Scale (Exposure to Traumatic Events Scale)(McCallin, 1992), Miller’s (1985) Adolescent SASSI-A2 Questionnaire (Substance Abuse Subtle Screening Inventory) and the Revised-Coping Schema Inventory (Coping Schemas Inventory) (Peacock, Reker & Wong, 2006). Statistically significant difference were found between the two ethnic groups in the use of situational coping strategies, meaning formation coping, as well as the use of religion as a coping strategy. It was further indicated that the use of coping strategies do not play a role in the connection with exposure to traumatic events and substance abuse. With regard to ethnic differences, white and black adolescents differed significantly in the prevalence of substance abuse, where black adolescents reported a much higher incidence. The use and abuse of alcohol had a especially high incidence, where just over half of the adolescents reported that they had used substances previously. Free State adolescents were found to experience high percentages of exposure to traumatic events. The most common traumatic event to which adolescents are exposed to, is the death of a loved one due to an accident, murder or suicide. Regarding ethnicity, black adolescents generally are the most affected in the different dimensions of exposure to traumatic events. Based on the results, it is suggested that intervention programmes focus on the development of emotionally regulating characteristics of the adolescent. Further research can investigate specific exposure to traumatic events. This research can provide important information that can be used to limit the effects of trauma exposure on adolescents.
Open Access
Coping, resilience, self-esteem and age as predictors of psychological well-being amongst undergraduate university students
(University of the Free State, 2021-06) Basson, Monique; Jordaan, J.
Psychological Well-being is considered to be more than merely being free from stress and not having any psychological difficulties. It incorporates positive self-perception, positive relations with others, environmental mastery, autonomy, purpose in life, and emotions focused towards healthy development (Ryff, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 1998; Sosik et al., 2017). Stress is often used in the description of coping, as, without stress, there is no need to cope (Jurji et al., 2018). The coping style that university students adopt is often used as a predictor for PWB and their ease of settling into the university environment (Pluut et al., 2015). Additionally, individuals with high levels of resilience are more often able to maintain PWB in stressful and adverse situations (Shahdadi et al., 2017; Videlock et al., 2016). Moreover, high self-esteem contributes to greater PWB than low self-esteem overall (Swann & Bosson, 2010). PWB is beneficial for adults to live a healthy life, making it an important aspect of one's life in the university years, which can be chaotic and full of psychological stress (Molina-García et al., 2011). This study aimed to investigate which variables or combination of variables (Coping, Resilience, Self-esteem, and Age) explain a significant percentage of the variance in Psychological Well-being (PWB) amongst undergraduate university students. In order to determine the correlations between the variables, a correlational design was central to the non-experimental, quantitative study. This research study made use of an existing set of data from a larger research project. A non-probability convenience sampling method was employed in the original research project to recruit 1191 registered undergraduate university students between the ages of 18 and 29 at the University of the Free State. The sample included participants from all ethnic groups, cultures, languages, genders, provinces, majors and religious backgrounds. The measuring instruments included a biographical questionnaire, Ryff’s Scales of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB), the Resilience Scale (RS), the Coping Strategy Indicator (CSI), and the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES). A correlation analyses was conducted, followed by a hierarchical multiple regression analyses which was used to analyse the data. From this, the combination of the predictor variables (Coping, Resilience, Self-esteem, and Age) statistically significantly predicted PWB. In terms of the hierarchical multiple regression results there was one result that was statistically and practically significant. With Self-acceptance as the criterion variable, the hierarchical regression analyses found that the combination of the independent variables (coping, resilience, self-esteem, and age) accounted for 37.3% of the variance in the Self-acceptance scores of the sample indicating a statistically significant result on the 1% level. Practically, this indicates that 37.3% of the variance in the Self-acceptance scores of the university students can be explained by the combination of their coping skills, levels of resilience, their self-esteem, and age. From this, 11.5% of the variance in the Self-acceptance scores of the sample is accounted for by Self-esteem as a statistically significant predictor variable. The medium comparable effect size (f2 = 0.18) suggests that this finding is of practical significance and the statistical significance is at the 1% level. In addition to the hierarchical multiple regression analysis, stepwise regression analyses was further conducted independently for each subscale of the criterion variable (Autonomy, Personal Growth, Positive Relations, Purpose in Life, and Self-acceptance). From the stepwise regression analyses, the discussion of the results focused mainly on self-esteem, which proved to significantly (both practically and statistically) account for the variance in the PWB dimensions. More research on PWB amongst university students in South Africa is required to validate these findings.