Centre for Environmental Management

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Open Access
A mobile application to protect groundwater during unconventional oil and gas extraction
(The Royal Society, 2022) Worthmann, Charissa; Esterhuyse, Surina
Unconventional oil and gas (UOG) is an important energy source for many countries, but requires large quantities of water for its development, and may pollute water resources. Regulations are one of the main tools to achieve government policy on natural resource protection. South Africa, which is energy-constrained, but also water-scarce, is currently considering UOG extraction as an additional energy resource. UOG development could commence as soon as regulations to protect natural resources such as water have been published. Such regulations are, however, often not effectively enforced, which negatively affects the protection of water resources during UOG extraction. This study addresses these enforcement challenges in South Africa. It focuses on the science–society–policy interface by proposing a civic informatics platform to assist with on-the-ground enforcement of regulations via a mobile application. This mobile application aims to address both groundwater monitoring and management as well as UOG extraction operations in a single platform, to enable regulators to protect groundwater resources more effectively during UOG extraction, while simultaneously enhancing transparency in the UOG industry.
Open Access
Agricultural hazardous waste : understanding the hazardous waste cycle in the maize production chain and testing a methodology to collect waste information for the development of a waste register
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Nell, Arjen Wallace; Esterhuyse, Surina; Reynolds, Dave
The management of agricultural chemicals and waste is imperative in order to ensure proper resource protection and good environmental management. Various studies done in South Africa have illustrated the impact of agricultural waste and chemical mismanagement on the environment and on water resources in particular. Nationally, South Africa aims to manage waste streams by means of a hazardous waste register and locally the provincial departments of Environmental Affairs and Tourism in South Africa should develop such waste registers. This masters project is based on a proposal to develop a hazardous waste source inventory for the Free State province through the Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs (DETEA) of the Free State Province. The development of a hazardous waste source inventory is important to effectively manage various kinds of hazardous waste sources. Hazardous waste spans various industries (medical waste, industrial waste, agricultural waste) and it can be a huge task to develop a waste register for each province in South Africa. With reference to agricultural waste, the impact of agricultural hazardous waste on water resources is becoming an increasing concern and challenges in the agricultural waste management industry in South Africa are on the rise. The aim of this study was to understand the waste cycle and test a methodology for collecting waste information for the development of a waste database, with a specific focus on agricultural waste in the maize sector. Additional aims included determining whether the agricultural maize sector uses and disposes of its agro-chemicals and other production cycle wastes effectively and to propose alternative management options for more effective management of these chemicals. In order to delimit the study, this study focused specifically on agricultural waste associated with the maize production cycle. The methodology followed in this study was also used in similar studies in other countries (Sweden, France, UK, USA) and involved the development of questionnaires and semi-structured interviews for farmers and chemical distribution agents. Qualitative data obtained from the questionnaires was analysed thematically and quantitative data was analysed using Excel and IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 10. The objective of the study was achieved by developing questionnaires that address questions related to chemical usage and waste in the maize sector. These questionnaires were administered to farmers and chemical distributors in the selected sampling areas. Questionnaire development took place through interviews with parties such as FS Agriculture, Grain SA and pre-testing was done on maize farmers and other relevant people. Results from the questionnaires were used together with data from chemical distributors, databases and literature to develop a baseline indication of chemical usage and waste in the agricultural maize sector. The study showed that determining average volumes of agro-chemicals used in different phases of the maize production sector can be quite complex. This complexity is due to various factors – pesticides may have different names but the same active ingredients, a single pesticide can be used for different pests (by using different concentrations and application methods), in some cases there is uncertainty amongst farmers on how to effectively apply these pesticides, whether the agro-chemical is in a granular or liquid form, and factors like soil type, climate conditions and varying types and amounts of pests and weeds which influences agro-chemical usage in different areas. All these factors make it very difficult to calculate average pesticide volumes used per production cycle just for the maize industry. If one takes into account that agriculture spans a much wider production industry than just maize (e.g. vegetables, cotton etc) the complexity increases even more. This study illustrates the fact that another more effective approach may be required to gather accurate data to populate waste databases for each province. Alternative approaches can include web surveys or voluntary registration by farmers and reporting of chemical type and volumes used either by post or on a web based system. This research addressed key questions related to hazardous waste management in the agricultural maize sector in South Africa and tested a methodology for gathering information to populate hazardous waste registers. The development of hazardous waste registers is a very important waste management tool which the DETEA aims to employ to ensure proper resource protection and waste management, and this study may make valuable contributions towards the development of such waste registers.
Open Access
Application of multi-criteria analysis in land use decisions
(University of the Free State, 2006-05) Kuyler, Peter; Du Preez, P. J.; Goodman, P. S.
Global land use trends have resulted in extensive transformation and loss of biodiversity in natural landscapes. In South Africa these trends are apparent in the Grassland Biome. Although it has a very high level of biodiversity and provides essential ecosystem services for economic development, only 2% is formally protected and it is one of the most threatened biomes in the country. With over 60% transformed and less than 1% formally protected, the Mistbelt Grassland of KwaZulu-Natal is a priority for urgent conservation attention. The continued transformation of natural landscapes due to economic pressures and the limited opportunity for an increase in protected areas where production and development needs must be met, presents a challenge to biodiversity conservation. This study was motivated by the need for a strategic focus in the evaluation of the impacts of land use on the biodiversity integrity of landscapes in order to facilitate integrated environmental management and guide land use decisions that would promote conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development. A methodology for this evaluation is proposed that exploits the hierarchical approach to characterizing biodiversity and employs multi-criteria analysis in the form of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and decision-making by experts. Separate evaluations of the impacts of land use on biodiversity integrity in the Mistbelt Grassland of KwaZulu-Natal and the moist sub-biome of the Grassland Biome were conducted to examine the application of the methodology at the vegetation-type and biome levels. Accordingly, five land uses and fourteen biodiversity indicators were selected for the Mistbelt Grassland study, and ten land uses and fifty-two indicators for the Grassland Biome study. Indicators for the integrity of landscape composition, structure and function were selected. The overall relative weights for land uses were obtained from rankings of the impacts of each land use on indicator criteria. Relative impacts of land uses on landscape composition, function and structure were consistent and provided an unambiguous statement of the overall impact on biodiversity integrity. The greatest impact of land use was associated with that on landscape structure and was the result of the extent of transformation and fragmentation. The integrity of grassland habitat is important for landscape composition, while nutrient leakage and fire regime are considered important for landscape function. Urban settlements were considered to have the greatest negative impact on biodiversity, while timber plantations, croplands and rural settlements also had a high impact. Pastures and livestock ranching were associated with low impacts. Against the benchmark of conservation, activities like game ranching, livestock ranching and tourism accounted for slight impacts on biodiversity integrity and are recommended for the maintenance of landscape biodiversity. While timber plantations, dairy farming, rural settlements and croplands were considered to make little contribution to the maintenance of biodiversity, their spatial orientation was considered to be critical for the maintenance of regional connectivity and the biodiversity integrity of the greater landscape. In accordance with the methodology employed and insights obtained in the evaluation of land use impacts on biodiversity integrity, the Land Use Evaluation Model is proposed as an integrated environmental management tool. Within a single integrated, cost-effective evaluation procedure that allows for input by key stakeholders, the hierarchy of decisions in the Analytic Hierarchy Process can be expanded to accommodate a limitless number of indicator criteria to rank the impacts of alternative development plans or projects on the social, economic and biodiversity components of the environment. An examination was made of the Land Use Evaluation Model in strategic environmental assessments and its role in facilitating environmental impact assessment and the integrated development planning processes.
Open Access
Aquaponics as a productive rehabilitation alternative in Mpumalanga Highveld coalfields
(University of the Free State, 2016-03-11) Botha, Ilse; Weaver, Alex.
The Mpumalanga Highveld Region is commonly known for its coal mining activities, especially surface mines. South Africa is still reliant on coal as its main energy source. A dilemma identified is that most of the coal reserves in Mpumalanga are (or were) located below highly productive arable land formerly used for food production such as maize. With a growing energy demand, these valuable areas of land are being impacted negatively. The post-mining land is predominantly rehabilitated to a grazing land capability instead of the pre-mining arable land capability, hindering the production of crops on those areas when mining ceases. This adds to the food security threat which South Africa is currently facing. The National Development Plan 2030 indicated the intentions to diversify the national economy. It was identified that agricultural activities should be expanded to relieve the high levels of poverty in rural areas, and that sustainable agriculture should be the main focus. With the prevailing trends of surface coal mines expanding on available arable land, the realization of this goal might not be possible. This study looked at aquaponics as a possible environmental management alternative that will enhance the agricultural productivity of rehabilitated mine land. An experimental site located close to Middelburg and Emalahleni was used as the base for this study to determine the financial feasibility of such a venture. Five chosen mines within a 20km radius were investigated to understand their rehabilitation practices and to prove that the sites are rehabilitated to a grazing land standard. These sites were all identified as favourable for the initiation of aquaponics. The two post-mining land use alternatives were compared with one another to understand what the benefits and constraints are. The economic driver was a main focus, followed with a brief overview of environmental and social aspects that can be kept in mind when these land uses are established.
Open Access
The attitudes and behaviour of Spoornet middle management with regard to the implementation of environmental management systems in their functional areas.
(University of the Free State, 2004) Pekalski, Adri; Lazenby, J.
The aim of this study was to determine the differences in attitudes of Spoornet Middle Management with regards to the implementation of Environmental Management Systems in ten different functional areas. A questionnaire to measure the attitudes was developed in accordance with the International Chamber of Commerce' principles for Sustainable Development. The attitudes of 5 middle managers per Functional Division were recorded. The level of implementation and results were also measured with the aid of forty-nine structured questions in the Environmental Self Assessment Programme of Deloitte and Touch (Industrial Environmental Forum, 1994) which constitute behaviour. Bell et al (1990) cited that a general attitude may not predict behaviour but that a multiple item scale measuring components of an attitude is more likely to predict a class of behaviour. It is for this reason that the multiple item questionnaire was developed and administered to measure attitudes. Differences exist between the attitudes of the different Functional Divisions. The differing attitudes will invariable lower the possibility in achieving the same level of participation in the implementation of an Environmental Management System, unless changed. The correlation of attitudes and behaviour of the Functional Divisions were also measured and no correlation was found, except in one principle, which in general reinforced previous research (Lauw & Edwards, 1993). Behaviour is likely to follow a specific trend where consequences that are certain, manifested almost immediately and are positively rewarded will determine the behaviour according to Krause (1997). The behaviour may then contradict the attitudes. The ongIns of environmental problems are believed to lie in two aspects. Firstly, achieving business success on a year to year bottom line which does not promote longer term investment especially regarding sustainable business' tipple bottom line and specifically environmental accountability. Secondly, aligning the different Business Division's attitudes towards Sustainable Development may well increase possibility of achieving similar results with the implementation of the Environmental Management System.
Open Access
A bioindicator protocol for sustainable agribusiness in South Africa, using new crops as case studies
(University of the Free State, 2014-11) Swart, Vaughn Richmond; Louw, S. VdM.; Seaman, M. T.; Louw, S.
English: This study is innovative in that it proposes an Index determined by the functional qualities of arthropods and relates a monetary value to these qualities, based on new crop case studies conducted at two contrasting agroecosystem sites in South Africa. The sustainability of an agribusiness depends on the conservation of its biodiversity. The development of a robust methodology that can be used in an Environmental Management System (EMS) is thus necessary by (i) implementing measures of arthropod and general vegetation biodiversity and (ii) incorporating a monetary value to functional diversity, as mechanisms to indicate the degree of disturbance within the agro-ecosystem. The main objectives were to determine the relationship between arthropod diversity indices (species richness, abundance and evenness) and arthropod assemblages; to determine the relationship between the edge effect reaction of arthropods and the resistance and resilience of an agroecosystem; to determine the relationship between agricultural practices (such as pesticides and fertilizers), surrounding vegetation and arthropod richness and abundance; and to determine the relationship between arthropod species richness and abundance, and the proposed AFI (Agroecosystem Function Index), which is based upon the economic value of ecosystem services. Case studies were conducted to pinpoint potential indices of an ecological nature, with specific reference to the diversity indices of arthropods, as part of the methodology. Arthropods were used as an indicator community since they are prevalent, have high species diversity, are easy to sample, are important in ecosystem function, provide early detection of ecological changes and respond to environmental changes faster than vertebrates. The influence of agricultural management practices on this diversity is also taken into consideration. Quantitative and qualitative analysis revealed distinct patterns within the biodiversity at all the locations, relative to the frequency and diversity of vegetation sampled. Thus aspects of ecology (edge-effect, guild structure and functional diversity) should indicate a relationship between communities, which in turn would indicate the level of ecosystem integrity. The level of ecological integrity could be taken into consideration when adopting a quality Environmental Management System (EMS). Possibilities of incorporating a monetary value model, such as the Agroecosystem Function Index (AFI), to biodiversity analysis, that in turn has a bearing on ecosystem services and agribusiness, is also addressed. An EMS bio-indicator protocol is important as an aid to reduce the impact of agricultural management practices on the agro-ecosystem and to increase its functional efficiency.
Open Access
Charcoal production as a managment tool against bush encroachment: vegetation dynamics
(University of the Free State, 2013-11-14) Muroua, Ngaturue Don; Nghikembua, Matti
Bush encroachment has become a worldwide phenomenon and a concern for the world’s arid and semiarid biomes. Savannas are turning into shrublands and thickets as evident in Namibia. This change in vegetation communities has direct consequences on the functioning of ecosystems and on services delivered by these systems. In Namibia, millions of hectares (ha) of arable land have been invaded by native bush species which vary in densities and structures. This affected area represents 32% of Namibia’s terrestrial territory, and about 57% of Namibia’s productive arable land. The agricultural (red meat) sector has been experiencing an economic loss of at least N$ 1 billion annually. Historically, drivers of bush encroachment inter alia include overstocking by grazer, suppression of fires, reduced browsers populations and climate variability. Different methods have been used to try to control the spread of encroaching bushes. Methods used to try and combat bush encroachment includes biological means, the use of chemicals and mechanical means. Most of these methods proved to be inefficient to farming. Charcoal production since the 1990’s, has created an incentive for farmers to remove excess bushes by producing charcoal as a by-product from rangeland rehabilitation. This process is believed to be more selective, environmental friendly and a cost-effective way of combating bush encroachment. This study was therefore conducted to measure vegetation structure, plant density and composition, species diversity and evenness in response to the charcoal production on farm Pierre, situated in Outjo District, Namibia. Systematic sampling methods were used to collect data in 400m2 plots and 1m2 quadrats along transects placed in a representative Treatment area and Control area. The study results showed that bush thinning through charcoal production has led to the improvement of vegetation species diversity, veld ecological condition and facilitated a better grass biomass production. The tree density in the Treatment area was reduced by 51.4% and the grass density was 100% more than in the Control area. The veld ecological condition in the Treatment area, based on grass population dynamics was 168% more than in the Control area. The study also found that there was also a moderately strong negative correlation between tree density and grass density. To ensure that bush thinning for charcoal production remains a sustainable tool for bush encroachment control, key issues such as the reduction in unselective harvesting of large trees and improving on aftercare following bush harvesting need to be addressed by all stakeholders, especially the charcoal producer. This can be done through voluntary means or by developing policies that give incentive’s to aftercare treatment and to selective harvesting of problem trees.
Open Access
Determining the water quality ecological reserve for non-perennial rivers: a prototype environmental water assessment methodology
(University of the Free State, 2011) Rossouw, Linda; Scott, W. E.; Dennis, I.
The South African National Water Act adopted in 1998, is implemented by means of the National Water Resource Strategy. The NWRS provides the framework for the management of the water resources. Some of the protective measures are designated Resource Directed Measures such as the establishment of the Reserve. The NWA establishes the ‘Reserve’ consisting of an unallocated portion of water that is not subject to competition with other water uses. It refers to both the quality and quantity of water and is made up from two distinct parts, namely the basic human needs reserve and the Ecological Reserve. The Ecological Reserve describes the quantity, quality and flow variability required to protect and maintain the aquatic ecosystems of the water resource on a sustainable basis. All other water demands are controlled by permits and licenses and met only after the Reserve is secured. The Ecological Reserve has to be set for every major river in the country to be able to comply with the NWA. Most of the rivers, except the largest rivers in the semi-arid west of southern Africa, are non-perennial with variable flow regimes, governed by stochastic events, with the highest variability in intermittent and ephemeral rivers. This variability is a key factor in shaping the biotic community structure of ephemeral or non-perennial systems. The hypothesis for the research was that the current, existing water quality methodology for determining the water quality component of the Ecological Reserve, which was developed for perennial rivers, could be used for non-perennial rivers. This hypothesis was addressed in a phased approach. The existing methodologies were identified through a literature review and from the information collected it was decided to use the holistic approach methodologies. The Proposed method described and approved by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry for use on the perennial rivers was applied to the Seekoei River, an example of a typical non-perennial river. The existing methodology could be used as it is for the water quality component of the Reserve determination. However, the fish, invertebrate and riparian vegetation components of the existing methodology had severe limitations and an alternative methodology was proposed. Six limitations were identified from the Seekoei River study for all the components and were the following: the establishment of reference conditions; suitable hydrological modeling; understanding pools and the connectivity between pools; the surface water/groundwater interactions and the extrapolation of data. When comparing the DWA Proposed methodology (Eight step method) applied to the Seekoei River and the Prototype Methodology (Eleven phase method) as applied to the Mokolo River there were several similarities for the water quality input into both methodologies: - An understanding of the catchment to be able to identify the water quality constituent that will be important for that specific river is required. - Water quality data, both historical and present day data are required – more data are better and improve the confidence in the output. - Standard water quality methods could be applied to both methodologies. - Both require input into a model where response curves were drawn based on different future catchment development scenarios. The water quality component did not change from the Seekoei River application as the basic steps were the same. The standard methods could be applied to the Mokolo River. The current methodologies were equally usable to determine the water quality component of the Ecological Reserve for non-perennial rivers as the same basic methods were used to determine the water quality component of the Reserve. The limitations identified in the Seekoei River study were also the limiting in the Mokolo River study. The key issue is the hydrological modelling. Without a suitable hydrological model the other the other limitations can also not be addressed. The lack of water quality data remains the single most challenging aspect of determining the water quality status of a river, perennial and non-perennial, especially the lack of historical data. One should be cautious in interpreting once-off sampling data or patchy historical data. The confidence in the data used for the EWA sites were low in many instances as a result of either very little data to no data or patchy historical data. This underlines the importance of systematic monitoring over time, as sampling once is not sufficient to draw credible conclusions. The only way to compensate for a lack of date is to use expert knowledge, local knowledge and catchment information (land use, potential pollution sources, soil types, land cover and geology).
Open Access
Developing and enforcing fracking regulations to protect groundwater resources
(Nature Research, 2022) Esterhuyse, S.; Vermeulen, D.; Glazewski, J.
Unconventional oil and gas (UOG) extraction can augment energy supplies in countries with viable gas resources, but it risks damaging water resources. Water supply problems for fracking can also limit UOG extraction, especially in water-stressed regions. Regulations are one of the main tools used to minimize UOG extraction impacts on water resources. Many states in the US and Canada have extensive regulations to protect water resources during UOG extraction but they are often ineffective, either because they were poorly drafted or because they are not properly enforced. South Africa is a water-scarce, groundwater-dependent country that is considering UOG extraction in the future. South African groundwater experts were surveyed on what regulations are needed to protect groundwater resources and how to enforce them. This study recommends specific UOG extraction regulations to protect groundwater resources, which are not only relevant to South Africa, but also to other countries that extract UOG resources.
Open Access
Development of sustainability indicators for catchment management information systems
(University of the Free State, 2002-11) Walmsley, J. J.; Seaman, M. T.; Walmsley, R. D.
Abstract not available
Open Access
Effectiveness of cattle dung biogas digestate on spinach growth and nutrient uptake
(Elsevier, 2022) Tshikalange, Bridget; Ololade, Olusola; Jonas, Chipa; Bello, Zaid A.
New farming techniques should be introduced to improve yield quality and quantity while taking preservation of the environment into consideration. This study investigated effectiveness of cattle dung biogas digestate on spinach growth and nutrient uptake. Spinach was grown with cattle dung biogas digestate (BD), inorganic fertiliser (IF) and unfertilised control (CO) treatments under complete randomised design field conditions. Spinach planted under BD showed significantly higher growth in terms of plant height and number of leaves compared to spinach under CO and IF. A linear relationship between leaf numbers and leaf area index (LAI) (R2 0.691, p <0.0001) was established for the study. Cattle dung biogas digestate (BD) plants produced significantly the longest roots followed by IF plants. The IF plants produced more biomass per rooting depth (0.85 g cm 1) than BD (0.61 g cm 1) and CO (0.35 g cm 1). Regarding macronutrient content of the spinach leaves, significant differences were only observed for potassium (K) in the order of IF (8.6 g kg 1), BD (6.8 g kg 1), and CO (6.7 g kg 1). Significantly higher amounts of zinc (Zn2þ) accumulated in spinach leaves under BD compared to IF and CO. Fertilising spinach with BD improves growth and development just as much as IF. Additional benefits include improving nutrient content of the spinach, assisting with environmental preservation and decreasing production cost.
Open Access
Enviromental and socio-economic sustainability of marula harvesting in the Lubombo region, Swaziland
(University of the Free State, 2017-01) Murye, Alfred Francis; Pelser, A. J.; Zietsman, P. C.
English: People form an integral part of ecosystems and derive a range of products from, and also influence, ecosystem processes. Poverty stricken people in rural areas of Swaziland utilize marula to alleviate poverty and earn a living. To reduce poverty, the Government of Swaziland developed a Poverty Reduction Strategy and Action Plan, and put up a programme of action (2013-2018) to meet His Majesty King Mswati III’s1 dream of Swaziland becoming a developed country by 2022. Her Majesty Ntombi Thwala - the Queen Mother2 of Swaziland also initiated poverty eradication projects for rural women through the harvesting of marula fruits (Sclerocarya birrea). However, limited data exist on the socio-economic contribution of marula to rural livelihoods. Additionally, the possible impact of excessive harvesting (propelled by the commercialisation of the resource) on rural communities depending on marula for their livelihood is not known, let alone the impact of harvesting pressure on marula regeneration and recruitment. This situation can lead to overharvesting and local extinction of marula. This thesis aimed at determining the role that marula plays in the livelihoods of, and poverty alleviation among the rural population in Swaziland and set out to identify policy interventions to facilitate means of sustaining marula for future availability. A cross-sectional socio-economic survey embedded in an exploratory and descriptive research design and supplemented by a survey of the marula tree populations was carried out in the Lubombo region of Swaziland. Both quantitative and qualitative research approaches to data collection and analysis were employed. The study established that marula contributes significantly to the livelihoods of rural households in Swaziland as 53.3% of the respondents in the socio-economic survey supplemented their household income by harvesting marula. Marula was considered to be a very important source of household income by 68.5% of the respondents. About 49.8% of respondents earned an equivalent of US Dollar 36.2 (E500) per season, of which 46% used the income to buy books and uniforms and pay school fees and 42.4% used it to buy groceries, electricity and medication. Marula also contributes to cultural and spiritual enrichment and the creation of social ties. Several socio-demographic factors, such as gender, age, lack of employment and low level of education were found to be drivers of people to harvest marula for livelihoods. The thesis concluded that:  marula harvesting makes a substantial contribution to the economies and livelihoods of rural households in Swaziland;  marula harvesting plays a fundamental role in cultural practices and festivities in Swaziland and is paramount in creating social ties and cohesion among the Swazi nation;  the increased harvesting of marula fruits and seeds has a detrimental impact on the sustainability of marula tree species in Swaziland;  the current level of commercialized harvesting of marula in Swaziland is unsustainable and requires official monitoring and control of the harvesting process;  environmental factors impact negatively on the regeneration, growth and sustainability of marula;  distinctive socio-demographic attributes, such as gender and age, drive rural people to harvest marula beyond its sustainability thresholds;  the depletion of marula will deepen the existing poverty levels of the respondents and lead to the deterioration of quality of life, especially in those impoverished households that are proportionately more dependent on marula;  there are insufficient policy and legal frameworks for the protection of marula in Swaziland. The thesis recommended that:  the marula population structure be stabilized by planting marula trees and nurturing seedlings in the agricultural fields and also by leaving some fruits in the fields during harvesting in order to ensure regeneration;  the Department of Forestry should develop programmes to educate and train rural communities on the importance of conserving and sustaining marula trees and products in Swaziland; the Department of Forestry should revise the existing floral policies and legal frameworks in Swaziland so as to fill the existing gap in these policies on access to and control of marula harvesting;  the Government of Swaziland should revisit the policies on rural development in order to encourage and strengthen the creation of employment opportunities in rural areas so as to reduce the dependency on natural resources and marula in particular;  the Department of Forestry should establish the maximum sustainable yield of marula in order to set quotas for harvesting per individual/ household;  the Department of Forestry should address the gaps in the existing knowledge base of marula biology in Swaziland.
Open Access
Evaluating stakeholder perceptions concerning the free-roaming desert-adapted lions in the Skeleton Coast National Park in Namibia
(University of the Free State, 2018) Kazeurua, Josua; Stander, P.
This study evaluated the views and possible concerns of the main stakeholders of the Skeleton Coast National Park of the presence of lions through questionnaires. Any type of human-wildlife conflict, whether from tourism activities or conflict involving local communities, threaten the existence of wildlife. The perceived conflict between fishermen and the lions of the Skeleton Coast National Park can potentially threaten the existence of this species. It is unlikely that this conflict will be totally eliminated, but measures to reduce and control it at a level where local people and visitors to the park can tolerate and co-exist with wildlife, are a necessity. Although fishermen had a higher sighting frequency of lions than any other group, they had a relatively negative perception of the presence of lions in this area. Tourists had relatively low sightings but had a relatively positive perception of the presence of these lions in the vicinity of the Uniab Delta Waterfall in the Skeleton Coast National Park. In general, one would expect the assumption to be that the more the different groups observed lions, the more positive they would be towards them, but the results of this study indicate otherwise. This is because most Tourists who visit the Park highly want to see lions as there nowhere in the world were free-ranging lions have been observed along a beach or on a sand dune. Lions are prominent features in Namibia and are highly valued for their aesthetic and financial values by the increasing tourism industries. All groups agreed that lions might injure or kill people utilising the same area and the group that regarded these lions as the most dangerous to co-exist with humans in the area were the fishermen, while the lowest were the tourists. Fishermen regarded the presence of lions in this area as a threat to their angling activities. For the purpose of creating awareness of the presence of lions in the Skeleton Coast National Park, informational material and leaflets should be developed and displayed at key tourist information centres within the park.
Open Access
Expanding the conservation estate in South Africa : the case of Coleske Farm in the Baviaanskloof
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) McGregor, Eleanor C.; Pelser, A. J.
Finding the balance between biodiversity conservation and development imperatives is a global quandary. Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) that seek to link conservation and development are thus being implemented. Conservation Authorities historically purchased Coleske farm to initiate the development of the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve (BNR) into the Baviaanskloof Mega-reserve (BMR) ICDP. This ICDP has called for the Coleske community to resettle, via the implementation of a previously developed resettlement action plan (RAP), to a development node that could be developed in the BMR ICDP. The purpose of this document is to report on the findings that emerged from the research that explored the broad challenges and impediments in expanding the conservation estate in South Africa by looking at the situation of Coleske farm in the BNR. Exploratory research was undertaken through in-depth semi-structured face-to-face and telephonic interviews with the Coleske community heads of households and key stakeholder organisations. The most important documents pertaining to the situation of Coleske farm were consulted and the findings of the study were compared against the pertinent fundamentals, basics, ideals, principles or guidelines for ICDP implementation in order to extract lessons learnt from the situation of Coleske. The findings show that the general situation of Coleske has deteriorated since the land was purchased for inclusion in the BNR and the pertinent fundamentals for ICDP implementation were not employed from the onset; as a result, efforts and attempts to correct the associated negative consequences retrospectively are proving to be difficult. The document recommends that a coordinated approach to solve the situation at Coleske be employed, that key stakeholders be lobbied and mobilised to take on their respective roles and responsibilities, and that binding decisions be made and implemented in order to ensure that the status quo of Coleske does not remain for years to come. The study concludes that, in order to realise the intention of the Baviaaskloof Mega-reserve ICDP, the fundamental characteristics of an ICDP, i.e., inclusion, partnerships, legitimacy, cohesion, demarcation, resilience, and so forth, would need to be embraced by all the role players and that finalising the situation of Coleske is a tangible possibility if the existing frameworks and policies that are of relevance to the Baviaanskloof Mega-reserve ICDP are seriously considered and implemented by the Eastern Cape Government of South Africa.
Open Access
Impacts of exotic invasive plants on the composition and structure of riparian woody vegetation in the lower Orange River- Tsau/Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park, Namibia
(University of the Free State, 2013-11) Shilongo, Kosmas E.; Heita, Jonas
The adverse impacts of exotic invasive plants in protected areas, agricultural areas and riparian zones are a global concern. With particular focus on riparian zones, the invasive alien plant species displaces indigenous riverine vegetation, alters species composition and plant community structure. In totality, alien invasive species affects ecological functioning of natural systems as well as disturbs the ecosystem and habitat integrity. This study therefore investigates the impact of exotic invading plant species on the structure and composition of the resident woody vegetation communities within the riparian zones of the lower Orange River part of Tsau//Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park, Namibia. A comparative methodological study approach was adopted and a 20 m x 50 sampling plots were used for intensity density and biomass assessment between the invaded and uninvaded sites. Differences in canopy cover stem, width and vegetation height between the invaded and un-invaded sites were determined by using a t-test for the equality of means which was performed at the 5% significance level. The results proved that there was a significant difference in the mean height, mean canopy cover and mean stem width of the vegetation (p = 0.00). The most common exotic invader recorded are Datura inoxia, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Nicotiana glauca, Prosopis spp and Ricinus communis. It is concluded that invasive alien plants exerts adverse impacts on the characteristics of riparian vegetation communities of the Lower Orange River in the Tsau//Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park. Thus, there is a need for an active management and control interventions of alien invasive plant species within the riparian zones of the Orange River in the Tsau//Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park.
Open Access
An inquiry as to whether the operational activities at Soshanguve landfill site comply with the standards laid down in the document entitled "Minimum requirements for waste disposal by landfill" - Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
(University of the Free State, 2000-11) Molelekwa, Gomotsegang Fred "Telex"; Mqoqi, N.; Barker, C.
A cross sectional study was conducted at the Soshanguve landfill site north of Pretoria between June and December 1999. The site is classified as a General. Medium and Less significant leachate producing disposal site (GMB-). The site is situated in close proximity to informal settlement area. Such proximity could cause the landfill site to pose potential public health threats to the residents in the settlements as they are likely to go and scavenge, or salvage disposed waste materials. In addition, stray animals found in the area could be in danger if the operations at the landfill site were not to conform to the minimum requirements for waste disposal as laid down by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. The landfill site may not look good to the residents and passers-by due to litter scattered all over the site and beyond the boundaries. The study was conducted to promote better management of waste through proper disposal and operational activities that meet the standards set in the minimum requirements document, in order to prevent and control negative impact of waste disposal on the environment and health of Soshanguve residents. The primary objective of the study was to establish whether the operational activities at the landfill site were conforming to the minimum requirements for waste disposal provided for by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry based on its size and classification. Data were collected using qualitative and quantitative research methods. In-depth interviews were conducted with the managers responsible for waste management at the NPMSS and workers based at the landfill site. Review of records was done to determine the type and amount of waste that was disposed of at the site during 1998 and 1999. Review of records showed that waste material disposed of at the Soshanguve landfill site comprised of household waste, rubble, building rubble and garden refuse . Household waste formed the bulk of waste and its disposal increased significantly from January 1998 to November 1999 (t=2 .60, df=21, p<0.02, Cl=401.0 - 879.8). Other waste disposed of showed a decreasing trend over the two year period. Efficiency of compacting the waste was tested by sampling nearby stream and ponds onsite. Chemical testing of water was done by the CSIR. Operations at the site were observed. Infrastructural requirements such as toilet facilities, drinking water and fencing were also observed by the researcher. Observations showed a lack in these requirements. As a result of poor fencing, there was no controlled access into the site and the site was accessed by informal salvagers, scavengers, and stray animals. Reports of the disposal of hazardous chemical materials on the site were received and used disposable nappies were observed on-site. Machinery for waste disposal was insufficient and at times, it would breakdown resulting into waste not covered and compacted for more than a week. The situation led to the presence of flies, rodents and emission of foul smell that could have serious health impact and cause major discomfort in the surrounding communities. The situation may funher prohibit sustainable land-use, as the area may be damaged beyond rehabilitation. Ind1rect method of measuring waste observed could kad to overestimation of the amount of waste disposed of at the landfill site. There was generally poor management of waste at Soshanguve landfill site which could be attributed to insufficient machinery. Better efforts in managing the Soshanguve landfill site are needed as the current operations at the site could have major public health implications to the environment and the surrounding communities. Sufficient resources should be provided to ensure sound waste disposal. Waste disposal site management committee should be established and local communities should form part of the committee to ensure objective, informed and acceptable decision-making. Interventions to promote awareness about waste disposal and management, amongst the communities need to be put in place.
Open Access
The integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation strategies into wetlands management in the Eastern Free State, South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2016-12) Belle, Johanes Amate; Collins, Nacelle; Jordaan, Andries
English: This research examined the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation strategies into wetlands management in the eastern Free State in South Africa. The main identified problem was the continuous degradation of wetlands under changing environmental conditions characterised by increasing disaster risks, including risks associated with climate change. Well-managed wetlands mitigate disaster risks and climate change impacts. The main research question was: “Can integrating disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation principles and practices into wetlands management promote wetlands resilience for sustainable ecological benefits in the eastern Free State?” The aim of the study was to develop a holistic wetlands management framework that promotes wetland resilience under changing environmental conditions. Resilient wetlands provide sustainable ecological services that support local communities. The study used a systems thinking approach and is well-articulated in the emerging paradigm of ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation (Eco-DRR/CCA). A combination of four frameworks were necessary given the multidisciplinary nature of the research involving environmental management, disaster management and climate change science. The post-positivist and the interpretivist philosophies blended well in this study which combined social and natural sciences. A mixed research method approach was used. Stratified random sampling and convenient sampling was used to select 95 mostly valley-bottom wetlands in the study area. Valley-bottom wetlands are the dominant wetlands in the study area. Data were collected using questionnaires (176 wetland users), interviews (30 specialists), field observations (21 wetlands) and secondary data (from two weather stations). The data were analysed using Microsoft Excel, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and thematic analysis using simple descriptive statistics. Triangulation, experts’ inputs and pilot studies added credibility to the collected data. The main conclusions were that wetlands, especially those in communal land, were very vulnerable to degradation. This vulnerability is because of poor comprehension of wetland functions and values, ignorance and problems associated with the legal and institutional arrangement for wetlands management in South Africa. There is no national wetland policy and the implementation of related legislations is not effective. There is poor coordination of wetland-stakeholders in the area. The activities of the various Expanded Public Work Programmes (EPWPs) sometimes overlap and are not properly coordinated. Wetlands were poorly managed, especially communal wetlands where poor land-use systems, overgrazed wetlands, and lack of management plans were identified. Communal wetlands are therefore not very effective in mitigating the common risks of droughts, veld fires and floods in the area. However, wetlands in protected areas and many in private commercial farms were in a good ecological state, but they also require constant monitoring as head cut erosion and the presence of alien and invasive species are still visible. The main recommendations include that the government of South Africa, through the Department of Environmental Affairs, should formulate an effective and implementable national wetland policy that will speak directly and specifically to wetland issues. The government should also unify the control of the Extended Public Works Programmes (EPWPs) under one umbrella structure and improve the allocation of both human and financial resources to these EPWPs. There is a need for proper coordination of wetland stakeholders in the area and the provincial wetland advisory forum should be more effective. Education and creating awareness for wetland functions, values and management will be key to ensure the wise and sustainable management of wetlands. To build wetland resilience in the area, an Integrated Wetland Management Framework (IWMF) was proposed to manage wetlands from a holistic perspective, unlike the reactive approach that was dominant in the past. The IWMF integrates disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation tools and strategies. Further research was recommended for the longitudinal testing of the framework that will be aided by the development of other quantifiable indicators. Finally, a study to quantify the soil organic matter (SOM) of wetlands in the study area should be conducted to investigate opportunities for carbon trading as a way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and conserving wetlands.
Open Access
The integration of strategic environmental assessments with the integrated development planning process
(University of the Free State, 2001-07) Smit, J. H.; Seaman, M. T.; McClintock, S.
Since the first living forms emerged miraculously from earth's cloak of gas millions of years ago, the planet has maintained a capacity to support life in a myriad of ever changing forms. Among all the species that have evolved during the earth's long history, modem people have been the most successful. This resulted in a drastic increase in human population. In the second half of the 20th century the relationship between human beings. and their environment has become the topic of widespread concern. It is now universally accepted that, according to present trends, we must expect the world, and South Africa, to become more crowded, more polluted, less ecologically stable and more vulnerable to natural hazards in the years ahead. There are two components to environmental deterioration. One is the depletion of essential resources for the maintenance of present-day life styles. The other is the deterioration and destruction of natural processes which ultimately sustain life on earth. South Africa is a unique country with unique problems. It has a developed, or First World, component which has been responsible for some terrible environmental degradation. It also has a developing, or Third World, component which has a dire need for socio-economic development. This implies the need for sustainable development. Sustainable development means improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity. It is universally recognised that sustainable development should occur at local level, which in turn could contribute, to the global healthy state of the environment. The dire need for development among underdeveloped communities and the lack of capacity (financially and administratively) among existing municipalities in the new dispensation resulted in the introduction of Integrated Development Planning. The Integrated Development Planning process is a strategic decision-making tool that assists local authorities in fulfilling their development mandate given by the new constitution. In general, Integrate Development Plans tend to focus on socio-economic development tied to a spatial development framework. A need to ensure sustainable development therefore exists within Integrated Development Planning. Strategic Environmental Assessments could be used as a means III achieving sustainable development. A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is an Integrated Environmental Management (lEM) strategic decision-making support tool that proactively considers the opportunities and constraints the environment places on development. By integrating a Strategic Environmental Assessment with the Integrated Development Planning process sustainable development can be ensured. The means to integrate the two processes, theoretically as well as practically, poses a challenge for environmental managers and planners in South Africa. The aim of this study is to provide some guidelines in achieving the successful integration of Strategic Environmental Assessment as a component of the Integrated Development Planning process. This will be achieved by integrating the elements of a Strategic Environmental Assessment into the various phases of Integrated Development Planning process. The Integrated Development Planning process involves one process with many products, one of which is a Strategic Environmental Assessment.
Open Access
Investigating small mammal community structure as a possible indicator of improved habitat integrity in an area cleared of alien vegetation
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) De Klerk, Jean J.; Kemp, M. E.; Avenant, N. L.
Small mammal communities have been identified as possible indicators of the ecological integrity of different areas. Small mammal species are adapted to micro habitats and therefore can be affected by small-scale changes, which can be monitored to assist in biodiversity studies. Alien vegetation eradication programs have been ongoing across many areas of South Africa. These eradicated areas are believed to be able to restore to the original condition and therefore improving the biodiversity of the area. However, many ways of assessing ecological integrity are time consuming and expensive. By assessing the small mammal diversity and community structure in eradicated areas, judgments could be made about the success of implemented eradication programs. As small mammal surveys can be done readily, the ability to use them as indicators allows them to be implemented in all eradicated areas to indicate conditions of area over various time periods and can be utilized on a continual basis. This study investigates to which extent small mammal community structure (including the specific species present and the species richness) could indicate improved habitat integrity in areas cleared of alien vegetation. Small mammal communities in three areas, (i) area infested with Black Wattle (Acacia mearnsii), (ii) area cleared of Black Wattle and (iii) a control area which have no records of alien vegetation, were assessed. Data was captured using PVC live traps similar to Sherman and Willan traps. Traps were placed along transects in each area, once a month, from October to December 2013 for four consecutive days at a time. A total of 690 individual were caught during the 5400 trap nights of the study, with an overall trap success of 12.78%. In total five small mammal species were caught; one musk shrew (Crocidura flavescens) and four rodents. There was a significant difference between the number of small mammals caught between the three areas, with the control area and the cleared area being the most similar. Both the Shannon-Wiener and the Simpson’s diversity indexes were used, with the Shannon-Wiener indicating some significant differences between the areas and the Simpson’s indicating that there was not a significant difference between the areas. The Friedman Anova indicated a significant difference in the amount of species caught between the areas, with the Wilcoxon test indicating that there was significantly less species in the infested than in both the control and cleared areas; no difference was found between the cleared and the control areas. A similar difference in the total amount of individuals caught was also found. This was also found for the three most numerous species Rhabdomys pumilio, Micaelamys namaquensis, Otomys irroratus. Two species Saccostomus campestris and Crocidura flavescens were found in low numbers at both the control and cleared plots, but could not be found at the infested site. This study indicates that small mammal communities are different between the areas sampled with the infested area having the lowest species richness and abundance. The cleared area is not significantly different from the control area, but has a significantly higher species richness and abundance than the infested area, indicating that the area has improved and that small mammals could be used as an indicator of ecological integrity after alien eradication. No clear indicator species were identified, due to only five species being recorded. Rhabdomys pumilio dominated all areas sampled and has been identified to occur from very disturbed to pristine areas. Where more time and assistance is available, future studies will benefit from the inclusion of ecological integrity indices on other taxa, such as vegetation, alongside the small mammal communities. This would allow for correlations to be drawn and report on integrity at different levels of the ecosystem. As such the ecological integrity of the area can be determined using already proven indices to compare with the small mammal results. A further recommendation is that future small mammal studies should also include extended seasonal sampling including autumn and winter which have proved to yield higher trap success.
Open Access
Investigating the influence of hydrological phase on Baetidae and Simuliidae species composition in a South African non-perennial river: the Seekoei River
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Ferreira, Ina S.; Watson, Marie
All rivers should be monitored to detect changes and disturbances in order to be managed sustainably. Although non-perennial rivers are widespread and common in the semi-arid and arid areas of South Africa they have not been studied extensively. SASS 5 (South African Scoring System version 5) is the standard rapid bio-assessment method used to determine the present state of macroinvertebrates in South African rivers. The SASS 5 method was, however, developed for use in perennial rivers, and regardless of its inaccuracy in non-perennial rivers is still used in these rivers. This study tested the hypothesis that the SASS 5 biomonitoring method does not consider natural changes caused by the hydrology in non-perennial rivers and that family level identification is not accurate enough to reflect the changes in the state of the river. The Seekoei River, used as a case study, is an ephemeral (non-perennial) river, situated in the Northern Cape and is part of the Upper Orange Water Management Area. The autumn samples collected at two sites (EWR 3 and EWR 4; 2006 – 2010) in the Seekoei River during a WRC project (WRC research project K5/1587) were selected for the current study because of the ideal habitat and hydrology experienced at the sites. Two main hydrological phases were identified during the sampling period, i.e. FLOW phase and POOLS phase. Three years (2006, 2008, 2010) experienced the FLOW phase and two years (2007, 2009) the POOLS phase. Two macroinvertebrate families, Simuliidae and Baetidae, were used to determine the influence of species identification on the interpretation of biomonitoring data in non-perennial rivers. The results showed that species within the same family have certain flow and habitat preferences, which would not be detected using family-level data. This should be kept in mind when these rivers are managed. This study concluded that the information available from species-level analysis is important during the management of non-perennial rivers and therefore species-level data together with family-level data should be considered for use.