Economic and Management Sciences

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Open Access
Real-time strategy implementation in the electricity industry
(University of the Free State, 02-May) Van Buuren, Rudolph Barend; Grous, M. J.; Nortje, J. D.
Afrikaans: Hierdie studie fokus op die elektrisiteitsindustrie, met spesifieke verwysing na die wyse waarop organisasies in die industrie hul strategiese beplanning implementeer. Die elektrisiteitsindustrie is spesifiek geselekteer aangesien dit in 'n toenemende komplekse en snelveranderende omgewing opereer. Herstrukturering en deregulering is verskynsels wat tans regoor die wêreld in die elektrisiteitsindustrie plaasvind. Van 'n eens beskermde monopolistiese organisasie tot een waar mededinging tussen konkurrente toegelaat word. Tradisioneel het elektrisiteitsorganisasies gebruik gemaak van beplanningsiklusse wat wissel vanaf een jaar en langer. Hierdie studie fokus spesifiek daarop om die beginsel van intydse strategiese implementering as 'n alternatief vir beplanningsiklusse in die elektrisiteitsindustrie te ondersoek, aangesien die industrie tans in 'n komplekse en snelveranderde omgewing opereer, wat nie gunstig vir die gebruik van beplanningsiklusse is nie. Die empiriese navorsing vir hierdie studie is onder vier van die grootste elektrisiteitsmaatskappye in die Verenigde State van Amerika gedoen. Die Verenigde State van Amerika is spesifiek gekies omdat die elektrisiteitsindustrie in hierdie land van die eerstes was om 'n mededingende mark vir elektrisiteit bekend te stel. Aan die hand van hierdie studie is 'n aantal gapings tussen strategiese beplanning en strategiese implementering blootgelê. Hierdie gapings het toenemend bygedra tot die algemene opvatting dat strategiese beplanning nie as effektief in die industrie gereken word nie en dat dit bloot 'n vermorsing van tyd is. Hierdie gapings kan soos volg saamgevat word: (a) Probleme word ondervind om te reageer op geïsoleerde en onvoorspelbare gebeure in die industrie en wat die potensiaal het om die huidige mededingende posisie van die elektrisiteitsindustrie te vernietig. (b) Die herstrukturering van die industrie en die gevolglike ontbondeling van die eens vertikaal geïntegreerde aard van die elektrisiteitsindustrie het gelei tot die onstaan van konflik wat betref strategiese doelstellings tussen die korporatiewe vlak in die organisasie en die besigheidseenhede van die organisasie. (c) Dit het verder tot gevolg gehad dat die strategiese beplanningsprosesse wat in hierdie organisasies gebruik word, lomp en tydsintensief geraak het, met die gevolg dat senior bestuur nie effektief aan die proses wou deelneem nie. (d) Ten spyte van die beskikbaarheid van 'n verskeidenheid van strategiese beplanningsinstrumente, soos industrie- en mededingerontledings, is gevind dat die meeste van die strategiese beplanningsprosesse in die elektrisiteitsindustrie intern gesentreer is. (e) 'n Algemene probleem om die ontwikkelde strategie te koppel aan effektiewe metingsnorme en verwante metingstelsels , is ondervind. Gevolglik word die belangrikste aanbevelings, gebaseer op die resultate van hierdie studie, gegee: (d) Ten spyte van die beskikbaarheid van 'n verskeidenheid van strategiese beplanningsinstrumente, soos industrie- en mededingerontledings, is gevind dat die meeste van die strategiese beplanningsprosesse in die elektrisiteitsindustrie intern gesentreer is. (e) 'n Algemene probleem om die ontwikkelde strategie te koppel aan effektiewe metingsnorme en verwante metingstelsels , is ondervind. (a) Top bestuur behoort 'n goeie basis te lê vir die implementering van 'n strategie. Dit moet gedoen word deur 'n openlike verbintenis en vrywillige betrokkendheid by die strategiese beplanning en implementering, ten einde die strategiese vaardighede van die organisasie uit te bou en strategiese outonomie regdeur die organisasie te bewerkstellig. (b) Intydse (real-time) strategiese beplanningsprosesse behoort geïnisieer te word, insluitende intensiewe en volgehoue situasie-analise en implementeringsinitiatiewe om strategiese kwessies teen markspoed op te los. (c) Effektiewe strategiese ondersteuningstelsels en -prosesse behoort geïmplementeer te word. Dit sluit inligtingsondersteuning in en verseker effektiewe integrasie van die strategie regdeur die organisasie. (d) Effektiewe strategiese gerigtheid regdeur die organisasie is noodsaaklik. Dit sluit die koppeling van effektiewe prestasiebestuursprosesse aan die strategie van die organisasie in, asook om die betrokkenheid van soveel werknemers as moontlik, op verkeie vlakke met betrekking tot strategiese beplanning en implementering te bewerkstellig. Verdere, meer spesifieke aanbevelings vir die implementering van intydse strategiese beplanningsisteme sluit die volgende riglyne is: (a) Topbestuur behoort betrokke te raak by die strategiese beplanning en implementeringsprosesse van die organisasie, as voorvereiste vir strategiese sukses. (b) Alle vlakke binne die organisasie behoort aangemoedig te word om op 'n outonome manier betrokke te raak by strategiese beplanning en implementering. Intydse strategiese beplanningsprosesse behoort as effektiewe inligtingstelsels ontwikkel te word. (d) Strategiese doelwitte en strategieë behoort op 'n deurlopende basis hersien te word. (e) Die gebruik van strategiese beplanningsiklusse behoort gestaak te word in die lig van 'n intydse strategiese implementeringsproses. (f) Werkprestasie ooreenkomste behoort by wyse van konsensus tussen werknemers en bestuurders onderhandel te word, asook horisontaal tussen verskillende departemente. (g) Die gebruik van omslagtige strategiese beplanningsdokumente behoort gestaak te word. (h) Strategiese beheer behoort aan die hand van 'n gebalanseerde meetkaart (balanced scorecard) gedoen te word.
Open Access
A management model for a pharmaceutical contract research organization
(University of the Free State, 04-May) Jacobs, Yvonne Leonie; Lazenby, A. A.
English: Competitive success for a Contract Research Organization (CRO) entails unlimited process improvement to sustain excellence. Chapter One describes the generic business environment CROs operated in which customers dictate the pace of competition through asking for higher standards of quality, speedy delivery, reliability, and lower prices, as markets are becoming increasingly saturated. Opportunities for market growth and maintaining market share, are testing experiences for all CROs. This imposes the tenets of theories and models on CROs so as to understand the critical factors that have a statistically significant effect on their bottom-line figures. CROs need to take note of causal factors drivin g time and costs, even at the height of their success. Therefore, Chapters Two and Three present informative writings on the tenets of best-practices and activity-based management, because best-in-class principles must be reviewed to contemplate which risks to take; which new ideas to implement; which critical factors will drive success, and which will challenge the myths distinctive to the contract research environment. Informative writings, documented as background information, were used to evaluate the results presented in Chapter Five. During the construction of a model for a CRO in the final Chapter, an attempt is made to explain phenomena experienced in everyday life and to discern aspects necessary to sustain competitive success in contract research. For the purpose of this research a model is defined as a set of statements that make explanatory or causal claims about reality, statements that aim to represent everyday phenomena as accurately as possible, and simplify our understanding of the CRO business environment. This research is aimed at developing a management model to explain the particular phenomena applicable to a pharmaceutical CRO and can be classified as an empirical study, analyzing existing primary and numerical data, gathered from a case study. Although management models are well described in literature, this research adds value to an aspect still to be researched, i.e. a management model comprising the most applicable best-practices for a pharmaceutical CRO. Because throughput time is of utmost importance in clinical drug research programs and because time consequently generates costs, an activity-based methodology is considered the best-in-class information tool to gather the necessary data for the calculation of time and cost factors for a CRO. The results presented in Chapter Five, analyzed with a statistical linear regression model using univariate and multivariate analyses to discern which variables have a statistically relevant effect on time and cost factors, were used to formulate the management model in Chapter Six. The productivity model presented shows that if the productivity of the operational divisions imitates the output of the most productive division, the profit can almost be doubled, or conversely, the same profit can be maintained but, with a reduction in the number of full time employees. This holds win-win benefits for the company and the customer, especially if cost can be used as leverage in a competitive market. Pricing is a complex instrument because of the two-sided conflict and competitive nature of the buyer -seller relationship where the one’s gains are the other’s loss. The researcher evaluated time, costs and pricing to make pricing a win-win element through which improved throughput efficacy can provide greater customer value and higher profits to the shareholder. Secrecy agreements are signed between CROs and sponsoring companies and therefore project information is the intellectual property of the sponsoring company. This limiting factor inevitably made a case study approach for this research project a necessity. Research information should preferably have been included from different CROs worldwide, and a case study approach may be regarded as not meeting minimal design requirements for comparison. However, a single, well-designed case study can provide a major challenge to informative writings and theory. It can provide new insight into traditional concepts and figments of the imagination, and identify statistically significant cost drivers to sustain the knowledge base to make recommendations on the optimization of resource utilization. As CROs enter foreign markets, global harmonization of clinical trial standards serve to provide uniformity in processes in trial execution. Guidelines reach beyond the sponsoring country to regulate quality and ensure uniformity of trials globally. Thus, the results obtained from FARMOVS-PAREXEL case studies can be extrapolated to other CROs and the model formulated, as a result of global uniformity enforced by regulations universally applicable to CROs. The project was important because in the quest for developing new drugs, CROs compete inter alia as providers of choice on timelines and price. The interpretation of the results emphasized that factors traditionally perceived as cost drivers, may not have statistically significant effect on time or cost factors. The synergy between techniques applied from the theoretical fields of accounting and project management, i.e. to quantify and optimize resource ut ilization, provided the information to formulate a unique management model for a CRO. The lack of outcome based research results, from a management perspective, on resource consumption during the execution of bioavailability studies, emphasizes the importance of this research project. The research results indisputably prove that concepts and traditions need to be tested with a statistical linear regression and productivity model as the core logic of a management model for a CRO. The results conclusively indicate that a management model with a customer focus for a pharmaceutical CRO is a necessity to align financial performance measures, which are pivotal in the alliance with the customer and shareholder.
Open Access
Mean variance optimisation, stochastic simulation modelling and passive formula strategies for equity investments
(University of the Free State, 04-Nov) Pawley, Mark Gary; Van Zyl, Helena; Greeff, Petri
The research is a quantitative study that formulates an approach to future portfolio asset allocations within the South African domestic equity market, and the diversification of assets across global markets, specifically the U.S.A. The research takes the view that investors are rational, have a long term investment horizon and seek investment wealth maximisation by applying a sustainable investment strategy towards the ongoing management of the portfolio. Investors experience a significant negative divergence in investment outcomes relative to the potentially achievable result. This negative divergence is a result of the lack of a strategic approach to, and an understanding of asset allocations, and the lack of a sustainable approach to the management of a portfolio. Repetitive sub-optimal investment performance, below the levels of inflation, is an investment disincentive with negative micro and macro implications. The purpose of the study is therefore to address the issue sub-optimal investment performance through the effective application of a strategy that includes the integration of the mean-variance model through the use of a mean-variance optimiser, using resampled data inputs, the mean reversion of markets, passive investment management, appropriate asset class selection and the ongoing management of a portfolio, using both calendar and contingent rebalancing techniques, and passive formula strategies. The challenge is accordingly to develop a reliable asset allocation model that accommodates past performance, and which is stable enough to produce optimised forward-looking investment portfolios, which are able to address the issue of optimal asset allocation and selection, within a global context, and which produce optimised investment outcomes, taking cognisance of the fact that the future is unknowable and dynamic. The research methodology makes a positivist assumption that something exists and can be numerically tested. In this regard various portfolios are constructed, using passive investment instruments, in accordance with mean-variance model principles, using resampled data inputs to minimise the instability of the mean-variance optimiser. This resampling process is fundamental to the research, and incorporates the use of a stochastic simulator. A unique aspect of the research was solving the issue of multiple market integration particularly when the domestic markets are comprised of multiple asset classes. Finally, the resultant resampled efficient portfolios are compared to control portfolios in order to ascertain whether the resampling process indeed offers a return premium. Due to the dynamic nature of equity markets contingent and calendar rebalancing strategies are applied to the asset allocation in order to maintain an optimal portfolio. This dynamism may necessitate the adjustment of asset allocations. The test for asset allocation optimality takes the form of measuring portfolio outcome correlations to the actual market outcome. Where the portfolio is sub-optimal the asset allocations are redetermined, otherwise the portfolio is merely rebalanced to the original asset allocations. Regarding the management of the portfolio a value averaged passive formula strategy is applied. This process acknowledges that markets may behave stochastically over the short term, therefore a predetermined value line is derived that the portfolio is to achieve. This value line is based on a long term equity premium plus inflation. Should the portfolio breach the value line on the upside a portion of the investment is liquidated, conversely when the portfolio fails to reach the value line the portfolio is elevated to the value line by means of increasing the investment. The results of the research manifest unambiguous results in favour of resampled portfolios. In this regard, therefore, data resampling does seem to produce stable portfolio results that are effective at capturing a higher proportion of future returns than a simple market portfolio. Furthermore, the rebalancing process, although not absolutely perfect, does provide a level of adjustment to the asset allocation to ensure optimality. Finally, management of the portfolio through value averaging unambiguously provides an internal rate of return in excess of a portfolio that is allowed to stochastically rise and fall. In summary, the integration of the identified processes clearly provides a performance premium in excess of alternative approaches, and within a framework that is sustainable from period to period.
Open Access
Socio-economic implications for teachers retrenched in Qwaqwa 1996-1999
(University of the Free State, 05-Mar) Phakisi, Lehlomela Stanley; Ruhiiga, T. M.; Crause, E.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the socio - economic effects of teacher retrenchments in Qwaqwa - Free State. Te administration of the survey method generated information that was analysed using both qualitative and quantitative techniques. The findings indicate that retrenchments severely affected the income and social status of teachers in the study area.
Open Access
Strategic marketing planning for radio stations in Lesotho
(University of the Free State, 07-Nov) Maliehe, Makhakhe; Van der Merwe, W. J. C.
This research study advocates that radio stations in Lesotho should make full use of the benefits offered by marketing both as a philosophy and a business function. The research study also recommends that the radio stations in Lesotho use the strategic marketing planning steps and approach that have been prescribed throughout this project, that is, the development of a mission statement, corporate objectives, situation analysis, competitor analysis, and marketing objectives.
Open Access
The impact of foreign direct investment on the livelihoods of workers in the manufacturing sector of Lesotho
(University of the Free State, 08-Nov) Kamara, Ishmail Bassie; Marais, J. G. L.
Abstract not available
Open Access
The impact of the South African business enviroment on the availability of debt finance to new small and medium enterprises
(University of the Free State, 10-Jul) Fatoki, Olawale Olufunso; Van Aardt Smit, A.
South Africa suffers from high unemployment with an official estimate of approximately 24.5% of the economically active population unemployed (Statistics South Africa, 2009). In addition, the country experiences high levels of poverty and income inequality. SMEs are expected to be an important vehicle to address the challenges of job creation, sustainable economic growth, equitable distribution of income and the overall stimulation of economic development. According to Maas & Herrington (2006) the contribution of the SME sector cannot be sustained without the creation of new SMEs. New SMEs are seen as a significant component of the solution to South Africa's development issues. Maas & Herrington (2006) also point out that the creation rate of new SMEs in South Africa, as measured by the Total Early-Stage Entrepreneurial activity is one of the lowest in the world. In addition, the failure rate of new SMEs is one of the highest in the world. Non-availability of finance is one of the primary causes of failure for new SMEs in South Africa. The two major external sources of finance for new SMEs are equity and debt. External equity is generally unavailable for new SMEs in both developed and developing countries. New SMEs in developed countries, unlike developing countries such as South Africa, are able to access debt finance from commercial banks and trade creditors. The primary objective of this study was to determine how to improve the availability of debt from commercial banks and trade creditors to new SMEs. The argument of this study was that there are factors in the business environment that cause debt not to be available to new SMEs. Understanding the causes of non-availability of debt is important to determining how to improve the availability of debt to new SMEs. For this purpose an initial 52-item questionnaire was developed after a thorough review of the literature on the business environment and debt finance and administered to 100 respondents from commercial banks and 100 respondents that were trade creditors in a pilot study. Exploratory factor analysis resulted in the reduction of 52-item questionnaire to a 43-item questionnaire and nine underlying factors for commercial banks and 39-item questionnaire and nine underlying factors for trade creditors. The nine factors included four internal factors and five external factors. The internal factors were labelled as managerial competencies, collateral, networking and business information. The external factors were labelled the macro-economy, the legal environment, ethics, crime and corruption. Another objective of the study was to investigate empirically if commercial banks and trade creditors perceive new SMEs as beneficial to their business. Empirical research was conducted to investigate the impact of the nine factors on non availability of debt to new SMEs. The instrument used was the self-administered questionnaire. The statistical analyses included descriptive statistics, frequencies, factor analysis, T-test, ANOVA and Pearson correlation. The Cronbach's alpha was used as a measure of reliability. The research findings were: • There is a significant positive relationship between lack of managerial competency and non-availability of debt from commercial banks and trade creditors to new SMEs. • There is a significant positive relationship between lack of business information and non-availability of debt from commercial banks and trade creditors. • There is a significant positive relationship between lack of collateral and non-availability of debt from commercial banks and an insignificant relationship for trade creditors. • There is a significant positive relationship between lack of networking and non-availability of debt from commercial banks and trade creditors. • There is a significant positive relationship between bad macro-economic environment non-availability of debt from commercial banks and trade creditors. • There is a significant positive relationship between the inefficiency of the legal environment and non-availability of debt from trade creditors and an insignificant relationship for commercial banks. • There is a significant positive relationship between ethical perception of new SMEs and non-availability of debt from trade creditors and an insignificant relationship for commercial banks. • There is a significant positive relationship between crime and non-availability of debt from commercial banks and trade creditors. • There is no significant relationship between corruption and non-availability of debt from commercial banks and trade creditors. • Commercial banks and trade creditors perceive new SMEs as beneficial to their business. The findings suggested that there is a significant relationship between the business environment and the availability of debt. Eight out of the nine variables in the business environment have significant relationships with the availability of either bank credit or trade credit. The findings also indicated that are some similarities and differences with respect to why debt is not available to new SMEs from commercial banks and trade creditors. In addition, the findings suggested that internal factors are more important than external factors with respect to why debt is not available from both commercial banks and trade creditors. The study suggested some recommendations to improve the availability of debt finance to new SMEs. The recommendations included the need to improve the investment readiness of new SMEs. To access debt, new SMEs must have collateral and adequate owners' equity. Training and communication can also help new SME owners to get investment ready. In addition, owners of new SMEs should network by attending seminars and trade fairs. The legal system has to be made more efficient in practice to reduce unethical behaviour, crime and corruption.
Open Access
Customer's perceptions of business units within an agricultural business in South Africa
(University of the Free State, 11-Nov) Alsemgeest, Liezel; Smit, A. v. A.
Afrikaans: Die voordele van die bestuur van kliënteverhoudings bring kritieke faktore soos kliëntetevredenheid en loyaliteit na vore. Klantetevredenheid is ŉ goednagevorste bestuursaspek waarna al as “God, King and beyond” verwys is. Maatskappye se oorlewing word deur klantetevredenheid en/of positiewe klantepersepsie bepaal omdat die bestaan en groei van maatskappye van klante se herhaalde en toenemende aankope op grond van positiewe gevoelens jeens die maatskappy afhang. Verder kan klantetevredenheid die goeie reputasie van ŉ maatskappy uitbou en tot positiewe persoonlike reklame lei wat weer nuwe klante kan lok. Alhoewel die landbousakesektor ŉ belangrike middel tot landbouontwikkeling in Suid- Afrika is, is navorsing oor klantetevredenheid by landbouverwanteklante skaars. Landbouondernemings (voorheen bekend as koöperasies) is daarop geskoei dat hulle deur samewerking tussen verskeie boere beter dienste en produkte teen verlaagde pryse kan bekom wat waarde tot die boer op sy plaas kan toevoeg (boergesentreerd). Koöperasies was ŉ lewensvatbare ondernemingsvorm tot en met 1996 toe die Bemarkingsbeheerraad en gesubsidieerde rentekoerse afgeskaf is. Die meeste landboukoöperasies is in beleggersgeoriënteerde firmas (BOF’s) omskep met die hoofoogmerke winsgewendheid en die handhawing van waardeerbare aandeelpryse (maatskappygesentreerd). Landbouondernemings is kompleks omdat die klante van ŉ landbouonderneming ook in die meeste gevalle die aandeelhouers van die maatskappy is. Landboumaatskappye dien ook ‘n nismark (boere) en die verhouding tussen die onderneming en die klante verskil van diè van ander industrieë. Tradisionele klantetevredenheidsnavorsing fokus op die gebruik van die SERVQUALmetode, wat in der waarheid slegs dienskwaliteit toets. Hierdie studie stel dit ten doel om die meetinstrument te vereenvoudig en ook ander klantetevredenheidsaandrywers by te voeg, naamlik tevredenheid rakende prys, produk, personeel, diens en bestuur. ŉ Landbouonderneming bestaan uit verskeie sake-eenhede wat as kleiner ondernemings bestuur word en almal deel van die groter landbou “sambreel”-maatskappy uitmaak. Die hoofoogmerke van hierdie studie is dus om die verhouding tussen die klantetevredenheidsaandrywers (prys, produk, diens, personeel en bestuur) van die onderskeie sake-eenhede te bepaal en dit met die winsgewendheid van hierdie eenhede in verband te bring; en om die impak van hierdie veranderlikes op klantetevredenheid ten opsigte van die maatskappy te bepaal. Die sekondêre empiriese doelwitte van die studie behels om te bepaal watter van die klantetevredenheidsaandrywers die grootste impak op klantetevredenheid ten opsigte van die algehele maatskappy het; watter van die sake-eenhede die grootste impak op algehele tevredenheid het; of die gebruiksfrekwensie van die onderskeie sake-eenhede die algehele tevredenheid met die landbouonderneming beïnvloed; en, laastens, of klante se persepsie rakende die prestasie van die sake-eenhede ŉ invloed op winsgewendheid het. Die studie was kwantitatief van aard en het gebruik gemaak van vraelyste wat per gewone pos na die algehele populasie (bestaande uit die lede van ŉ groot landbouonderneming in Sentraal Suid-Afrika wat meer as R100 000 bydra tot die omset van die landbouonderneming) gestuur is. Altesaam 963 vraelyste is uitgestuur en 345 bruikbare vraelyste is teruggestuur. Die responskoers was dus 35,8%. Die vernaamste resultate toon ŉ statisties beduidende verband tussen tevredenheid ten opsigte van kleinhandelswinkels, versekering en meganisasie (werkswinkels) en algehele klantetevredenheid – wat daarop dui dat om algehele klantetevredenheid te verhoog, tevredenheid ten opsigte van hierdie drie sake-eenhede eerste aandag moet geniet. Produk, diens en tevredenheid met bestuur het as klantetevredenheidsaandrywers al drie ŉ statisties beduidende invloed op algehele klantetevredenheid. Verder, toe die onderskeie aandrywers inherent aan die onderskeie sake-eenhede teen algehele klantetevredenheid getoets is, het die resultate getoon dat daar twee beduidende aandrywers inherent aan ŉ sake-eenheid is, naamlik kleinhandelswinkelproduk en graanbemarkingsprys. Hierbenewens toon statisties beduidende resultate dat die gebruiksfrekwensie van ŉ sake-eenheid die mate van klantetevredenheid weerspieël (behalwe in die geval van kleinhandelswinkels). Elke sake-eenheid se gemiddelde bydrae tot netto wins is oor ŉ tydperk van vyf jaar bereken en met sy gemiddelde prestasie vergelyk. Die grafiek toon ŉ definitiewe korrelasie tussen wins en klantetevredenheid. Kleinhandelswinkels as ŉ sake-eenheid het interessante resultate opgelewer wat aandui dat kleinhandelswinkelpryse, kleinhandelsproduk, kleinhandelswinkelpersoneel en kleinhandelswinkeldiens die grootste impak op al die algehele klantetevredenheidsaandrywers het. Hiervolgens beskou klante kleinhandelswinkels as die “venster” van die landbouonderneming. Respondente is ook gevra om aan te dui wat hulle as die hoofdoelwitte van die landbouonderneming beskou teenoor wat hulle voel die doelwitte behoort te wees. Van groot belang was die beduidende resultate waarvolgens bepaal is dat respondente die doelwitte as synde maatskappygesentreerd waargeneem het, maar gevoel het dat die doelwitte boer-gesentreerd behoort te wees. Daar word spesifiek aanbeveel dat kleinhandelswinkels verbeter word en dat die beskikbaarheid en kwaliteit van kleinhandelswinkels verhoog word om klantetevredenheid te maksimeer.
Open Access
Challenges faced by urban Zimbabwean women entrepreneurs
(University of the Free State, 11-Nov) Nani, Gwendoline Vusumuzi; Van Aardt Smit, A; Cilliers, J. O.
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the challenges that urban Zimbabwean women entrepreneurs face. The study was motivated by the theoretical findings that women have always been discriminated against politically, economically, socio‐culturally, legally, educationally and at work. Scholars of gender studies assert that despite the fact that over the last decades women had attained educational levels comparable to those of men, women still remained in relatively low paying jobs (Wirth, 2001:49; Carter & Silva, 2010:19, 20‐1). Due to frustrations and challenges faced in the workplace, some women in both developed and developing countries had left formal employment to start their own businesses. According to Coulter (2000:114), even in business where women had opted to be, they continued to face challenges. A review of literature further indicated that the historical background of women in developed countries differed from that of women in developing countries because of differences in environmental factors (Adler & Israeli quoted by Woldie & Ardesua, 2004:79). However, the challenges that women faced were similar except that in developed countries more gains had been registered in improving women’s lives compared to developing countries. Theoretical findings about Zimbabwe showed that historically, women were excluded from actively participating in politics and in decision making. Economically, women were denied ownership of resources such as land and were thus dependent on men who were regarded as bread winners. Socio‐culturally, activities were arranged according to gender; thus, there were activities strictly done by men and others reserved for women. Legally, women were regarded as minors and for that reason women could not enter into any contractual obligations in their own right. In regards to education, girls were encouraged to take up subjects that were not strategically linked to the mainstream economy, while boys were channeled towards subjects that would enable them to occupy meaningful and strategic positions in the workplace. However, it was worth noting that the Government of Zimbabwe, just like governments in other countries had instituted legal amendments to redress discrimination on the basis of sex and positive developments had been achieved. These developments had enabled women to start their own businesses. According to Ministry of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs), Zimbabwe, 2010), in Zimbabwe, there are 20 665 registered urban women entrepreneurs. In the light of the statement by Coulter (2000:114) that in business women continued to face challenges, it was fundamental that the challenges faced by urban Zimbabwean women entrepreneurs be identified, hence the need for this study. Identification of these challenges would enable the government of Zimbabwe and other stakeholders to devise specific policies and strategies to minimise the impact of these challenges on women owned businesses. This would enable women entrepreneurs to operate viable and sustainable businesses. An empirical study was therefore conducted to investigate what the challenges women entrepreneurs faced were. This study was a combination of quantitative research design and descriptive research in which the simple random sampling technique was used to draw the sample. The sample comprised 580 registered women entrepreneurs drawn from the Small and Medium Enterprises sector in the four major cities of Zimbabwe, namely, Harare, Bulawayo, Gweru and Masvingo. The survey method was adopted as the data gathering method where a self constructed and self administered questionnaire was used as the data gathering instrument. A pilot study was conducted before the questionnaires were distributed for the main study. Reliability testing of the questionnaire showed a Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.802 for all Likert questions based on the background of women of Zimbabwe and business challenges. These results indicated that the questionnaire was reliable as a data collecting instrument. Data collected was transformed for statistical analysis through the use of Excel software. After data processing, the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for data analysis. Statistical techniques used in this study included frequencies, percentages, cross tabulations and Pearson chi‐square tests, descriptive statistics and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Relating to respondents’ demographic profile, empirical results showed that 50.4 percent of the respondents in this study are married compared to 24.5 percent single and 25.1 percent separated, divorced or widowed. Results further indicated that 83.8 percent of the respondents have children and 73.2 percent have dependent children. The average number of children is 2.26 and the average number of dependent children is 1.50. The average age of respondents in this study was 38.0 years. Results further indicated that respondents in this study are highly qualified, with 51.5 percent having tertiary education. The dominant religion in this study was Christianity. Most of the respondents owned businesses in the services sector compared to ‘other’ businesses (67.2 percent and 32.8 percent respectively). Results indicated that 54.7 percent of the respondents had been in business for 5 years and below. Results also showed that 37.2 percent of the respondents had relevant start‐up experience. In terms of start‐up capital, women entrepreneurs in this study used internal more than external sources of finance (79.2 percent and 20.8 percent respectively). Findings also indicated that women entrepreneurs were predominantly sole proprietors compared to those in partnership. The following empirical findings were indicated regarding women’s background. Firstly, women can now actively participate in politics and decision making processes in spite of the fact that women have more confidence in male than female political leaders. Secondly, economically, women can own property in their own right and the majority of women are no longer financially dependent on men. Thirdly, socio‐culturally, women are more confident than they were historically and can now challenge men on religious issues. Fourthly, women can now engage in activities that were previously done by men only, such as being formally employed. Men can also perform duties that were previously done by women only. Fifthly, legally, men and women are equal before the law. Sixthly, after 18 years of age, women can make any legal decisions without consulting male members of the family. Seventhly, some men do not accept women as their equals. Eighthly, some men still abuse their wives because they have paid lobola (bride price) for them. Ninthly, despite their legal rights, married women predominantly still have to consult their husbands before making any business decisions. Tenthly, regarding education, girls are now given equal educational opportunities by their parents and at school girls are free to study subjects and embark on courses of their choices. However, there are still some cultures and religions that expect girls to leave school young to marry. Finally, at work, both in the private and public sectors, there are equal job opportunities for both men and women. There are also fair promotional opportunities for both men and women in the public and private sectors. Men and women doing the same jobs are remunerated at the same levels and there is equal taxation for both men and women. There are no jobs exclusively reserved for women both in the government and private sectors. However, there are more educated men than women in the job market. According to empirical results, women started their businesses due to opportunity (pull) and necessity (push) factors. Findings also showed that some women have left formal employment to start their own businesses due to work related factors such as the “glass ceiling” that blocked their access to top executive ranks; gender role stereo typing, negative societal influences and pay differentials, lack of acceptance by men, sexual harassment, balancing home and family responsibilities, and stress. The following empirical results were revealed about the market environment: First, customers no longer look down upon women owned businesses. Second, male workers now respect women who have employed them. Third, suppliers now offer both men and women entrepreneurs the same credit terms. Fourth, bank officials in Zimbabwe give women the same treatment as men when applying for loans. Fifth, women entrepreneurs can easily access established private business networks. Sixth, male auditors have developed a positive attitude towards women running businesses. Finally, some men entrepreneurs have accepted women entrepreneurs as equal business partners. The study also revealed some challenges that women entrepreneurs still have to contend with in the market environment. Women still have a problem of lack of collateral. Another challenge that women entrepreneurs face is that of becoming members of formal business organisations. Women also find it difficult to access government networks. According to empirical findings on the macro environment, women now have equal chances of getting business tenders as men. On the socio‐cultural front women indicated that their religions allowed them to run their own businesses. There are now support services to enable women to operate their own businesses. Respondents also indicated that they registered their businesses without legal problems and that women can now own property in their own names. Women entrepreneurs also confirmed that amended laws have brought equality between men and women entrepreneurs. However, empirical results also indicated that at economic level, women still find it difficult to enter male dominated sectors like construction. Socio‐culturally, most women entrepreneurs indicated that they still face the challenges of balancing home and business responsibilities. Despite the availability of support services, the HIV/AIDS pandemic has also exacerbated their workload. Married women still have to request their husbands to co‐sign before they can get any loans. Conclusively, empirical findings indicate that most of the cases of discrimination highlighted in the problem statement in Chapter 1 Section 1.4, and in the historical background of Zimbabwean business women, have been reduced and in some cases eliminated.
Open Access
A framework for facilitating the transition from school to university in South Africa: a capabilities approach
(University of the Free State, 12-Nov) Wilson-Strydom, Merridy; Hay, H. R.
Access to university in South Africa has been, and continues to be, a highly contested area that is plagued with many layers of complexity rooted in the social, political and educational past and present. Situated within an overarching commitment to fair and just higher education, in this thesis I have attempted to understand the complex field of access to university. I have done this by focusing on the transition from school to university, through the lens of the capabilities approach as developed by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum. The capabilities approach provides a framework for seeking to understand what young people entering universities are able to be and to do and what limits their being and doing. As such, the capabilities approach requires us to move beyond measurable access statistics to a more nuanced understanding of the agency and well-being of students admitted to university. Four research questions guided the study. 1. How do first-year students at the UFS experience the transition to university in their first year of study? 2. How do learners in Grades 10, 11 and 12 from local UFS feeder high schools experience the process of preparation for and access to university? 3. How can these experiences of the interface between school and university be theorised using a capabilities-based social justice framework? 4. Based on the evidence from the research, what interventions could support efforts towards a more socially just transition for these students? Working within a pragmatic paradigm, the study employed a mixed methods research design. My starting assumption was that in order to thoroughly understand the transition to university, it is necessary to study both the final years of schooling and the first-year at university. As such, the study focused on the University of the Free State (UFS) and a sample of 20 feeder schools. A total of 2816 learners in Grades 10, 11 and 12 completed the quantitative South African High School Survey of Learner Engagement (SAHSSLE) (adapted from the version used in the United States) in September 2009. The SAHSSLE provides a wealth of data regarding educational practices at school as well as learners’ experiences and attitudes towards their education. A smaller sample of 33 learners also completed qualitative reflections on their school experience, plans for universities and their ‘university knowledge’. At the university level, I collected qualitative data from 128 first-year students in 2009 using focus group methodology. In 2010 an additional sample of 142 first-year students were asked to provide a written description of their first month at university and to draw a picture of how they experienced the transition. The thesis covers much theoretical ground related to higher education and social justice as well as in the specific study area of access. In the access domain I make use of Conley’s multidimensional model of university readiness together with research on effective educational practices that underpins the student engagement literature and instruments. Drawing on the theory and literature, I propose an ideal theoretical capabilities list for the transition to university. Following a detailed presentation of the empirical results structured in two main sections, namely: transition to university experiences and readiness for university; I then make use of the capabilities framework to theorise the transition to university. Taking the well-being of students as the starting point, the capabilities framework for the transition to university asks what the outcome of a successful transition should be. Rather than defining success merely as measurable performance (such as changing enrolment demographics, credits passed in the first-year or progression to the second year of study for example) which does not take student well-being into account; the capabilities framework presented argues that educational resilience should be regarded as the outcome of a successful transition to university. In this context, resilience is defined as follows: • Being able to navigate the transition from school to university within individual life contexts; • Being able to negotiate risk, to persevere academically and to be responsive to educational opportunities and adaptive constraints; and • Having aspirations and hopes for a successful university career. A pragmatic capabilities list and framework for the transition to university is proposed and defended, together with specific recommendations for how this framework could be applied to facilitate the transition to university. The seven capabilities for the transition to university are as follows: 1. Practical reason 2. Knowledge and imagination 3. Learning disposition 4. Social relations and social networks 5. Respect, dignity and recognition 6. Emotional health and reflexivity 7. Language competence and confidence. These seven capabilities encompass the lessons learned from the literature review of university access and the first-year at university, the capabilities literature, and the empirical data within an overarching commitment to social justice and the promotion of the well-being of students. The thesis ends by considering what the UFS could do differently to facilitate the transition as well as what the UFS could do in partnership with schools.
Open Access
Returns on initial public offerings (IPOs) on the Johannesburg Securities Exchange (JSE): success and failure patterns
(University of the Free State, 13-Jul) Neneh, Brownhilder Ngek; Smit, Van Aardt A.
Initial Public Offerings (IPOs) offer a fresh source of capital that is vital to the growth of the company and provides the company and existing shareholders a liquid market for their shares. An IPO renders investors an opportunity to share in the rewards of the growth of the company. However, empirical evidence indicates that IPOs have a high level of initial underpricing and poor long run performance. The high rate of initial underpricing is detrimental to both the company and existing shareholders since they are not able to attract the much needed capital to either finance their investment projects or to harvest as a means to get out of the business and ideally reap the value (cash flow) from their investment. Also, the long run underperformance of IPO shares hurts the investors, since they do not get an opportunity to earn superior long run returns from their investments. The high rate of initial underpricing and long run underperformance have been accompanied by high failure rates and low success rates of IPOs all around the world. This has resulted in IPO companies earning very poor long run returns, and has led to a loss of confidence from investors and cast a pall on the IPO market. Investors typically have very little information about the companies going public and their behavior in early trading is conditioned by basic information. Because of uncertainty about the value of the company, asymmetric information exists between informed and uninformed investors. This as a result has placed investors in a challenging position, where they find it difficult to get sufficient information that can enable them make informed decisions. Consequently, most uninformed investors end up with a bulk of the least desirable shares, yielding poor long run returns (Asma, 2010:9). Thus, in order for investors to maximise their returns, there is a need to critically improve the IPO selection process. In improving the IPO selection process, several factors and characteristics have been identified to be key determinants for predicting IPO returns, and IPO success and failure, although with contradicting results. Therefore, to encourage stock market investment on the JSE, there is need to critically find out which IPO characteristics can be used to predict IPO returns on the JSE and differentiate between successful and failed IPO companies. The primary objective of this study was to find out which IPO characteristics can be used to predict IPO returns and explain the differences in the success and failure patterns of IPO companies on the JSE. The argument of this study was that there are some IPO characteristics which have been identified to be key determinants for predicting IPO returns, and IPO success and failure. A total of 313 IPO companies listed on the JSE from 1996-2007 were used in this study. Secondary data was obtained from McGregor-BFA database. The statistical analysis used included descriptive statistics, frequencies, cross-tabulation, chi-square, ANOVA, t-test, principal component factor analysis (PCA), correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM).
Open Access
Universities in regional development: knowledge transfer in a less favoured region
(University of the Free State, 13-Jun) Fongwa, Neba Samuel; Marais, J. G. L.; Atkinson, D.; Cloete, N.
𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 This dissertation is an exploratory study aimed at increasing the theoretical and empirical understanding of knowledge transfer from a university to its region. The study builds on the increased emphasis on the role of universities as ‘engines’ for development. By using the Faculty of Agriculture at the University of the Free State, South Africa as a case study, this study aimed to provide a nuanced understand of the factors affecting knowledge transfer between academics and stakeholders in a less favoured region. By means of the learning region concept and supported by other empirical studies, key indicators were identified from the literature and were developed for investigation. A qualitative approach was followed to collect data from academics in the Faculty of Agriculture and from relevant stakeholders by means of semi-structured interviews and a detailed review of some key policy documents. Institutional data, farmer databases and an academic survey provided quantitative data with a view to facilitating the triangulation of data and the minimising of bias. Findings from the study revealed that the process of knowledge transfer from the UFS was affected by a combination of demand and supply factors. Some of the factors affecting supply included the nature and the history of the UFS and the Faculty of Agriculture, adequate incentive structures, the level of policy alignment and the embeddedness of knowledge outputs from the faculty. Demand factors included the absorptive capacity of the region, the presence of coordinated demand systems and the nature of the networks that existed between stakeholders. This thesis argues that because of institutional lock-ins in the region ‒ that have led to path dependency in the practice of agriculture ‒ knowledge from the faculty has failed to realise its potential in respect of contributing to regional development. While there is evidence of networks between farmers and academics, the network forms are ‘distorted’ and as yet strongly embedded along historical social and racial lines. There is also limited evidence of a properly institutionalised notion of engagement with emerging farmers and thus knowledge transfer continues to be path dependent. The findings have implications for the UFS, for the faculty and for the region. While the UFS has defined itself as having both a national and an international agenda, the university will consciously have to define its regional role and then have to establish structures for active engagement ‒ not only broadly but also specifically with the agricultural sector. At the faculty level, engagement needs to be reconceptualised, with engagement moving from a philanthropic ethos to one that is part of the core function of teaching and learning. At the regional level, there is a need for the establishment of new forums in which the UFS and the different stakeholders may engage. More importantly, these initiatives will have to be built on trust, social capital and networks for collective benefits to result.
Open Access
Promoting conservation agriculture and commercial farmers in the Eastern Free State
(University of the Free State, 14-May) Knot, Jakob; Atkinson, Doreen; Le Roux, Pieter
Agriculture contributes to greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) through practices that reduce the amount of soil organic carbon. Examples of this are fallow and intensive tillage. Conventional ways of farming are not sustainable as soils are degraded, imbalanced, over-utilized, low in organic matter and without heavy inorganic fertilizer good yields are not possible. Sustainable crop production however is essential for South Africa’s food security, employment and contribution to the national economy. The sustainability of agriculture needs therefore to address environmental, economical and sociological aspects. Conservation Agriculture (CA) is world-wide found as an antipode against soil degradation, erosion and ineffective water conservation as a result of conventional tillage. The problem, however is that CA is a much developed product of No-till, which requires a gradual and timely process. No-tillage in itself is not the desired outcome, but a first step to CA. Ample technical research has been conducted on no-tillage and CA reflecting improved soil quality, yields and profits (see paper 1). This thesis will elaborate more on local technical issues e.g. soil quality (paper 4) and profitability (paper 3), as to contribute to the increased adoption of sustainable farming. This thesis emphasized the urgency for transdisciplinary research and the role of sociology in innovation studies. The role of sociology is often overlooked, but this thesis advocates that sociology is an integral part of transdisciplinary research. Narratives are useful methods of explaining what NT and CA is (see paper 2). The Actor Network Theory is useful in that farmers possess “agency” as a result of networking, which enables the uptake of an innovation of NT and in addition to develop into context related or ecotype specific CA production system (see paper 5). This thesis addressed conventional farmers barriers to adopting NT e.g. livestock integration, doubt concerning profitability and lack of knowhow. This thesis contributes to environmental awareness and promotes that CA can mitigate GHG emissions through sequestration of organic carbon in the soil (paper 4) and reflecting direct and indirect environmental costs in terms of GHG through the use of diesel, fertilizer, pesticides and other chemicals (see paper 3).
Open Access
An evaluation of support institutions in enhancing the commercialisation process
(University of the Free State, 15-Jul) Booysen, Karen; Van Zyl, J. H.; Brahilder, N.
Afrikaans: Hierdie navorsingstudie het ‘n tweeledige doel waar dit eerstens gedien het om die befondsingsproses van entrepreneuriese ondersteuningsinstellings te evalueer ten einde die hindernisse tot kommersialisering te identifiseer. Tweedens, met hierdie hindernisse ingedagte, argumenteer hierdie studie vir ‘n nuut-geformuleerde fase-georiënteerde proses wat baseer is op drie onderskeidelike, tog komplimentêre fases, naamlik Haalbaarheid, Lewensvatbaarheid en Volhoubaarheid. Hierdie fase-georiënteerde proses word aanbeveel ten einde die ondersteuningsinstellings te lei in hul evaluering van aansoeke vir befondsing en sodoende hulle in staat stel om waarlik die entrepreneurs en ondernemings-idees met meriete te identifiseer. Addisioneel sal hierdie fase-georienteerde proses die entrepreneurs in staat stel om die aansoekproses suksesvol te voltooi deur ‘n hanteerbare, verstaanbare proses wat konstant gemonitor word. Sodoende sal tydige veranderinge moontlik wees en dit die uiteindelike suksesvolle vestiging van ‘n onderneming meebring waarna die entrepreneurs in staat gestel is om hul ondernemings, asook die industrie waarin hul gaan meeding, te verstaan.
Open Access
Quality as human development: a case study of teaching and learning in Zimbabwean universities
(University of the Free State, 16-Dec) Mukwambo, Patience; Walker, Melanie; Wilson-Strydom, Merridy; Loots, Sonja
𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 The study contributes to work in conceptualising quality in higher education teaching and learning. Most studies focusing on quality have been from a human capital standpoint, with little examination of quality from a human development perspective, and even less focusing on the Zimbabwean context. This analytical focus on human development through the capabilities approach therefore diverges from the current emphasis on human capital. The thesis examines factors influencing the definition and conceptualisation of quality of teaching and learning in a developing country context, highlighting gaps that a human development perspective can add. Assuming that their presence are indicative of quality, I use two ideal-theoretical human development indicators namely, critical being and the capability for work. These I argue, are aspirational capabilities in the Zimbabwean context and important in higher education because of their fostering of public-good graduates concerned with human wellbeing beyond the instrumental value of education. Data for this study was collected in three phases through policy document review, observations and in-depth interviews with purposively sampled participants. Phase one comprised document review and three interviews with participants from Zimbabwe’s higher education quality assurance body, Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education. Phase two involved telephone interviews with quality assurance representatives from eight universities. Phase three was an in-depth examination of two case studies through interviews with the university representative, two deans, four lecturers and two focus group discussions with students from each “best case” department as identified by the university representative. Data was analysed thematically. Findings from the study highlight the complex interactions of contextual factors and national policy which inform and affect practice. Overall, and understandably considering the socio-political and economic climate, Zimbabwean higher education is largely influenced by human capital concerns, although there are instances of concern with human development. There is also a disjuncture between quality as policy and quality as practice with macro and meso policy makers conceptualising quality as an evaluative tool and lecturers largely interpreting it as the teaching and learning process. The results facilitate a discussion on the potential of a stronger human development influence on ideas of quality in different higher education contexts. While critical being stood as an indicator for quality, due to the prevailing socio-political economy in Zimbabwe, there was a need to revise the capability for work. Providing a global Southern interpretation of quality, the thesis argues that the conceptualisation and operationalization of quality needs to be broadened to foster human development in order to fully appreciate the role of higher education in development.
Open Access
Perspectives on engineering education in universities and its contribution to sustainable human development in Germany and South Africa
(University of the Free State, 16-Feb) Höppener, Mikateko; Walker, Melanie; Wilson-Strydom, Merridy
𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 Most literature on higher education and engineering education in particular, is based on data gathered from the global North, written from global North perspectives. Comparatively few studies focus on normative accounts of education for sustainable development based on data from developing countries, and written from global South perspectives. While there is value in exploring views from different contexts separately, what is original and significant about the work of this thesis is the examination of these perspectives together, combining a normative approach with original empirical work, and recognising that they are different outlooks on the same issue: how engineering education in universities contributes to sustainable human development. Instead of dichotomising global North/South perspectives, the thesis combines the views of individuals whose teaching and learning, higher education and/or professional careers in engineering have taken place in the global North (Germany) and global South (South Africa) for its empirical base. Specifically, the viewpoints of 18 masters students and 10 lecturers from engineering faculties at Universität Bremen (Germany) and the University of Cape Town (South Africa), as well as 10 engineering employers from both countries, were explored using qualitative methods (semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions). The research questions addressed in this thesis relate to how engineering education in universities enlarges the capabilities of engineering graduates, so that they might become agents of sustainable human development. The perspectives, often surprisingly similar across the two countries, offer contrasting and critical views on the assumption that society is in pursuit of an agenda for ‘sustainability’ that is valuable for all, and of future engineers’ roles in determining such an agenda. The findings also show that the participants perceive degrees of ambiguity about the extent to which engineers are educated to use their skills, knowledge, and effective power as professionals who contribute to solving human development and sustainability challenges in a just way. That is, in a way that explicitly prioritises poverty reduction and advances social justice. Reflecting on these perspectives from Germany and South Africa, the thesis considers what justice-based, capability-inspired engineering education might look like, if it is to enhance future engineers’ opportunities to use their agency to practice public-good engineering for human development.
Open Access
An evaluation of an out of school program to increase access to education for children in the rural areas of Zimbabwe
(University of the Free State, 17-Feb) Tokotore, Rujeko; Van Wyk, C. J.
After independence, Zimbabwe made significant progress in providing access to education for almost all children. The policy environment for supporting education for all is positive as the country is party to the all the major international agreements that promote education for all and the right to education, and has domesticated these in the Constitution and other legislation. However, with the introduction of the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme in the early 1990s, followed by the economic crisis of 2000 to 2008, this momentum was not maintained. Many children dropped out of school before completion, and others did not to go to school. The Fit for Life Programme was implemented to offer second chance non-formal education to children aged between 15 to 18 years who did not complete formal primary education or never went to school. This research evaluated effectiveness of the Fit for Life Programme in increasing access to education for children in the rural areas of Zimbabwe. A process evaluation approach was applied and questionnaires were used for data collection. The results revealed that the Fit for Life Programme was effective in increasing access for Out of School children in the rural areas of Zimbabwe. The livelihoods and quality of life of the beneficiaries who graduated from the programme differ from those children within the communities who did not enrol in the programme as they are in engaged in ill social behaviours. However, the research also revealed that the programme had some shortcomings which were not anticipated and this was a setback in achieving some of the objectives in some of the programme areas. The shortcomings included a relatively high dropout rate and high levels of absenteeism by the beneficiaries and lack of a MoU. Absenteeism was a major challenge in the programme resulting in a longer training period. The study concluded that the Theory of Change was effective in analysing the implementation of the Fit for Life Programme. Recommendations were made on the improvement of the Fit for Life Programme and these included enhancement of the non-formal vocational and technical training by providing more opportunities for the children; strengthening the implementation of education policies on the ground by availing the necessary resources to monitor and evaluate progress; making education affordable and accessible to all children and conducting more research on areas that need further attention on the problem of out of school children.
Open Access
An assessment of the Swaziland Vision 2022 strategic plan: opportunities and challenges
(University of the Free State, 17-Jan) Shongwe, Thulie; Thwala, Wellington D.
Achieving sustainable development and sustainable improvement in the quality of life of the people is the ultimate goal of each and every government in the world. However, this requires setting up a plan of action to properly guide the governments throughout the whole process. Accordingly, the Government of Swaziland also aspired to achieve ‘first world status’ by the year 2022, aimed at improving the quality of life of the people through the use of the National Development Strategy / Vision 2022. The study therefore sought to assess the opportunities and challenges of the Swaziland Vision 2022 Strategic Plan with a focus on finding out progress made towards Vision 2022 attainment, challenges that have hindered successful implementation of the Strategy as well as opportunities available and strategies for improvement. The study used a descriptive research design and questionnaires were administered to eighty respondents who were purposefully selected and comprised of the Ministry of Economic Planning (Implementation Office), Parliament Portfolio Committee, Civil Society Organizations, Academics, Development Practitioners and Community Development Councillors. The data collected were categorized and classified into comparative ideas and opinions and presented in tables using simple percentage supplemented with actual statements from the respondents. The findings indicated that it will be hard for the country to achieve the first world status because people are still battling with the fulfilment of their basis needs, coupled with the misconceptions that the people have, insufficient resources, corruption, lack of civic education and the lack of citizen participation in decision making. The study also found out that opportunities exist in the regional and international partnerships that the country has, availability and existence of skilled/educated resources, fertile soil and availability of infrastructure to support implementation of the NDS/Vision 2022. The study recommend that civic education should be conducted to allow the people to fully understand and appreciate the NDS/Vision 2022 and that they should be involved in all development endeavours as well as associate freely to discuss their development. Another recommendation was that the distribution and allocation of the budget should be fair and concentrate on important aspects and areas.
Open Access
Democratic capabilities research: an undergraduate experience to advance socially just higher education in South Africa
(University of the Free State, 18-Aug) Martinez-Vargas, Carmen; Walker, Melanie; Nkhoma, Nelson; Wilson-Strydom, Merridy
Universities are complex institutions that need to be in constant questioning and iteration to improve and serve the larger society. Nevertheless, the latest protests in the South African higher education institutions are a sign of challenging times. Protests have recognised the perpetuation of inequalities and the need to decolonise institutions. Furthermore, this debate has been ongoing within academia for decades, looking for ways to confront the colonial issues, especially in the area of knowledge production, investigating how knowledge is produced and distributed within the dominant system. Many of these concerns are related to European-Western domination over other ways of producing knowledge, jeopardising the wide range of knowledge systems in the world. This highlights the substantial importance of scrutinising how we create knowledge as scholars and how we can advance towards social justice by overcoming these persistent challenges, especially within higher education institutions in the Global South. Participatory methods, methodologies, and research processes are part of this internal intellectual project within higher education institutions trying to challenge the persistence of colonial issues. This field has developed into a fruitful and legitimate research area awash with a diversity of theoretical and practical insights, not only related to decolonisation and knowledge democratisation, but also focusing on action and participation. Nevertheless, the result has been a very diverse field that pervasively embraces various theoretical and practical perspectives, often contradictory, leading to theoretical and practical inconsistencies, incongruences and contradictions. To take up this challenge, the Capabilities Approach proposes a theoretical space to reflect and reconsider epistemological, methodological and operational issues, providing a solid people- centred theoretical frame. Moreover, participatory methods, methodologies, and research processes, have been drawing on capabilities lenses in multiple development and educational interventions. Nonetheless, this capabilities research area is still under-researched and is far from having reached its full potential. Scholars within the capabilities sphere have not yet achieved a consensual proposal such as a participatory capabilities-based research. Thus, the research questions that guided this study are: How can a participatory capabilities-based research project be conceptualised and implemented in the light of the CA and participatory approaches towards socially just higher education, given the academic gap between both fields and incongruences within participatory approaches? Which opportunities, challenges and lessons with regard to social justice and capabilities expansion emerge from a participatory capabilities-based case study with undergraduate students in South Africa towards socially-just higher education? Which capabilities do these undergraduate students have reason to value and why? Which of these capabilities are being expanded through the involvement in a participatory capabilities-based case study experience? This project innovatively conceptualises and applies this participatory capabilities-based research as ‘Democratic Capabilities Research’ (DCR). It outlines DCR as a reflexive and pedagogical space to advance more just practices, especially in the context of hierarchical knowledge practices in universities in the South, and the marginalisation of youth voices in knowledge production. The ambition is to both generate democratic and inclusive knowledge creation and advance social justice, through the theorisation and empirical exploration of a DCR case study in South Africa. Therefore, the methodology used for this research is a case study of a DCR participatory research project. This case study not only investigates the application of a DCR project but also its production throughout the project as a research outcome. The case study was developed and implemented at a previously historically advantaged Afrikaans-speaking research and teaching university in South Africa. A group of twelve volunteer undergraduate students worked as co- researchers with the doctoral research fellow over one academic year. In the process, they challenged persistent institutional hierarchies and their marginal position in university structures of knowledge production. Multiple data sources were collected over the year (2017), including individual interviews at three different stages of the DCR project, personal journals produced by each of the co-researchers and the researcher, and participant observation over the nine DCR workshops. In undertaking the case study, the project also confronted the dilemma around legitimate knowledge and legitimate forms of knowledge production. Thus, the study had to deal with the tensions of non-ideal research settings, and between producing a doctoral study and the actual practices of DCR, and how these ‘legs’ of the research both go together, yet are separate. The study shows that a participatory capabilities-based conceptualisation of a participatory research can challenge and resolve some of the actual limitations within the broad family of participatory approaches. Thus, the study presents five foundational principles for DCR to guide participatory practices. Furthermore, the study reveals that capabilities are rich sources of information to design and evaluate participatory projects such as DCR. However, the capabilities chosen to guide us should be valued capabilities by the participants and not generic capabilities lists, such as Nussbaum’s central capabilities. The findings show that valued capabilities are dynamic, latent and contextual and therefore we have good reasons to explore these specificities in order to orient our DCR participatory practice in the direction of the lives the participants have reasons to value. Additionally, the findings highlight the impact of using individual valued capabilities as evaluative frames. Presenting two student cases from among the twelve participants, the data shows that getting to know the participants before our participatory practices, understanding the way they enjoy their capabilities before the project commences, can enhance the way we assess our DCR practice by exploring functionings among their valued capabilities. In this way, the evaluative space is expanded and avoids previous paternalist frames directing our practices towards the lives the participants want to lead. Moreover, as DCR goes beyond capabilities expansion and achievement, the theorisation of DCR is presented and revised after the empirical data has been analysed in order to review the five initial principles guiding us in our capabilities-based participatory practice. The significance of this study is based on an unexplored research area linking capabilities with participatory research practices. Furthermore, the study intentionally uses an open-ended perspective of the CA that highlights its potential as a grassroots approach to provide an original and locally related research alternative in the form of DCR, towards a more just, decolonial and democratic way of knowledge creation within Global South higher education institutions.
Open Access
The effects of mine downscaling (and closure) on the socio-economic development of mining communities: the case of Oranjemund
(University of the Free State, 18-Dec) Ndeleki, Christerline N.; Van Rooyen, Deidre
The research investigates the socio-economic effects, associated with mine downscaling (closure) and understanding community perceptions, risks and opportunities in Oranjemund. Oranjemund is a mining town under transformation, since the mining operations are downscaling and projected to cease operations in 2022. A qualitative research was used by administering open-ended questionnaires and face-to-face interaction with officials from the local mine leadership, local authority, business and local community, mine union, a consultant and non-governmental organisations, in order to collect the required data. Using both purposive and snowball sampling, the first point of contact was the Constituency Office, where a list of names was obtained and participants were purposefully selected to take part in the research. Focus group discussions and individual in-depth interviews were the method of data collection. The interviews used guides, which set out the themes according to the study objectives. Secondary information was obtained by reviewing documented literature, government reports and website articles. The negative consequences of mine closure on the socio-economic aspects of a community include reduced quality of living standards, upsurge in out-migration, emergence of crime, poor and inadequate infrastructure, loss of employment and income, less employment opportunities in the area and reduction in buying power. The positive effects of mine downscaling include accelerated focus in local economic initiatives for economic diversification and potential assessment studies. The findings suggested that the key characteristics that render local economic development by mining operations ‘insufficient’, is the lack of community involvement in development. The study findings further suggested that transformation of a mining-led economy requires the involvement of stakeholders including community, local government and the private sector to create a sustainable economy post mine closure. The study found that mining operations somewhat contribute to local economic development. It also showed that mining communities are at the receiving end of negative effects imposed by mine downscaling and closure. The study also shows that communities do not perceive mine downscaling and closure positively, as they feel that their livelihoods are threatened. The recommendations emphasised strong investment in social infrastructure and participation of communities in development. Lastly, the crucial role of comprehensive legal framework on mine closure was highlighted for the mining industry.