Centre for Environmental Management

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Open Access
An inquiry as to whether the operational activities at Soshanguve landfill site comply with the standards laid down in the document entitled "Minimum requirements for waste disposal by landfill" - Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
(University of the Free State, 2000-11) Molelekwa, Gomotsegang Fred "Telex"; Mqoqi, N.; Barker, C.
A cross sectional study was conducted at the Soshanguve landfill site north of Pretoria between June and December 1999. The site is classified as a General. Medium and Less significant leachate producing disposal site (GMB-). The site is situated in close proximity to informal settlement area. Such proximity could cause the landfill site to pose potential public health threats to the residents in the settlements as they are likely to go and scavenge, or salvage disposed waste materials. In addition, stray animals found in the area could be in danger if the operations at the landfill site were not to conform to the minimum requirements for waste disposal as laid down by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry. The landfill site may not look good to the residents and passers-by due to litter scattered all over the site and beyond the boundaries. The study was conducted to promote better management of waste through proper disposal and operational activities that meet the standards set in the minimum requirements document, in order to prevent and control negative impact of waste disposal on the environment and health of Soshanguve residents. The primary objective of the study was to establish whether the operational activities at the landfill site were conforming to the minimum requirements for waste disposal provided for by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry based on its size and classification. Data were collected using qualitative and quantitative research methods. In-depth interviews were conducted with the managers responsible for waste management at the NPMSS and workers based at the landfill site. Review of records was done to determine the type and amount of waste that was disposed of at the site during 1998 and 1999. Review of records showed that waste material disposed of at the Soshanguve landfill site comprised of household waste, rubble, building rubble and garden refuse . Household waste formed the bulk of waste and its disposal increased significantly from January 1998 to November 1999 (t=2 .60, df=21, p<0.02, Cl=401.0 - 879.8). Other waste disposed of showed a decreasing trend over the two year period. Efficiency of compacting the waste was tested by sampling nearby stream and ponds onsite. Chemical testing of water was done by the CSIR. Operations at the site were observed. Infrastructural requirements such as toilet facilities, drinking water and fencing were also observed by the researcher. Observations showed a lack in these requirements. As a result of poor fencing, there was no controlled access into the site and the site was accessed by informal salvagers, scavengers, and stray animals. Reports of the disposal of hazardous chemical materials on the site were received and used disposable nappies were observed on-site. Machinery for waste disposal was insufficient and at times, it would breakdown resulting into waste not covered and compacted for more than a week. The situation led to the presence of flies, rodents and emission of foul smell that could have serious health impact and cause major discomfort in the surrounding communities. The situation may funher prohibit sustainable land-use, as the area may be damaged beyond rehabilitation. Ind1rect method of measuring waste observed could kad to overestimation of the amount of waste disposed of at the landfill site. There was generally poor management of waste at Soshanguve landfill site which could be attributed to insufficient machinery. Better efforts in managing the Soshanguve landfill site are needed as the current operations at the site could have major public health implications to the environment and the surrounding communities. Sufficient resources should be provided to ensure sound waste disposal. Waste disposal site management committee should be established and local communities should form part of the committee to ensure objective, informed and acceptable decision-making. Interventions to promote awareness about waste disposal and management, amongst the communities need to be put in place.
Open Access
The integration of strategic environmental assessments with the integrated development planning process
(University of the Free State, 2001-07) Smit, J. H.; Seaman, M. T.; McClintock, S.
Since the first living forms emerged miraculously from earth's cloak of gas millions of years ago, the planet has maintained a capacity to support life in a myriad of ever changing forms. Among all the species that have evolved during the earth's long history, modem people have been the most successful. This resulted in a drastic increase in human population. In the second half of the 20th century the relationship between human beings. and their environment has become the topic of widespread concern. It is now universally accepted that, according to present trends, we must expect the world, and South Africa, to become more crowded, more polluted, less ecologically stable and more vulnerable to natural hazards in the years ahead. There are two components to environmental deterioration. One is the depletion of essential resources for the maintenance of present-day life styles. The other is the deterioration and destruction of natural processes which ultimately sustain life on earth. South Africa is a unique country with unique problems. It has a developed, or First World, component which has been responsible for some terrible environmental degradation. It also has a developing, or Third World, component which has a dire need for socio-economic development. This implies the need for sustainable development. Sustainable development means improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity. It is universally recognised that sustainable development should occur at local level, which in turn could contribute, to the global healthy state of the environment. The dire need for development among underdeveloped communities and the lack of capacity (financially and administratively) among existing municipalities in the new dispensation resulted in the introduction of Integrated Development Planning. The Integrated Development Planning process is a strategic decision-making tool that assists local authorities in fulfilling their development mandate given by the new constitution. In general, Integrate Development Plans tend to focus on socio-economic development tied to a spatial development framework. A need to ensure sustainable development therefore exists within Integrated Development Planning. Strategic Environmental Assessments could be used as a means III achieving sustainable development. A Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) is an Integrated Environmental Management (lEM) strategic decision-making support tool that proactively considers the opportunities and constraints the environment places on development. By integrating a Strategic Environmental Assessment with the Integrated Development Planning process sustainable development can be ensured. The means to integrate the two processes, theoretically as well as practically, poses a challenge for environmental managers and planners in South Africa. The aim of this study is to provide some guidelines in achieving the successful integration of Strategic Environmental Assessment as a component of the Integrated Development Planning process. This will be achieved by integrating the elements of a Strategic Environmental Assessment into the various phases of Integrated Development Planning process. The Integrated Development Planning process involves one process with many products, one of which is a Strategic Environmental Assessment.
Open Access
Development of sustainability indicators for catchment management information systems
(University of the Free State, 2002-11) Walmsley, J. J.; Seaman, M. T.; Walmsley, R. D.
Abstract not available
Open Access
The attitudes and behaviour of Spoornet middle management with regard to the implementation of environmental management systems in their functional areas.
(University of the Free State, 2004) Pekalski, Adri; Lazenby, J.
The aim of this study was to determine the differences in attitudes of Spoornet Middle Management with regards to the implementation of Environmental Management Systems in ten different functional areas. A questionnaire to measure the attitudes was developed in accordance with the International Chamber of Commerce' principles for Sustainable Development. The attitudes of 5 middle managers per Functional Division were recorded. The level of implementation and results were also measured with the aid of forty-nine structured questions in the Environmental Self Assessment Programme of Deloitte and Touch (Industrial Environmental Forum, 1994) which constitute behaviour. Bell et al (1990) cited that a general attitude may not predict behaviour but that a multiple item scale measuring components of an attitude is more likely to predict a class of behaviour. It is for this reason that the multiple item questionnaire was developed and administered to measure attitudes. Differences exist between the attitudes of the different Functional Divisions. The differing attitudes will invariable lower the possibility in achieving the same level of participation in the implementation of an Environmental Management System, unless changed. The correlation of attitudes and behaviour of the Functional Divisions were also measured and no correlation was found, except in one principle, which in general reinforced previous research (Lauw & Edwards, 1993). Behaviour is likely to follow a specific trend where consequences that are certain, manifested almost immediately and are positively rewarded will determine the behaviour according to Krause (1997). The behaviour may then contradict the attitudes. The ongIns of environmental problems are believed to lie in two aspects. Firstly, achieving business success on a year to year bottom line which does not promote longer term investment especially regarding sustainable business' tipple bottom line and specifically environmental accountability. Secondly, aligning the different Business Division's attitudes towards Sustainable Development may well increase possibility of achieving similar results with the implementation of the Environmental Management System.
Open Access
A strategy for linking South Africa to the Water Programme of the United Nations Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS)
(University of the Free State, 2005-11) Van Niekerk, Harold
English: The tasks of managing and protecting South Africa’s water resources are being performed by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), although the requirement to protect water resources are also entrenched in the policies and acts of other departments. DWAF has also recognized over the past ten years the importance of international co-operation with regards to water issues. As part of South Africa’s commitment to the realization of Agenda 21 and related international water management commitments, the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry has committed itself to participating in the Global Surface Water Quality Monitoring Programme. The programme falls under the management of the United Nations Environmental Programme and is administrated by the UN Global Environmental Monitoring System/Water Programme (GEMS/Water). The aim of the study was to develop a strategy that would enable SA to effectively participate in this global water quality monitoring programme, by making use of existing programmes and infrastructure. A very important aspect of this study was also to test the scientific and operational ability of SA to honour this commitment, as the submission of unreliable and irrelevant data for use in international reports by the UN can lead to embarrassment on a political level. Clear objectives, based on international requirements, were formulated to serve as the basis for the design of a scientifically sound monitoring system. Three different types of monitoring data, namely global river flux, global trends, global baseline data were identified as the main focus areas. A wide variety of techniques such as statistical analyses of national water quality data, specialist workshops, meetings with international data users, geographic information system (GIS), performance auditing of existing monitoring programmes and extensive field visits were used to design a monitoring system that would enable SA to meet the set objectives. Special attention was also given to the design of a comprehensive ISO 9001:2000 based quality management system and operational structures that would ensure the production and submission of reliable data in a sustainable manner. The importance of producing a documented monitoring strategy cannot be over emphasized. Such a strategy must clearly link the information needs with monitoring objectives, which in turn must be clearly linked to the design of the monitoring programme During the design process a number of potential shortcomings in the existing systems and programmes were identified and specific recommendations are made. Some of the main recommendations related to the implementation of a quality management system for new and existing national monitoring programmes, placement of sampling sites, alteration of sampling frequencies and expansion of monitoring variables currently being tested for. It was finally concluded that South Africa does have the ability to honour their commitment to the UN GEMS/Water Programme, provided that the recommendations emanating from this study are implemented.
Open Access
Application of multi-criteria analysis in land use decisions
(University of the Free State, 2006-05) Kuyler, Peter; Du Preez, P. J.; Goodman, P. S.
Global land use trends have resulted in extensive transformation and loss of biodiversity in natural landscapes. In South Africa these trends are apparent in the Grassland Biome. Although it has a very high level of biodiversity and provides essential ecosystem services for economic development, only 2% is formally protected and it is one of the most threatened biomes in the country. With over 60% transformed and less than 1% formally protected, the Mistbelt Grassland of KwaZulu-Natal is a priority for urgent conservation attention. The continued transformation of natural landscapes due to economic pressures and the limited opportunity for an increase in protected areas where production and development needs must be met, presents a challenge to biodiversity conservation. This study was motivated by the need for a strategic focus in the evaluation of the impacts of land use on the biodiversity integrity of landscapes in order to facilitate integrated environmental management and guide land use decisions that would promote conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development. A methodology for this evaluation is proposed that exploits the hierarchical approach to characterizing biodiversity and employs multi-criteria analysis in the form of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and decision-making by experts. Separate evaluations of the impacts of land use on biodiversity integrity in the Mistbelt Grassland of KwaZulu-Natal and the moist sub-biome of the Grassland Biome were conducted to examine the application of the methodology at the vegetation-type and biome levels. Accordingly, five land uses and fourteen biodiversity indicators were selected for the Mistbelt Grassland study, and ten land uses and fifty-two indicators for the Grassland Biome study. Indicators for the integrity of landscape composition, structure and function were selected. The overall relative weights for land uses were obtained from rankings of the impacts of each land use on indicator criteria. Relative impacts of land uses on landscape composition, function and structure were consistent and provided an unambiguous statement of the overall impact on biodiversity integrity. The greatest impact of land use was associated with that on landscape structure and was the result of the extent of transformation and fragmentation. The integrity of grassland habitat is important for landscape composition, while nutrient leakage and fire regime are considered important for landscape function. Urban settlements were considered to have the greatest negative impact on biodiversity, while timber plantations, croplands and rural settlements also had a high impact. Pastures and livestock ranching were associated with low impacts. Against the benchmark of conservation, activities like game ranching, livestock ranching and tourism accounted for slight impacts on biodiversity integrity and are recommended for the maintenance of landscape biodiversity. While timber plantations, dairy farming, rural settlements and croplands were considered to make little contribution to the maintenance of biodiversity, their spatial orientation was considered to be critical for the maintenance of regional connectivity and the biodiversity integrity of the greater landscape. In accordance with the methodology employed and insights obtained in the evaluation of land use impacts on biodiversity integrity, the Land Use Evaluation Model is proposed as an integrated environmental management tool. Within a single integrated, cost-effective evaluation procedure that allows for input by key stakeholders, the hierarchy of decisions in the Analytic Hierarchy Process can be expanded to accommodate a limitless number of indicator criteria to rank the impacts of alternative development plans or projects on the social, economic and biodiversity components of the environment. An examination was made of the Land Use Evaluation Model in strategic environmental assessments and its role in facilitating environmental impact assessment and the integrated development planning processes.
Open Access
A participatory sustainability assessment framework for biodiversity conservation in rural areas
(University of the Free State, 2008) Letšela, Limpho Malerato Senior; Pelser, A. J.; Seaman, M. T.
English: Biodiversity conservation is critical for the continued supply of ecosystem services to secure the sustainability of livelihoods, especially for poor rural people. Therefore, current rates of biodiversity loss, which threaten human survival, need to be curbed using effective interventions. Implementation and decision-making on interventions require timely information. Undertaking a Sustainability Assessment (SA) and structuring this information within a SA framework of components and objectives is one effective way to aid decision-makers. An effective SA framework addresses key sustainability issues and priorities that are aligned with the regulatory policy and legal framework, as well as stakeholder aspirations. Sustainability Assessment development and application is evolving and is more widespread in developed countries than developing countries. Hence, this study sought to investigate how to apply SA in a participatory manner within rural areas in a developing country. Key objectives of the study focused on: i) identification of key aspects that make a SA framework effective; ii) mechanisms of effectively incorporating participation into SA processes; iii) investigations of the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the ecosystem and human conditions required for the sustainability of biodiversity conservation; and iv) determination of stakeholder perceptions on progress towards sustainability. The study was conducted in Lesotho within a trans-boundary project area. The project is known as the MDTP and is a collaborative initiative between Lesotho and South Africa to conserve globally significant biodiversity. A qualitative case study approach was employed through a combination of techniques including a literature review, field observations, key informant interviews, group discussions and workshops to collect data. Study participants consisted of MDTP partners at the national, district and local levels, and some members of the general community. Two SA tools were applied in a complementary manner during the study, namely the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) SA approach and the Community Sustainability Assessment (CSA) approach, developed by the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN). Experiences of applying sustainability assessment in both developed and developing countries revealed that an overall generic SA tool is not practical. There is a need for a context-specific framework consisting of principles, criteria, generic steps, objectives, indicators, a toolkit and other context-specific components. The SA framework employed in this study had to fit biodiversity conservation conditions in rural areas. The SA process revealed that the MDTP partners were knowledgeable about the conditions of sustainability and threats to biodiversity, while members of the general community were unaware of these threats. Regarding progress towards the sustainability of biodiversity in the study area, the results indicated that current practices are unsustainable, more from the point of view of the socio-ecological components than the socio-cultural and spiritual or the socio-economic components. Consequently, there is a need to raise awareness at the community level and implement action plans to realize changes that support the sustainability of biodiversity in the long-term. Key components for a participatory SA framework depend on whether a SA is a partial assessment or a full one. The components of a partial SA framework also depend on whether the focus is on reflection and learning or data handling. Hence, the main components of a participatory sustainability assessment framework comprise: a comprehensive vision of sustainable development; goals towards attaining the vision; a participatory process engaging various stakeholders; a toolkit of appropriate SA tools used for various tasks; relevant principles of sustainability assessment; and sustainability-led decision criteria. There is no blueprint on how to undertake a SA process and no rigid way of integrating participation within the SA processes. The application of a SA requires adaptability and flexibility in specific circumstances. Therefore, the study presents guidelines, key components of a participatory SA process, and highlights the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for applying a SA for biodiversity conservation in rural areas. Key words: sustainability assessment, stakeholder participation, environmental assessment, biodiversity conservation, rural areas, sustainability assessment framework.
Open Access
A participatory sustainability assessment framework for biodiversity conservation in rural areas
(University of the Free State, 2008) Letšela, Limpho Malerato Senior; Pelser, A. J.; Seaman, M. T.
English: Biodiversity conservation is critical for the continued supply of ecosystem services to secure the sustainability of livelihoods, especially for poor rural people. Therefore, current rates of biodiversity loss, which threaten human survival, need to be curbed using effective interventions. Implementation and decision-making on interventions require timely information. Undertaking a Sustainability Assessment (SA) and structuring this information within a SA framework of components and objectives is one effective way to aid decision-makers. An effective SA framework addresses key sustainability issues and priorities that are aligned with the regulatory policy and legal framework, as well as stakeholder aspirations. Sustainability Assessment development and application is evolving and is more widespread in developed countries than developing countries. Hence, this study sought to investigate how to apply SA in a participatory manner within rural areas in a developing country. Key objectives of the study focused on: i) identification of key aspects that make a SA framework effective; ii) mechanisms of effectively incorporating participation into SA processes; iii) investigations of the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the ecosystem and human conditions required for the sustainability of biodiversity conservation; and iv) determination of stakeholder perceptions on progress towards sustainability. The study was conducted in Lesotho within a trans-boundary project area. The project is known as the MDTP and is a collaborative initiative between Lesotho and South Africa to conserve globally significant biodiversity. A qualitative case study approach was employed through a combination of techniques including a literature review, field observations, key informant interviews, group discussions and workshops to collect data. Study participants consisted of MDTP partners at the national, district and local levels, and some members of the general community. Two SA tools were applied in a complementary manner during the study, namely the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) SA approach and the Community Sustainability Assessment (CSA) approach, developed by the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN). Experiences of applying sustainability assessment in both developed and developing countries revealed that an overall generic SA tool is not practical. There is a need for a context-specific framework consisting of principles, criteria, generic steps, objectives, indicators, a toolkit and other context-specific components. The SA framework employed in this study had to fit biodiversity conservation conditions in rural areas. The SA process revealed that the MDTP partners were knowledgeable about the conditions of sustainability and threats to biodiversity, while members of the general community were unaware of these threats. Regarding progress towards the sustain ability of biodiversity in the study area, the results indicated that current practices are unsustainable, more from the point of view of the socio-ecological components than the socio-cultural and spiritual or the socio-economic components. Consequently, there is a need to raise awareness at the community level and implement action plans to realize changes that support the sustainability of biodiversity in the long-term. Key components for a participatory SA framework depend on whether a SA is a partial assessment or a full one. The components of a partial SA framework also depend on whether the focus is on reflection and learning or data handling. Hence, the main components of a participatory sustainability assessment framework comprise: a comprehensive vision of sustainable development; goals towards attaining the vision; a participatory process engaging various stakeholders; a toolkit of appropriate SA tools used for various tasks; relevant principles of sustainability assessment; and sustainability-led decision criteria. There is no blueprint on how to undertake a SA process and no rigid way of integrating participation within the SA processes. The application of a SA requires adaptability and flexibility in specific circumstances. Therefore, the study presents guidelines, key components of a participatory SA process, and highlights the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for applying a SA for biodiversity conservation in rural areas.
Open Access
Socio-economic assessment of the proposed tourism development at Mount Aux Sources, Eastern Free State, South Africa
(University of the Free State (Qwaqwa Campus), 2008-03) Links, Sebiloane Lebotsa; Van Zyl, W. F.; Adjei, A.
This study assesses the Potential Socio-economic Impact of the Tlokweng/Sentinel Cableway Development in the Tsheseng Community of Qwaqwa, Eastern Free State, South Africa. The survey was carried out during a month of July 2002, amongst a total of 200 households drawn from a random sampling involving three areas in Tsheseng, namely; Thibella, Dinkweng and Phomolong villages. The villages are located in the former homeland of Qwaqwa in the Eastern Free State (South Africa). In more specific terms, this research aimed at providing a critical examination of the contribution of this project in enhancing the standard of living of the people of Tsheseng (Qwaqwa). To put forward the recommendations on how the perceptions of these people can be integrated into the reality of the project was a challenge. It is also aimed at providing information from the respondents on how they foresee the impact of the project in tourism within the area. The study used both qualitative and quantitative methods in data collection and analysis. Primary and secondary sources of data were used and modem methods were also employed to analyse and draw conclusion from the research. The study's findings indicate that most of the households are not educated. As a result, they lack the capacity to be innovative. The study further revealed that Tsheseng people are far away from the CBD's and industries and as such, they are confined and marginalized through the non-interactive conditions imposed on them in their villages. These indicate a lack of incentives and high unemployment rate because of non-existence of clear and proper development and job opportunities intended to enhance the welfare (social status) of the Tsheseng people and Qwaqwa as a whole. The results further show that the people of Tsheseng acknowledge the fact that the project can be implemented with the hope that it will alleviate the alarming rate of unemployment. If this can be achieved, it will lead to betterment of the lives ofTsheseng people as well as on the tourism development process in South Africa. In conclusion, the study recommends that the cable car should be implemented as one of the flagships (services) of the tourism industry in order to alleviate unemployment and provide better living conditions expected by many people of the world. The study also recommends such a development with a clear understanding that tourism will be ranked amongst the best businesses in the study area and in South Africa as a whole. With this project in hand, some problems such as underdevelopment, poverty, ignorance and isolation could be minimized and tourism will flourish.
Open Access
Determining the water quality ecological reserve for non-perennial rivers: a prototype environmental water assessment methodology
(University of the Free State, 2011) Rossouw, Linda; Scott, W. E.; Dennis, I.
The South African National Water Act adopted in 1998, is implemented by means of the National Water Resource Strategy. The NWRS provides the framework for the management of the water resources. Some of the protective measures are designated Resource Directed Measures such as the establishment of the Reserve. The NWA establishes the ‘Reserve’ consisting of an unallocated portion of water that is not subject to competition with other water uses. It refers to both the quality and quantity of water and is made up from two distinct parts, namely the basic human needs reserve and the Ecological Reserve. The Ecological Reserve describes the quantity, quality and flow variability required to protect and maintain the aquatic ecosystems of the water resource on a sustainable basis. All other water demands are controlled by permits and licenses and met only after the Reserve is secured. The Ecological Reserve has to be set for every major river in the country to be able to comply with the NWA. Most of the rivers, except the largest rivers in the semi-arid west of southern Africa, are non-perennial with variable flow regimes, governed by stochastic events, with the highest variability in intermittent and ephemeral rivers. This variability is a key factor in shaping the biotic community structure of ephemeral or non-perennial systems. The hypothesis for the research was that the current, existing water quality methodology for determining the water quality component of the Ecological Reserve, which was developed for perennial rivers, could be used for non-perennial rivers. This hypothesis was addressed in a phased approach. The existing methodologies were identified through a literature review and from the information collected it was decided to use the holistic approach methodologies. The Proposed method described and approved by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry for use on the perennial rivers was applied to the Seekoei River, an example of a typical non-perennial river. The existing methodology could be used as it is for the water quality component of the Reserve determination. However, the fish, invertebrate and riparian vegetation components of the existing methodology had severe limitations and an alternative methodology was proposed. Six limitations were identified from the Seekoei River study for all the components and were the following: the establishment of reference conditions; suitable hydrological modeling; understanding pools and the connectivity between pools; the surface water/groundwater interactions and the extrapolation of data. When comparing the DWA Proposed methodology (Eight step method) applied to the Seekoei River and the Prototype Methodology (Eleven phase method) as applied to the Mokolo River there were several similarities for the water quality input into both methodologies: - An understanding of the catchment to be able to identify the water quality constituent that will be important for that specific river is required. - Water quality data, both historical and present day data are required – more data are better and improve the confidence in the output. - Standard water quality methods could be applied to both methodologies. - Both require input into a model where response curves were drawn based on different future catchment development scenarios. The water quality component did not change from the Seekoei River application as the basic steps were the same. The standard methods could be applied to the Mokolo River. The current methodologies were equally usable to determine the water quality component of the Ecological Reserve for non-perennial rivers as the same basic methods were used to determine the water quality component of the Reserve. The limitations identified in the Seekoei River study were also the limiting in the Mokolo River study. The key issue is the hydrological modelling. Without a suitable hydrological model the other the other limitations can also not be addressed. The lack of water quality data remains the single most challenging aspect of determining the water quality status of a river, perennial and non-perennial, especially the lack of historical data. One should be cautious in interpreting once-off sampling data or patchy historical data. The confidence in the data used for the EWA sites were low in many instances as a result of either very little data to no data or patchy historical data. This underlines the importance of systematic monitoring over time, as sampling once is not sufficient to draw credible conclusions. The only way to compensate for a lack of date is to use expert knowledge, local knowledge and catchment information (land use, potential pollution sources, soil types, land cover and geology).
Open Access
Municipal solid waste disposal site selection
(University of the Free State, 2013-03-11) Pawandiwa, Charity C.; Togarepi, S.
The exceptional growth in the urban population of cities in developing countries has mandated a critical analysis of urban waste management practices. In the context of increasing urban population density, sanitary landfill solution is a lucrative means of waste disposal and attainment of an acceptable environmental quality and public health. The location of sanitary landfill facilities in established urban developments requires careful and thoughtful consideration to create a situation which accommodates the technological, social, economic and environmental considerations associated with landfill creation alongside existing infrastructure, social fabric and environmental constraints. This investigation contributes to the search for a suitable site for a new waste disposal facility to cater for the solid waste generated in Harare’s industrial, commercial and residential areas. This research takes the form of a land use suitability assessment with a multi-criteria analysis. Factors considered include settlement pattern, industrial areas, commercial areas, wetlands, transport routes, surface and groundwater vulnerability. Weights are assigned to these factors depending on their relative importance and impact as determined through literature, local authority regulations and responses of key decision makers and stakeholders. Using Geographic Information Systems (G.I.S,) map overlay techniques; alternative landfill sites are identified and evaluated.
Open Access
Towards the development of a sustainable management strategy for Canis mesomelas and caracal on rangeland
(University of the Free State, 2013-10) Du Plessis, Johannes Jurie; Avenant, N. L.; De Waal, H. O.
English: South Africa has a long history of human-wildlife conflict with black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas and caracal Caracal caracal, especially in the small livestock industry. Recently, wildlife ranchers and cattle farmers have also started to report losses. Despite the excessive losses and widespread efforts to curb these conflicts there is no sustainable human predator conflict management (HPCM) strategy in place. Livestock owners still tackle the challenges individually or in small groups and concentrate mostly on elimination and precautionary techniques. Blanket-control and poisoning practices in many areas results in biodiversity being under constant threat, while stock losses do not decline. Current knowledge on aspects relating to black-backed jackal and caracal in South Africa (including ecology, economics, management techniques, predation rates, sociology) was collated and evaluated. Such information is needed for the development of a sustainable HPCM strategy for damage-causing black-backed jackal and caracal on livestock farms and wildlife ranches, and to inform policy and decision-making related to these species. There is a general lack of scientific information on virtually all the identified aspects, limiting the development of management strategies. Specific information gaps with regards to each aspect were identified and a conceptual model presented for the development of a sustainable HPCM plan for damage-causing black-backed jackal and caracal in South African rangeland. Most of the available ecological research on black-backed jackal and caracal are from spatially and temporally isolated studies, limited in scope, confined to protected areas and not focused on the development of sustainable management strategies. This results in a limited understanding of the ecological role of both black-backed jackal and caracal in South African ecosystems. A prerequisite for sustainable HPCM programs is a sound ecological understanding of the animals that are to be managed, and the ecosystems in which they operate. Without such an understanding it is difficult to predict the contribution of different management v interventions to mitigate damage and the effects on the behaviour and ecology of target animals. The study has also highlighted the overall lack of scientific estimations on the economics of black-backed jackal and caracal predation, and HPCM operations. Isolated pieces of evidence confirm that the current associated costs are high. A range of benefits and costs associated with these two species, which have not yet been quantified, are also emphasized. With reference to the human dimension there is insufficient information to understand the diversity of perceptions which various stakeholders may hold towards black-backed jackal, caracal and associated HPCM actions. Understanding these perceptions and its drivers are most important for the drafting of a sustainable HPCM strategy. Further, scientific information on HPCM methods for black-backed jackal and caracal in South Africa is lacking. Most information on these methods is contained in popular literature and very few refer specifically to the management of damage-causing black-backed jackal or caracal. A number of information gaps have been identified regarding the effectiveness of available HPCM methods to curb black-backed jackal and caracal predation under different South African conditions. Some major shortcomings have been identified in the availability of current predation information. The small number of available sources on livestock and wildlife predation is limiting an understanding of specifically black-backed jackal or caracal predation patterns. Better qualitative information on livestock and wildlife predation is needed to substantiate reported losses, and provide grounds for HPCM decisions. Moreover, it could also be used to better understand the dynamics of the predation which is necessary to develop sustainable HPCM strategies. Future research should be directed, coordinated and conducted systematically to ensure that the understanding of these damage-causing species is complemented and priority knowledge gaps filled in a focused way. Setting short and long-term goals is important, as well as the continuous feedback between participating scientists, livestock farmers, wildlife ranchers, conservation managers, legislation officials, the coordinator(s) and the public.
Open Access
The role of urban and environmental parameters in sustainable development and future growth of small towns : Parys - a case study
(University of the Free State, 2013-11) Dreyer, Lee-Anne; Kemp, M.; Senekal, W.
Small towns in South Africa play a vital role as support and service centres for rural development. Current discussions on sustainable development relate to the dynamicism of small towns. Existing literature on sustainable development accentuates that the majority of sustainability problems and sollutions linked to sustainable development originate at local levels. Local governments of small towns interact very closely with residents, and play an important role in promoting sustainability. Many small towns struggle with environmental management and experience development challenges. The small town of Parys in the Free State was chosen as the focus of this study. Parys is known for its location and characteristics as a tourist destination and important service centre for rural areas and surrounding towns. Parys has several urban environmental management issues which can limit future growth and development. This study will evaluate the growth of Parys, and the town will be evaluated in terms of sustainability. A case study approach was adopted to investigate the current state of sustainability in Parys. The perceptions and concerns of business owners and stakeholders of their immediate urban and natural environment were determined using two semi structured questionnaires. An in-depth literature study was conducted to investigate sustainable development and determine the best suited sustainability indicators to be used in the surveys. Sustainability indicators derived from the Sustainable Cities International, 2012 were used during the sustainability evaluation. Data obtained was statistically analysed using IBM SPSS Software. The results obtained from the surveys and the sustainability evaluation of Parys, were used to identify main problem areas. The results indicated that Parys is currently unsustainable with various urban and environmental issues. Recommendations were then formulated to improve the current situation. An integrated sustainability data base with the necessary parameters for each sustainability indicator is needed and could assist the NLM and other local municipalities in South Africa to determine their state of sustainability. This study will also set the stage for follow up studies and evaluations of other small towns using sustainability indicators.
Open Access
Impacts of exotic invasive plants on the composition and structure of riparian woody vegetation in the lower Orange River- Tsau/Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park, Namibia
(University of the Free State, 2013-11) Shilongo, Kosmas E.; Heita, Jonas
The adverse impacts of exotic invasive plants in protected areas, agricultural areas and riparian zones are a global concern. With particular focus on riparian zones, the invasive alien plant species displaces indigenous riverine vegetation, alters species composition and plant community structure. In totality, alien invasive species affects ecological functioning of natural systems as well as disturbs the ecosystem and habitat integrity. This study therefore investigates the impact of exotic invading plant species on the structure and composition of the resident woody vegetation communities within the riparian zones of the lower Orange River part of Tsau//Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park, Namibia. A comparative methodological study approach was adopted and a 20 m x 50 sampling plots were used for intensity density and biomass assessment between the invaded and uninvaded sites. Differences in canopy cover stem, width and vegetation height between the invaded and un-invaded sites were determined by using a t-test for the equality of means which was performed at the 5% significance level. The results proved that there was a significant difference in the mean height, mean canopy cover and mean stem width of the vegetation (p = 0.00). The most common exotic invader recorded are Datura inoxia, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Nicotiana glauca, Prosopis spp and Ricinus communis. It is concluded that invasive alien plants exerts adverse impacts on the characteristics of riparian vegetation communities of the Lower Orange River in the Tsau//Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park. Thus, there is a need for an active management and control interventions of alien invasive plant species within the riparian zones of the Orange River in the Tsau//Khaeb (Sperrgebiet) National Park.
Open Access
Charcoal production as a managment tool against bush encroachment: vegetation dynamics
(University of the Free State, 2013-11-14) Muroua, Ngaturue Don; Nghikembua, Matti
Bush encroachment has become a worldwide phenomenon and a concern for the world’s arid and semiarid biomes. Savannas are turning into shrublands and thickets as evident in Namibia. This change in vegetation communities has direct consequences on the functioning of ecosystems and on services delivered by these systems. In Namibia, millions of hectares (ha) of arable land have been invaded by native bush species which vary in densities and structures. This affected area represents 32% of Namibia’s terrestrial territory, and about 57% of Namibia’s productive arable land. The agricultural (red meat) sector has been experiencing an economic loss of at least N$ 1 billion annually. Historically, drivers of bush encroachment inter alia include overstocking by grazer, suppression of fires, reduced browsers populations and climate variability. Different methods have been used to try to control the spread of encroaching bushes. Methods used to try and combat bush encroachment includes biological means, the use of chemicals and mechanical means. Most of these methods proved to be inefficient to farming. Charcoal production since the 1990’s, has created an incentive for farmers to remove excess bushes by producing charcoal as a by-product from rangeland rehabilitation. This process is believed to be more selective, environmental friendly and a cost-effective way of combating bush encroachment. This study was therefore conducted to measure vegetation structure, plant density and composition, species diversity and evenness in response to the charcoal production on farm Pierre, situated in Outjo District, Namibia. Systematic sampling methods were used to collect data in 400m2 plots and 1m2 quadrats along transects placed in a representative Treatment area and Control area. The study results showed that bush thinning through charcoal production has led to the improvement of vegetation species diversity, veld ecological condition and facilitated a better grass biomass production. The tree density in the Treatment area was reduced by 51.4% and the grass density was 100% more than in the Control area. The veld ecological condition in the Treatment area, based on grass population dynamics was 168% more than in the Control area. The study also found that there was also a moderately strong negative correlation between tree density and grass density. To ensure that bush thinning for charcoal production remains a sustainable tool for bush encroachment control, key issues such as the reduction in unselective harvesting of large trees and improving on aftercare following bush harvesting need to be addressed by all stakeholders, especially the charcoal producer. This can be done through voluntary means or by developing policies that give incentive’s to aftercare treatment and to selective harvesting of problem trees.
Open Access
Expanding the conservation estate in South Africa : the case of Coleske Farm in the Baviaanskloof
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) McGregor, Eleanor C.; Pelser, A. J.
Finding the balance between biodiversity conservation and development imperatives is a global quandary. Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) that seek to link conservation and development are thus being implemented. Conservation Authorities historically purchased Coleske farm to initiate the development of the Baviaanskloof Nature Reserve (BNR) into the Baviaanskloof Mega-reserve (BMR) ICDP. This ICDP has called for the Coleske community to resettle, via the implementation of a previously developed resettlement action plan (RAP), to a development node that could be developed in the BMR ICDP. The purpose of this document is to report on the findings that emerged from the research that explored the broad challenges and impediments in expanding the conservation estate in South Africa by looking at the situation of Coleske farm in the BNR. Exploratory research was undertaken through in-depth semi-structured face-to-face and telephonic interviews with the Coleske community heads of households and key stakeholder organisations. The most important documents pertaining to the situation of Coleske farm were consulted and the findings of the study were compared against the pertinent fundamentals, basics, ideals, principles or guidelines for ICDP implementation in order to extract lessons learnt from the situation of Coleske. The findings show that the general situation of Coleske has deteriorated since the land was purchased for inclusion in the BNR and the pertinent fundamentals for ICDP implementation were not employed from the onset; as a result, efforts and attempts to correct the associated negative consequences retrospectively are proving to be difficult. The document recommends that a coordinated approach to solve the situation at Coleske be employed, that key stakeholders be lobbied and mobilised to take on their respective roles and responsibilities, and that binding decisions be made and implemented in order to ensure that the status quo of Coleske does not remain for years to come. The study concludes that, in order to realise the intention of the Baviaaskloof Mega-reserve ICDP, the fundamental characteristics of an ICDP, i.e., inclusion, partnerships, legitimacy, cohesion, demarcation, resilience, and so forth, would need to be embraced by all the role players and that finalising the situation of Coleske is a tangible possibility if the existing frameworks and policies that are of relevance to the Baviaanskloof Mega-reserve ICDP are seriously considered and implemented by the Eastern Cape Government of South Africa.
Open Access
Investigating the influence of hydrological phase on Baetidae and Simuliidae species composition in a South African non-perennial river: the Seekoei River
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Ferreira, Ina S.; Watson, Marie
All rivers should be monitored to detect changes and disturbances in order to be managed sustainably. Although non-perennial rivers are widespread and common in the semi-arid and arid areas of South Africa they have not been studied extensively. SASS 5 (South African Scoring System version 5) is the standard rapid bio-assessment method used to determine the present state of macroinvertebrates in South African rivers. The SASS 5 method was, however, developed for use in perennial rivers, and regardless of its inaccuracy in non-perennial rivers is still used in these rivers. This study tested the hypothesis that the SASS 5 biomonitoring method does not consider natural changes caused by the hydrology in non-perennial rivers and that family level identification is not accurate enough to reflect the changes in the state of the river. The Seekoei River, used as a case study, is an ephemeral (non-perennial) river, situated in the Northern Cape and is part of the Upper Orange Water Management Area. The autumn samples collected at two sites (EWR 3 and EWR 4; 2006 – 2010) in the Seekoei River during a WRC project (WRC research project K5/1587) were selected for the current study because of the ideal habitat and hydrology experienced at the sites. Two main hydrological phases were identified during the sampling period, i.e. FLOW phase and POOLS phase. Three years (2006, 2008, 2010) experienced the FLOW phase and two years (2007, 2009) the POOLS phase. Two macroinvertebrate families, Simuliidae and Baetidae, were used to determine the influence of species identification on the interpretation of biomonitoring data in non-perennial rivers. The results showed that species within the same family have certain flow and habitat preferences, which would not be detected using family-level data. This should be kept in mind when these rivers are managed. This study concluded that the information available from species-level analysis is important during the management of non-perennial rivers and therefore species-level data together with family-level data should be considered for use.
Open Access
The use of ecosystem parameters in predicting the risk of aicraft-wildlife collisions at Namibian airports
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Hauptfleisch, Morgan Lindo; Avenant, N. L.; Toerien, D.
English: Human-wildlife conflict is affecting a number of aspects of society as a result of increased competition for resources such as food and space. To address the complexity, management of human wildlife conflict needs to be innovative to achieve a difficult but possible win-win solution for both humans and wildlife. As an important form of human-wildlife conflict, aircraft-wildlife collisions (AWCs), more commonly known as bird strikes, require even greater imagination and innovation to solve. AWCs have the potential to cause loss of life to humans, and annual losses in damages as a result of such collisions runs in excess of US$ 3 billion per year to the aviation industry. Due to lack of accurate reporting of AWCs in Namibia (and Africa as a whole) losses have been impossible to quantify locally. In addition to direct damage, airlines, airports and individuals have been litigated in Europe and the USA for indirect damages resulting from AWCs. A number of studies have identified an increasing trend in AWCs globally as a result of higher flight volumes and increases in risk bird populations. Flight safety in Africa is of concern internationally, and AWCs are an important safety aspect which need to be understood better. Very little empirical research on the extent or causes of AWCs in Africa have been published. At Namibia’s two major airports, Hosea Kutako International and Eros (domestic), 128 AWC incidents were recorded between 2006 and 2010. Although none led to human injury or death, two major incidents lead to costs in excess of N$ 20 million and N$ 1million respectively. Publications on AWC minimisation strategies and techniques on the continent are limited to South Africa and Uganda. This is problematic, as mitigation measures for AWCs in Africa are therefore mostly based on research in foreign ecosystems; while we know that local knowledge of AWC factors, such as bird and mammal population dynamics and climatic seasonality are critical to the success of AWC management. This study is the first scientific investigation into any aspect of AWCs in Namibia. It aims to understand the relationship between ecosystem components and their effect on the risk of aircraft-wildlife collisions occurring at Hosea Kutako and Eros airports. Monitoring of ecosystem components such as insects and small mammals are useful to airport wildlife management as they are relatively quick and inexpensive tools for determining ecosystem health and functioning and can indicate varying environmental contexts and responses. These ecosystem components and others such as vegetation and avian communities were explored. The study found that modelling the abovementioned ecosystem factors to predict the risk of AWCs would be marginally accurate, but still useful in understanding the system, as well as the effects of various management actions on that system. Systems modelling was found to have the potential to map the complexity of influences on AWCs and make them understandable to airport management in order to allow more informed decision making and resourcing regarding the management of AWC risk. The international obligation placed on airport staff to control wildlife hazards in the vicinity of airports is often difficult to fulfil, especially at smaller airports or in countries with inadequate resources and capacity. In addition to this, research into wildlife habitat, species and their habits at airports has predominantly originated in Europe and North America, and hence mitigation measures are most effective in these conditions, and less effective elsewhere. Based on the context of its literature and empirical research, this study proposes a toolkit which was designed to guide airports in Southern Africa to minimise risk of aircraftwildlife collisions. It is based on the understanding of ecosystems in the vicinity of the two airports on which this study was based, but also on the broader understanding of capacity and resources available to many Southern African countries. It also considers the recommended practices of ICAO, global best practice and promotes a multi-stakeholder management approach. Key words: Aircraft-wildlife collision, airport habitat, avifauna, bird strike, ecosystem, human-wildlife conflict, multi-stakeholder management, systems modelling, toolkit, wildlife hazard management.
Open Access
Agricultural hazardous waste : understanding the hazardous waste cycle in the maize production chain and testing a methodology to collect waste information for the development of a waste register
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Nell, Arjen Wallace; Esterhuyse, Surina; Reynolds, Dave
The management of agricultural chemicals and waste is imperative in order to ensure proper resource protection and good environmental management. Various studies done in South Africa have illustrated the impact of agricultural waste and chemical mismanagement on the environment and on water resources in particular. Nationally, South Africa aims to manage waste streams by means of a hazardous waste register and locally the provincial departments of Environmental Affairs and Tourism in South Africa should develop such waste registers. This masters project is based on a proposal to develop a hazardous waste source inventory for the Free State province through the Department of Economic Development, Tourism and Environmental Affairs (DETEA) of the Free State Province. The development of a hazardous waste source inventory is important to effectively manage various kinds of hazardous waste sources. Hazardous waste spans various industries (medical waste, industrial waste, agricultural waste) and it can be a huge task to develop a waste register for each province in South Africa. With reference to agricultural waste, the impact of agricultural hazardous waste on water resources is becoming an increasing concern and challenges in the agricultural waste management industry in South Africa are on the rise. The aim of this study was to understand the waste cycle and test a methodology for collecting waste information for the development of a waste database, with a specific focus on agricultural waste in the maize sector. Additional aims included determining whether the agricultural maize sector uses and disposes of its agro-chemicals and other production cycle wastes effectively and to propose alternative management options for more effective management of these chemicals. In order to delimit the study, this study focused specifically on agricultural waste associated with the maize production cycle. The methodology followed in this study was also used in similar studies in other countries (Sweden, France, UK, USA) and involved the development of questionnaires and semi-structured interviews for farmers and chemical distribution agents. Qualitative data obtained from the questionnaires was analysed thematically and quantitative data was analysed using Excel and IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 10. The objective of the study was achieved by developing questionnaires that address questions related to chemical usage and waste in the maize sector. These questionnaires were administered to farmers and chemical distributors in the selected sampling areas. Questionnaire development took place through interviews with parties such as FS Agriculture, Grain SA and pre-testing was done on maize farmers and other relevant people. Results from the questionnaires were used together with data from chemical distributors, databases and literature to develop a baseline indication of chemical usage and waste in the agricultural maize sector. The study showed that determining average volumes of agro-chemicals used in different phases of the maize production sector can be quite complex. This complexity is due to various factors – pesticides may have different names but the same active ingredients, a single pesticide can be used for different pests (by using different concentrations and application methods), in some cases there is uncertainty amongst farmers on how to effectively apply these pesticides, whether the agro-chemical is in a granular or liquid form, and factors like soil type, climate conditions and varying types and amounts of pests and weeds which influences agro-chemical usage in different areas. All these factors make it very difficult to calculate average pesticide volumes used per production cycle just for the maize industry. If one takes into account that agriculture spans a much wider production industry than just maize (e.g. vegetables, cotton etc) the complexity increases even more. This study illustrates the fact that another more effective approach may be required to gather accurate data to populate waste databases for each province. Alternative approaches can include web surveys or voluntary registration by farmers and reporting of chemical type and volumes used either by post or on a web based system. This research addressed key questions related to hazardous waste management in the agricultural maize sector in South Africa and tested a methodology for gathering information to populate hazardous waste registers. The development of hazardous waste registers is a very important waste management tool which the DETEA aims to employ to ensure proper resource protection and waste management, and this study may make valuable contributions towards the development of such waste registers.
Open Access
Perceptions on illegal dumping in the Ethekwini municipality
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Abel, Debra Jean; Lombard, Ray
Illegal dumping is not an Ethekwini problem; it is not even a South African problem. Illegal dumping is a worldwide environmental problem and it has been studied in many countries from many angles. Local beliefs that ‘litter creates jobs’ and ‘it’s my property I’ll do as I please’ compound the problem of dirty streets and piles of rubble and rubbish dumped in back yards. These actions have negative consequences reaching much further than just the location of the dumping itself. Research typically follows either of two main foci: either constructing a database of the known dumping sites within a particular region with a view to developing a cleanup programme and/or monitoring the areas for new dumping, or an assessment of perceptions and motivations for dumping with a view to changing the attitudes and beliefs of the dumping community and ultimately changing the illegal dumping behaviour. Reviewing these latter studies has shown that, almost as many studies as there are, there may be varied correlations between dumping behaviour, age, gender, education, economic bracket, nationality, and any other factor that one may consider studying. In short, the combinations of attitudes and beliefs appear to be, to a degree, community specific and hence the methods by which one would try change those beliefs and ultimately behaviour, would also have to be tailored to that community setting. This study follows the second general focus of aiming to identify the attitudes and beliefs of that sector of Ethekwini residents who have been identified as likely illegal dumpers by virtue of the mounds of building rubble and other waste piled on their properties. In Ethekwini, there are property owners who dump building rubble off their steep banks in order to extend the level portion of the site, either with the intention of building on it later or just for the extra usable space. This end-tipped rubble slides down the slope, damaging sewer and storm water services causing contamination of streams and the designated conservation zones in valley bottoms. The study aimed to determine the reasons for dumping and the attitudes towards illegal dumping, and find out from the affected communities what they considered to be the most effective methods of getting the correct information regarding solid waste disposal out to the general public. To achieve these ends, both those considered to be dumpers and the immediate or nearby affected neighbours were given a semi-structured questionnaire and municipal officials (environmental health officers, building inspectors, municipal law enforcement, solid waste enforcement officers) were interviewed to see how the different departments deal with illegal dumping. The findings, in many respects, affirmed findings of other studies reviewed from Australia, America, Japan, Britain and Canada, that is: people think that it is the government’s responsibility to clean up after them; that what they are doing will have no negative knock-on effect on the environment (either physical or social); and that disposing of bulky waste correctly is expensive, unpleasant and inconvenient. A further community attitude that came out of the interviews that may be specific to the South African situation is the apparent belief that one’s vote is one’s currency; once you have voted for a particular political party, that party is obliged to provide everything you need or want, including to pick up rubbish that has been deliberately dropped. It became evident that the community consider the Ethekwini municipal waste disposal facilities poorly advertised and information about landfills, transfer or garden disposal facilities difficult to access. Even the municipal website, which in the researcher’s opinion is one of the better in South Africa for general information, particularly on environmental matters, is incomplete, out of date and a bit thin on specific details of waste disposal sites when compared to, say, Cape Town municipal website, which lists pages and pages of recycling sites (with company name, address, contact details and materials collected) and had addresses, site photographs and directions to all the municipal disposal facilities at the click of a button. From the results of the questionnaire, it appears that concise, colourful, area relevant information in local (free) community newspapers is the preferred method of spreading information. Almost as popular is a colourful pamphlet with the municipal bill although this will only access that limited portion of the population that actually pays for services. Media such as radio or television will have to be focused at certain times of the day. Newspapers that had to be paid for were the least favoured method of disseminating information. Ideally, education should start at school and be repeated regularly for the new attitudes and behaviours to become engrained in the next generation. The local by-laws governing illegal dumping are out-dated and fragmented; further they are seldom enforced (and to a different degree by the various municipal departments). These by-laws must be updated and fines must reflect the actual costs to enforce and clean up the mess; more importantly, the sanctions must be uniformly enforced and the public must be aware that dumping illegally carries a real risk of fines and/or prison time or at the very least community service and embarrassment in their community. Ideally, the investigating and enforcement of illegal dumping offences should be centralised so that an accurate database of hotspot problem localities and repeat offenders can be developed and monitored. In short, solid waste disposal and environment specific education plus enforcement of strong by-laws must form part of a two pronged assault against illegal dumping and litter in order to change the prevailing selfish attitudes and behaviours.