Doctoral Degrees (Psychology)

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Open Access
Die affektiewe funksionering van jong werkende egpare
(University of the Free State, 1999-11) Slabbert, Anna Maria Elizabeth; Fourie, M. C.; Niemann, S. M.
Abstract not available
Open Access
Antisocial personalities among maximum security prisoners
(University of the Free State, 2010-11) Loots, Sonja; Louw, D. A.
English: The longstanding elevated violent crime rate in South Africa urges research attention beyond the mere incidence of reported offences and environmental contributors to crime. Psychological factors require similar attention. Internationally, antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy and dissocial personality disorder, collectively known as antisocial personalities, have been strongly associated with criminality, and particularly violent crime. However, very little research focus has been awarded to these constructs in the developing world. To explore antisocial personalities in the South African context, a research project was launched, which will be discussed through five related, yet independent research articles. The research sample consisted of 500 male maximum security offenders from the Mangaung Correctional Centre situated near Bloemfontein. The first study focused on determining to which extent psychopathy is similar in construct in a developing country as in the Western world. Several studies have reaffirmed the construct validity of psychopathy among industrialised nations, yet almost no research has included developing countries. The neglect of local mental health research has led to the application of diagnostic criteria with limited clinical and nearly no scientific consideration of cultural contributions of the South African context. To determine the construct validity of psychopathy, as measured by the revised version of the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI-R), factor analyses were conducted. Several items indicated low factor loadings and were consequently omitted from further analysis. The second study aimed to identify the prevalence of the antisocial personalities among the sample of offenders. Participants were assessed with the PPI-R, and subscales representing antisocial and dissocial personality disorders from the DSM-IV and ICD-10 Personality Questionnaire (DIP-Q). Results indicated a similar incidence of psychopathy and dissocial personality disorder than international studies. However, the incidence of antisocial personality disorder is much lower than international findings. The third and fourth study aimed to identify whether individuals meeting the criteria for antisocial personalities in the South African context also present stronger relationships with known associated constructs, such as aggression and criminal thinking styles. The Psychological Inventory of Criminal Thinking Styles (PICTS) and the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) were incorporated for this assessment. Results largely confirmed the relationship between antisocial personalities, aggression and criminal thinking styles. The fifth study consisted of a binary logistic regression analysis to determine whether psychopathic traits and/or criminal thinking styles could predict recidivistic behaviour in the South African context. Contrary to most international studies, results indicated that none of the PICTS subscales predicted possible recidivism, while only the Social Influence subscale of the PPI-R significantly predicted group membership between first offence and re-offence. All five studies include the comparison of results with those from similar studies, a discussion on the implications of the results, the limitations of the study, and recommendations for further research.
Open Access
Die beleweniswêreld van serebraal gestremde adolossente en die rol van psigososiale faktore in hulle sielkundige weerbaarheid
(University of the Free State, 2013-01) Visser, Dirkie Amalia; Nel, L.; Beukes, R. B. I.
English: Cerebral palsy is a complex condition and stressor, posing specific challenges to the affected individual and those involved. According to the literature, existing studies do not reflect the subjective experience and self-reporting of the person with a disability (Lutz & Bowers, 2005; Reeve, 2006; Singh & Ghai, 2009; Stalker, 2012; Tisdall, 2012; Watermeyer & Swartz, 2008; Watson, 2012). Thus, this study attempts to let the voices be heard of adolescents with cerebral palsy in order to gain new insight into the way in which they ascribe meaning to disability, manage their disability and overcome social, physical and emotional barriers. A qualitative approach within a psychofortigenic framework was followed in the study. The role of psychosocial factors in the psychological resilience of the adolescent with cerebral palsy was investigated in order to include the strength perspective. The theories, frameworks and models of the positive psychology paradigm were used as theoretical foundation to the study. Analysis and interpretation of data from the six semi-structured interviews was done by means of Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Furthermore, the identified themes were contextualised within an ecological systems framework according to intrapsychic, interpersonal and broader community factors. A preliminary conceptual process model was compiled from the cross-case analysis and describes the interrelationship and general dynamics of the experience of disability as well as the role of psychosocial factors (risk and protective factors) in the psychological resilience of the adolescents with cerebral palsy. The results confirm the impact and experience of disability as a multi-layered phenomenon and that each individual ascribes unique meaning to it according to personality traits, needs, emotional and social support, life contexts and life demands. The need of the adolescent with cerebral palsy to be recognised and treated as a unique individual is central in this study. The experience of disability within the broader social community does not only have a psycho-emotional effect on the person with a disability, but also psycho-social implications. Risk and protective factors are interacting in a multi-levelled way and the adolescent applies personal and contextual sources of power in order to ensure positive outcomes. The value of this study is letting the voices be heard of people with a disability regarding their lived reality of disability and psychological sources of resilience. The knowledge gathered in this study can also contribute to improved aid, support and understanding of the person with a disability.
Open Access
Clinical manifestations of mental disorders among Sesotho-speakers in Mangaung
(University of the Free State, 2005-06) Mosotho, Nathaniel Lehlohonolo; Louw, D. A.; Calitz, F. J. W.
Abstract not available
Open Access
Cognitive process in excessive worry : a cross cultural investigation of three theories
(University of the Free State, 2012-10-19) Pretorius, Chrisma; Walker, S. P.; Esterhuyse, K. G. F.
English: Research interest in worry has increased over the past three decades. Theory development, laboratory studies and clinical experience have resulted in the formulation of a number of theories and models related to the development and maintenance of excessive worry and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). The available cognitive behavioural literature on worry seems to place particular emphasis on three models of worry. The avoidance model of worry (AMW) and GAD (Borkovec, Ray & Stöber, 1998), the metacognitive model (MCM) of GAD (Wells, 1995) and the intolerance of uncertainty model (IUM) (Dugas, Gagnon, Ladouceur & Freeston, 1998) have all enjoyed significant empirical attention and have all formed the basis for specific cognitive-behavioural interventions for worry and GAD. However, to date, no attempt appears to have been made to compare these models to one another or to determine the applicability of these particular models of worry to a multi-ethnic context. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the applicability of these three cognitive models of worry to the understanding of worry in a non-clinical multi-ethnic sample. To this end, a convenience sample of 1224 university students (87.7% undergraduate) was drawn. Ethnicity was equally distributed in the sample (49.9% black and 50.1% Caucasian). However, the majority (709) of the participants were female. Participants were also assigned to one of three groups (low worry: n = 1105; high-worry non-GAD: n = 49; high-worry GAD: n = 70) based on their worry intensity and GAD self-report diagnoses. Moderated hierarchical regression analyses revealed that gender and worry/GAD status moderated the relationship between the cognitive processes hypothesised to underpin the development and maintenance of worry and worry intensity across all three models of worry, as well as in a model comprised of the cognitive processes relevant to all three individual cognitive models. However, ethnicity was found not to moderate these relationships. Furthermore, hierarchical regression analyses indicated that the three cognitive models of worry, individually and in combination, accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in the worry intensity of the current sample. This finding was evident across gender and worry/GAD status. Thus, the AMW, MCM and IUM, as well as a combination of the three models, appear to be applicable to the understanding of non-clinical worry in the multi-ethnic South African context. Furthermore, when the AWM, MCM and IUM were compared to the combined model of worry, only the AWM was found to account for a significantly lower proportion of the variance in the worry intensity of the sample than the combined model did. Consequently, although all three models appear to be applicable to the understanding of nonclinical worry in the multi-ethnic context, using a combined model to explain worry intensity appears superior only to the AWM. With regard to the interaction between specific cognitive processes and worry intensity, only positive beliefs about worry were found to account consistently for a significant proportion of the worry intensity reported by the low-worry, female and male participants. Furthermore, positive beliefs about worry were not found to account for a significant proportion of the variance in the worry intensity of the high-worry participants. Gender-specific trends were evident with respect to positive beliefs about worry in relation to the non-clinical worry reported by the participants, with females generally viewing worry as a source of motivation and men perceiving worry to be a positive personality trait. The current findings also suggest a significant relationship between negative problem orientation and worry intensity among high-worry GAD individuals. Contrary to most of the existing literature, the current study suggests that negative beliefs about worry, intolerance of uncertainty, negative problem orientation and cognitive avoidance do not significantly contribute to the worry experienced by non-clinical individuals. In addition, negative beliefs about worry, intolerance of uncertainty and cognitive avoidance were not found to contribute significantly to the worry experienced by excessive worriers, irrespective of their self-report GAD diagnostic status. The current study raises a number of questions regarding the applicability of the three cognitive models of worry and their specific components to the understanding of worry, particularly excessive worry, in the multiethnic South African context. Nonetheless, this study has succeeded in exploring the contribution of cognitive processes to the experience of worry in a specific multi-ethnic context by investigating the applicability of theoretical cognitive models of worry in this context. Furthermore, this study has provided a starting point from which a clearer understanding of the role of cognitive processes in worry can be achieved in the South African context.
Open Access
The court for sexual offences: perceptions of the parties involved
(University of the Free State, 2002-11) Walker, Stephen Peter; Louw, D. A.
English: This thesis evaluates the Court for Sexual Offences in Bloemfontein at the hand of the perceptions of the victims, their families, offenders and professionals involved with this court. The first article is a theoretical orientation to the relatively unique area of sex courts. The remaining four empirical articles discuss the perceptions of the parties involved with the Court. The findings indicate that the victims of sexual offences, their families and the professionals working in the Court and associated auxiliary services, are generally of the opinion that the establishment of specialist sex courts has gone a long way towards ensuring improved justice for victims and decreasing the incidents of secondary victimization during judicial proceedings. However, the Court still exhibits shortcomings in several areas. Furthermore, doubts are expressed with regard to the impartiality of such specialist courts, sentences for sexual offenders are perceived to be ineffectual and the after-care afforded to the victims and their families appears to be very poor. The perpetrators of sexual offences also perceive the Court for Sexual Offences to be slow and inefficient. They were of the opinion that this particular system of courts is inherently biased. The victim's rights are perceived to be overemphasized and the majority of the offenders questioned felt that it was not possible for an individual accused of a sex crime to receive a fair trial in a specialist sex court.
Open Access
The determinants and influence of non-resident fathers' relationships with their adolescent children
(University of the Free State, 2013-01) De Wit, Estelle; Louw, D. A. P.; Louw, A. E.
English: This study examined the patterns of contact and involvement between adolescents and their nonresident fathers after divorce in an ethnically diverse sample. The data was analysed to determine the role of Lamb, Pleck and Levine’s (1986) three constructs in the involvement of non-resident fathers, i.e. interaction, availability and responsibility. The results indicated that the majority of male and female adolescents reported continued direct and indirect contact with their fathers, regardless of paternal remarriage and the lapse of time since the divorce. In measuring father involvement, the adolescents reported on four aspects of father involvement i.e. financial contributions, shared activities, communication and feelings of emotional closeness. The results on father involvement indicate that most fathers make contributions financially in terms of the payment of maintenance, school fees and pocket money. Adolescents further reported that they spent most of their time with their non-resident fathers engaging in leisure activities such as shopping and frequenting restaurants. Boys reported higher levels of communication and feelings of emotional closeness than girls. Overall, the study postulates that non-resident fathers play a less significant role in providing parental guidance to their children. The most important limitation of the research was indicated as the lack of empirical investigation of mother-child involvement. This study investigated the influence of non-resident fathers’ involvement in the well-being of their adolescent children after divorce. Guided by a systemic ecological framework on father involvement and utilising data from a representative sample of adolescents from intact and divorced families, father involvement was measured by means of the Hawkins Inventory of Father Involvement (IFI). Adolescents’ sense of well-being was measured by means of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The results obtained on the IFI indicate that adolescents from divorced families perceived their fathers as lacking in support for their mothers and in salient aspects of all three components of Lamb, Pleck and Levine’s (1986) concept of father involvement, i.e. interaction, availability and responsibility. Consequently, the adolescents from divorced families obtained lower scores on reported well-being on the SDQ in terms of externalising behaviours (hyperactivity) and internalising behaviours (emotional symptoms and pro-social behaviour). Recommendations to promote increased father involvement were made. The purpose of this study was to examine the post-divorce attachment security of adolescents to their mothers and non-resident fathers. The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) was used to compare the attachment security of adolescents from intact homes to those from divorced homes. The data gathered indicate that adolescents from divorced homes reported statistically significant differences in attachment security with their fathers overall and specifically in the areas of trust and communication measured by the IPPA. Therefore, the findings indicate that divorce affects attachment security negatively. No statistically significant gender differences concerning the attachment security of male and female adolescents from divorced homes for either mother or father were found. Two theoretical models (the theory of mattering and the reflective functioning of parents) are discussed as guidelines to assist policy makers in addressing problems in attachment security for children from divorced homes.
Open Access
The development and evaluation of a life skills programme for young adult prisoners
(University of the Free State, 2014-12) Jordaan, Jacques; Beukes, R. B.; Esterhuyse, K. G. F.
English: The purpose of this research project was to develop, implement and evaluate a Life Skills programme for young adult male long-term offenders with the aim of improving their life skills that, in turn, could enable them to adjust more effectively in the correctional environment. This programme is developed based on the principles of psycho-education, the cybernetic cycle, and cognitive behavioural therapy. CBT is chosen, as studies had shown that it successfully improved the life skills, psychological well-being, and institutional behaviour of offenders. The game of chess is used as a vehicle of change to enable the offenders to learn new life skills or to improve their existing life skills. Chess, like CBT, trains individuals to think before making a move (acting), generate alternative moves (solutions), evaluate possible risks (consequences), and make decisions about appropriate moves (behaviour). Experimental research is used to investigate the effectiveness of the programme. In this study, 96 literate young male adult offenders between the ages of 21 and 25 years, with long sentences, were selected randomly. The participants were assigned randomly into an experimental and a control group. The Solomon four-group design (Braver & Braver, 1988; Huysamen, 1998; Lusk et al., 1999) is utilized to control for the effect of pretest sensitisation. The experimental groups attended the structured Life Skills programme for a period of six months, while the control groups participated in the normal daily activities of the correctional centre. The effectiveness of the programme was tested by obtaining measurements on the four domains (problem solving, decision-making, anger management, and coping with emotions). These measures were conducted before the programme commenced, directly (short term) after, three months (medium term) after and six months (long term) after. The effectiveness of the programme was thus investigated over various terms. A semantic differential scale was also used to identify the offenders’ perceptions of the programme. The offenders indicated that the programme and its contents were meaningful and beneficial, while the findings indicate that the programme had limited success in equipping them with the necessary skills crucial to their survival in a correctional centre. The programme did have significant effects, especially on problem solving and anger management in the short and medium term. These improvements were not long lived. The results of this study thus show that the programme had limited success and it did not positively influence their life skills in the long term that would have enabled them to deal with the challenges of a correctional environment. It is necessary to refine and adjust or even redevelop this programme. However, the fact remains that programmes must be developed for offenders to improve their adjustment in correctional centres as well as for their release into communities.
Open Access
The development and validation of a social emotional school readiness scale
(University of the Free State, 2009-09-23) Bustin, Caron; Beukes, R.; Esterhuyse. K. G. F.
English: The first year at school is a major life transition. School readiness assessments do not always assess social-emotional competence although it is considered to be a key aspect of successful school adjustment. This omission is compounded by the absence of an appropriate measure of social-emotional school readiness. Subsequently, this research aimed at the identification of behaviours that underpin the major social-emotional school readiness constructs, namely Self Awareness and Regulation, Social Relationships, Empathy and Coping Skills. A scale, in the form of a questionnaire (BUSSE-SR), was developed for such assessment. A convenience sample of 338 Grade R children in Durban, Kwa-Zulu Natal, were evaluated by their parents and Grade R teachers according to these scales. The same cohort was assessed the following year by their Grade One teachers in terms of their adjustment to school and academic performance in Life Skills, Literacy and Numeracy. The results indicated that the predictive validity of the scales was greater for Grade R teachers than Grade R parents. Through factor analysis, 28 behaviours of the most valid items were identified for the final version of the scales. The correlation coefficient for social-emotional competence and school adjustment, and social-emotional competence and academic performance, indicated a significant relationship between Self Awareness, Self Regulation, Social Relationships, Coping Skills and school adjustment and performance in Grade One.
Open Access
The development of a mathematics proficiency test for English-, Afrikaans- and Sesotho-speaking learners
(University of the Free State, 2003-11) Vassiliou, Colleen Patricia; Grobler, A. A.; Esterhuyse, K. G. F.
English: Mathematical Literacy, Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences is a learning area in the intermediate phase, which forms part of the General Education and Training band. This learning band is level one of the National Qualifications Framework and is overseen by the South African Qualifications Authority. The curriculum of this learning area consists of various learning strands, namely numbers and operations, fractions, patterns, shapes and space, measurement, and data. When learners fail to meet the expectations of the curriculum, mathematics becomes a major assessment concern. If this problem is not identified it could hinder the acquisition of more advanced mathematical skills. The first task in helping a learner who is struggling with mathematics is to identify the problem. For learners to succeed at mathematics they need to go through various developmental phases. Various cognitive processes form part of these phases. Often in a young child’s functioning, cognitive problems arise such as the inability to perform various mathematical tasks. For this reason a cognitive model for mathematics was used to reflect upon six key concepts that influence learning and teaching in the Mathematical Literacy, Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences learning area. These concepts include the categories of representing experience; motivation; individual differences; cognitive categories and cognitive processes; instructional procedures; and conceptual learning. Learners need to make sense out of what is going on during a mathematics lesson. To help learners develop meaning, a teacher provides experiences that foster mental manipulations. Psychologists refer to these mental manipulations as cognitive processes. When a learner is unable to carry out the cognitive processes necessary for task completion, mathematics becomes a major assessment concern. If a learner fails to meet the expectations of the curriculum or fails to carry out the cognitive processes necessary for successful task completion, then, in accordance with the aim of this study, the Intermediate Phase Mathematics Proficiency Test can be used to identify and address this problem. During the construction of this test, care was taken to ensure that the test was cross-culturally adapted. Differential Item Functioning was used to limit the possibility of cultural bias. The Item Response Theory and the Classical Test Theory were also used for item analysis and selection. The test was standardised for English-, Afrikaans- and Sesotho-speaking grade four, five and six learners. During standardisation, separate norms for each term were calculated. These norms are available in both stanines and percentile ranks. The test can also be used qualitatively to determine not only the learning strand in which the learner may be experiencing problems, but also the specific cognitive process, such as receiving, interpreting, organising, applying, remembering and problem solving, which might be preventing the learner from reaching his or her full mathematical potential. The Intermediate Phase Mathematics Proficiency Test is also a reliable and valid measuring instrument since the bias of the assessment measure has been decreased. This was done by eliminating any item that was biased towards a specific cultural group. The test can therefore be used in practice with confidence. In a multicultural society like South Africa, the adaptation of assessment measures and the elimination of bias from psychometric tools forms a vital part of the transformation process. The Intermediate Phase Mathematics Proficiency Test is a multicultural test with South African norms.
Open Access
The development of a school readiness screening instrument for grade 00 (pre-grade R) learners
(University of the Free State, 2013-01) Mohamed, Shireen Ahmed; Beukes, R.; Esterhuyse, K. G. F.
English: School readiness is increasingly being recognised as major need in education as it has far reaching consequences in a child’s educational and later life. Inadequate preparation and lack of timeous identification of at risk factors in this phase of life has many negative sequaleae. The literature has highlighted the role of prediction variables for scholastic achievement to facilitate appropriate intervention. School readiness assessments have been criticised for a lack of multidimensional assessment approach. In contrast to previous studies, which are generally univariate in their approach, this research aimed at a multidimensional approach to assessing at risk factors in grade 00 learners in the age cohort (4-5 ½ years). A further aim was to investigate the predictor variables/isolate the dimensions of development that would be linked to academic achievement in reading, spelling and maths in grade 1. The behaviours underpinning eight developmental domains and 19 dimensions (indicated in brackets) namely, 1) Cognitive (Ability, Approaches to learning); 2) Perceptual (Body awareness, Auditory, Spatial ability); 3) Speech (Speech, Language); 4) Neurological (Fine motor, Gross motor, Low tone), 5) Emotional (Empathy, Emotional Regulation, Self-confidence); 6) Social (Interpersonal competencies, Social regulation behaviour, Social graces, Play); 7) Developmental (Concentration, Sensory) and 8) Independence were identified in the form of a screening instrument (comprehensive version) for assessment of grade 00 learners. Factor analyses reduced the total pool of 214 items to 100 on the Comprehensive version of the test. A shortened version of the screening instrument was also compiled, using 42 items. Cronbach α coefficient’s yielded high values (>0.7) indicating sound reliabilities for the 19 dimensions and 8 domains. A convenience sample of 579 grade 00 learners in Durban schools were evaluated on the questionnaire by their teachers and parents in the first phase of the study. The same cohort were followed up in grade 1 and assessed on South African standardised tests, the ESSI and VASSI in spelling, reading and maths. The results indicated that the domains of Cognitive, Perceptual, Speech and Language displayed acceptable validity to predict academic achievement of grade 1 learners. The remaining domains, viewed as indirect variables, play an integral part in the child’s future scholastic achievement. Results of a stepwise regression analyses showed that the combined value of four predictor variables (Cognitive Ability, Social Regulation, Sensory, and Speech) roughly contribute to 17% of the variance in academic achievement of Grade 1 learners. As MANOVA analyses showed small effect sizes between the mean domain and dimension scores for the two gender groups, norms were calculated for the entire sample in the form of percentiles and stanines. The present research supports previous studies that show that early cognitive, perceptual and speech and language are strong predictors of grade 1 academic achievement. The findings of the study have implications at policy and practice level for early identification and intervention. It is suggested that the screening instrument be used to facilitate curriculum goals at preschool level, that the predictor variables be targeted for intensive intervention at preschool level and later schooling to ensure positive academic trajectories.
Open Access
Die ontwikkeling en evaluering van 'n intervensieprogram om kinders se stresweerstandigheid te bevorder
(University of the Free State, 2009-05) De Villiers, Marisa; Van den Berg, H. S.
Abstract not available
Open Access
Die verband tussen 'n geslagshormoonwanverhouding en depressie by vroue
(University of the Free State, 2002-05) Scholtemeyer, Jacobus Schalk; Olivier, L.; Venter, J. A.; Vosloo, H.
English: This study was directed by the following three specific objectives: - Firstly, to present a theoretical synthesis from the literature, which would explain the possible relation between depression and a sex hormone imbalance from a medical hypnoanalytical perspective. - Secondly, to determine whether a statistically significant correlation exists between dysthymia and depression respectively (in terms of two scales of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory III, namely scales D and CC) and the individual serum values of women's testosterone, progesterone and estradiol (in their oestrogen, progesterone or menopausal phases classified separately or considered jointly). - Thirdly, to determine whether the three relative imbalances of the sex hormones, namely between testosterone and progesterone, between oestrogen and progesterone, and between testosterone and oestrogen, in terms of the Maartens profile (Maartens, 1994), displays a statistically significant correlation with dysthymia and depression in terms of the counts obtained on the scales of the above-mentioned psychometric measuring instrument. Subsequently, it was determined which statistically significant correlation is most significant. In order to achieve these objectives, the following methodology was followed: - Objective 1: A relevant literature survey was conducted. - Objectives 2 and 3: The first 60 women who presented a mild or serious degree of depression in the clinical opinion of Dr. H. Vosloo (a medical practitioner) or the researcher, were selected randomly for the purpose of the research. If they were prepared to participate in the research, they were requested first to complete the information sheet by providing their personal details and then to give written permission that their hormone profile and psychometric data may be used in the research on an anonymous basis. Subsequently they were requested to complete the Beck Depression Inventory (Short Form) and the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory III and to have blood samples taken at specific pathologists. The pathologists then sent their results to Dr. Vosloo, who interpreted it further. At the same time, all the mentioned psychometric measuring instruments were scored and interpreted by the researcher himself and the results of the Maartens profile were obtained from Dr. Vosloo. The results related to each objective, which were obtained in the abovementioned methodological manner, can be summarised as follows for each objective: - Objective 1: It was shown successfully from the literature that nonoverwhelming chronic stress stimulates B-endorphin secretion and testosterone secretion, but as soon as the stressor is conceptualised as overwhelming, it has a testosterone-inhibiting function as a result of the still-rising endorphin levels. It was also demonstrated successfully from the literature, in terms of the medical hypnoanalytical model, that the first time an individual is exposed to the stressor, it is called the Initial Sensitising Event. The second time the individual is exposed to a similar stressor is called the Symptom Producing Event, and the third time it is called the Symptom Intensifying Event. After the third event the stressor is conceptualised as overwhelming in terms of the triple allergenic theory, and the stressor can therefore exert a testosterone-inhibiting function, which explains the presentation of depression in terms of medical hypnoanalysis. - Objective 2: The research results of this objective indicated that there is no statistically significant relation between depression and the individual serum values of the three primary sex hormones. - Objective 3: In the case of this objective, the research results indicated that a relatively low testosterone level (in comparison to the other possible hormone-imbalance classification categories in terms of the Maartens profile) displays the strongest statistically significant relation (p < 0,05) with dysthymia and depression. On the basis of the research results of this investigation, the researcher can therefore conclude that the traditional view of a hormone imbalance (in terms of the deviation of a patient's individual serum values from the mean values) has it's limitations, because this before mentioned hormone imbalance cannot be conceptualised as a cause for depression. A sex hormone imbalance in terms of the Maartens profile can, however, perform such an etiological role.
Open Access
Die verband tussen humorsin en psigologiese welstand by adolessente
(University of the Free State, 2002-05) Boshoff, Louisa; Beukes, R. B. I.
English: The aim of this study was to examine the nature of humour and sense of humour, the dynamics of psychological wellbeing as well as adolescence as a critical phase of life, and to determine whether there is an empirical relationship between sense of humour and psychological wellbeing among adolescents. Various theories involving humour and sense of humour were described and a model of humour and sense of humour was developed. In the discussion of psychological wellbeing the relationship with sense of humour was indicated. During the empirical study a cross-sectional survey was held among 884 Grade 12 learners at ten schools in the Pretoria area (Gauteng) and the East London area (Eastern Cape) in respect of sense of coherence, satisfaction with life, fortology/ fortitude, and sense of humour. Sense of coherence was measured by means of Antonovsky's Sense of Coherence questionnaire (SOC: 1987), while satisfaction with life was assessed using the Life Satisfaction Questionnaire (SWLS) of Diener, Emmans, Larson and Griffen (1985), fortology by means of the Fortology Questionnaire (FORQ) developed by Pretorius (1997), and sense of humour was measured by means of the Multidimensional Sense of Humour Scale (MSHS) of Thorson and Powell (1993). Biographical information was obtained by means of a short biographical questionnaire. In this study relatively favourable reliability indicators were obtained for almost all scales and subscales of the measuring instruments used in the research. The current research found that four subscales of humour yielded a statistically significant contribution in the explanation of fortology among adolescents, whereas three of the four subscales, creation of humour, social use of humour and attitude towards humour, yielded a statistically significant contribution in explaining the variance in sense of coherence among adolescents. It would appear from the results that boys show higher levels of sense of humour in terms of the creation of humour and the social use of humour than girls. Considering the interaction between gender and school placement, it is evident that the boys in mixed-gender schools and girls in mixed-gender schools achieved a significantly higher score on the creation of humour as well as the social use of humour than boys in single-gender schools. As far as attitude to humour is concerned, the boys in the single-gender schools returned a significantly lower score than boys in mixed-gender schools and girls in single-gender schools. These findings are related to findings discussed in the literature study. In conclusion proposals are made regarding the use of humour and sense of humour in practice as well as the promotion of psychological wellbeing among adolescents .
Open Access
An ecocultural exploration of play in young children with developmental delays living in resource-limited contexts: A caregiver perspective
(University of the Free State, 2022) Small, Renée Frances; Schlebusch, L.; Nel, L.
𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 Children's play is a natural phenomenon through which children develop and make sense of their world, making play an ideal medium for child-based interventions. While research is available on the play of children with and without developmental delays, minimal research exists on the play of children with developmental delays living in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). Cross-cultural studies have shown variations in child play, highlighting the importance of contextualised research on the play of children with developmental delays living in culturally diverse, resource-limited settings. This study aimed to explore the play of Basotho children with developmental delays living in resource-limited communities in South Africa from their caregivers' perspective. It explored (a) what they play with (Manuscript 1) and (b) why, how, and where they play (Manuscript 2). Twelve Basotho caregivers of children with developmental delays were purposively selected to participate in two focus groups. The findings revealed ecocultural understandings of access to toys and play materials, specifically the (1) availability, (2) affordability, (3) accessibility, (4) acceptability, and (5) accommodation of play opportunities. Caregivers gave further insight into why their children play (sensory stimulation, emotional regulation, and development), how their children play (the visibility of their disability, specific interests, and play partners), and where they play (at their home). These added to the understanding of play in children with developmental delays living in resource-limited communities. This understanding is imperative for the feasibility of early interventions for children that is also respectful and culturally sensitive to their contexts.
Open Access
The effect of certain variables on the reliability of eyewitness testimony
(University of the Free State, 2003-05) Venter, Arnot; Louw, D. A.
The single most important determinant of whether a case will be solved in a court of law is often the information supplied by the witness or victim of a crime (Yuille & Cutshall, 1986). Eyewitness testimony is viewed as powerful in courts, due to a belief in the ultimate accuracy of observation and human memory (Bartol & Bartol, 1994). Despite the credibility ascribed to eyewitness testimony by law, Shaw and Skolnick (1994) indicate that studies of human perception and memory have demonstrated that such testimony is susceptible to errors. A distinction is currently being made between two kinds of variables that impact on eyewitness testimony (Wells, 1978; Wells & Olson, 2003). Estimator variables, over which the criminal justice system exerts little or no control, are classified into witness factors (e.g. stress experienced by the witness during the event, as well as the occupation, age, gender, race, and individual differences of witnesses), target factors (e.g. the suspect’s physical appearance and weapon focus) and situational factors (e.g. variables associated with the incident, such as the severity of the incident and a witness’s opportunity to view the suspect). System variables, on the other hand, refer to factors that are directly under the control of the criminal justice system and can be altered to increase accuracy in court cases. These factors include the number of foils in a line-up, the selection of line-up members, post-event information, questioning techniques and court proceedings (Narby, Cutler & Penrod, 1996; Wingfield & Byrnes, 1981). Although the impact of the factors that can potentially influence eyewitness testimony appears to be generally recognised, it also seems to be true that in-depth knowledge concerning aspects such as the interaction between these factors is often, if not mostly, lacking in those professions (e.g. the legal profession and the police force) where such knowledge could play a significant role. The purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability of perception and memory and more specifically the variables that may affect the reliability of eyewitness testimony. The thesis consists of eight articles, namely three literature review articles and five empirical articles. The findings of these empirical articles are presented next. The first empirical study, which was aimed at investigating the influence of certain variables on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony after exposure to a real-life incident, yielded the following main findings: - There were no significant differences between the average accuracy scores of the short-term and long-term memory groups as a whole. - The short-term memory average scores of the students and the 18 to 25-year-olds were significantly better than those of the corresponding long-term memory group. No significant differences, however, had been found for the gender and racial groups. - The children (12 to 14-year-olds) obtained significantly higher average accuracy scores than the adults with regard to long-term memory. In respect of long-term memory, the scholars also performed significantly better than all other occupational groups, except the members of the police. The second study (which is linked to the first) aimed at investigating whether the analysis of items would provide more clarity on the relationship between certain biographical variables and the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, yielded the following main findings: - As a whole, the short-term and long-term memory groups showed no significant differences regarding details related to less pronounced physiognomic details. Significant differences were indicated for only certain items related to obvious physiognomic details, clothing details, circumstantial evidence and action-related details. - Regarding occupation, significant differences in the short-term were found for some of the items related to obvious physiognomy, less pronounced physiognomy, clothing, action, and circumstantial evidence. However, for the long-term groups no significant differences were found for less pronounced physiognomic details and circumstantial evidence. - The age group findings indicated significant differences in the short-term group concerning certain items related to obvious physiognomy, less pronounced physiognomy, clothing, action and circumstantial evidence. In the long-term age groups, no significant differences were found for items related to obvious and less pronounced physiognomy and circumstantial evidence. - With respect to gender, no significant differences regarding action-related and circumstantial evidence were found. However, significant differences were found regarding certain obvious physiognomic details, less pronounced physiognomic details and clothing details. - Regarding the different races in the short-term memory group, no significant differences were found regarding items related to action, less pronounced physiognomy and clothing. However, significant differences were indicated in certain items related to obvious physiognomic details and circumstantial evidence. Although no significant differences were found in any clothing details in the long-term memory group, certain items related to obvious physiognomy, less pronounced physiognomy, action and circumstantial evidence displayed significant differences. The main findings of the third study, which investigated memory performance after exposure to a violent and a non-violent incident, may be summarised as follows: - Regarding both the non-violent and violent video a significant decrease in the accuracy of the average scores occurred after a five to six week retention period when the short-term and long-term memory groups were compared as a whole. - With respect to all the biographical groups that were exposed to the non-violent and violent video, significantly higher average scores were obtained by the short-term memory groups than by the long-term memory groups. - The 18 to 25-year-olds who viewed the non-violent video obtained significantly higher short-term and long-term average memory scores than the 26 years and older. No significant differences were found for the violent video. - No significant differences were indicated for either the short-term or long-term memory gender groups regarding both the non-violent and violent video. - Concerning the two racial groups, the only difference found was for the non-violent video where the whites obtained significantly higher short-term memory average scores than the blacks. No significant differences were indicated for the long-term groups or those groups who watched the violent video. The aim of the fourth study to investigate the relationship between the accuracy of responses and the method of questioning and the relationship between the method of questioning and the accuracy of responses of specific biographical groups, provided the following main findings: - A significant relationship exists between accuracy of memory and type of questioning. The average accuracy scores of the participants who responded to the closed-ended questions were significantly more accurate than those who answered open-ended questions. - Investigating the relationship between the average accuracy scores of biographical variables and type of questioning revealed that all groups except the public were significantly more accurate in responding to the closed-ended than open-ended questions. - The scholars obtained the lowest average accuracy scores compared with the other occupational groups in responding to both the open-ended and closed-ended questions. Their average scores were, however, not always significantly lower than those of the other groups. Regarding the open-ended questions the public obtained a significantly higher score than all the other occupational groups. - The 18 to 25-year-olds obtained a significantly higher average accuracy score than the other age groups with respect to the closed-ended questions. No significant difference was indicated for the open-ended questions in relation to age. - Regarding gender, no significant differences on either open-ended or closed-ended questions were indicated. - With respect to race, the whites performed significantly better than the blacks when responding to both open-ended and closed-ended questions. In the fifth study the relationship between confidence and accuracy, the method of questioning and accuracy, and the method of questioning and confidence were investigated. Firstly, regarding the relationship between confidence and accuracy of recall it was found that: - there was a significant correlation between the accuracy of memory and confidence regarding more than 70% of the items. - for 60% of the items there was a significantly larger proportion of participants who were very certain and responded accurately to their responses. - for more clothing and circumstantial details (75%) there was a significant relationship between accuracy and confidence than for central details (57%). Secondly, the findings for the relationship between type of questioning and accuracy were: - A significant relationship was found for 67% of the total number of items. - Ninety per cent of the items that displayed a significant relationship between type of questioning and accuracy, involved closed-ended questions. This means there was a significant higher degree of accuracy regarding the responses to closed-ended questions in comparison to open-ended questions. - With regard to the respective details, 70% of the total number of details that indicated a significant relationship between type of questioning and accuracy, concerned clothing and circumstantial details. Thirdly, the relationship between type of questioning and confidence indicated that: - there was a significant relationship in for 53% of the items. - all of the items which indicated a significant relationship concerned closed-ended questions. Therefore there was a significantly higher degree of confidence regarding the responses to closed-ended questions than to the open-ended questions. - with respect to the details that displayed a significant relationship between confidence and type of questioning 50% involved circumstantial and clothing details and 50% concerned central details. However, with regard to the items that displayed a significant relationship between confidence and type of questioning, the respondents were very certain about 67% of clothing and circumstantial details. These results indicate that estimator and system variables need to be further researched in the South African context, as most existing findings are based on American and European research. Doing research on eyewitness testimony remains difficult owing to ethical concerns and the question as to whether laboratory studies have the same impact as real-life studies on memory performance. To make an impact in the area of eyewitness testimony in coming up with results which are less affected by confounding variables, it would not only be important for researchers in this field to reconstruct events which have the qualities of real-life incidents, but also to ensure that the measuring instruments correspond with the way eyewitnesses are questioned in legal situations.
Open Access
The effect of need-supportive leadership on the psychological wellbeing, motivation and performance of adolescent sport achievers in South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2014-01-28) Barnaschone, Melissa Tristan; Grobler, A. A.; Boen, F.
English: Internationally, sport has become a profession and the desire for success has resulted in sporting professionals constantly searching for means to enhance performance levels. Despite the fact that South Africa has produced a large number of world-class athletes, it is both necessary and essential to constantly strive to advance the performance levels and consistency of both our existing and prospective athletes, in order to sustain and continue achieving success at the elite level. The collective theory and research reviewed in this study have clearly indicated that the perceptions, level of motivational orientations and psychological well-being of athletes explain and predict their performance within their sport. In addition, these psychological characteristics are significantly affected by the leadership style exhibited by the coach. Thus, in order to gain a more accurate and comprehensive interpretation of athletes’ sporting behaviour, the socio-environmental influences need to be taken into account. As a core objective of self-determination theory is to grasp the effect of the social environment on an individual’s motivation, well-being, affect and behaviour, it was the theory of choice in providing a conceptual framework for the current study. The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships between perceived need-supportive leadership (as a core socio-environmental influence) and the participation motivation, psychological well-being and performance levels of South African top achieving sporting youth. Firstly, relationships were tested between perceived need-supportive leadership and athletes’ motivation, psychological well-being and self- and coach-rated performance. Secondly, the accuracy of a theoretical model, depicting that athletes’ perceived need-supportive leadership of the coach leads to enhanced motivation, psychological well-being and heightened performance, was determined. Thirdly, was the investigation of meaningful differences with respect to the athletes’ perceived need-supportive leadership, motivation, psychological well-being and performance variables across gender and race. A non-experimental, cross-sectional survey research design utilising self-report measures was selected to investigate the various factors at hand. The total sample consisted of 453 team-sport athletes, recruited from four athletic teams (mean age = 17.3 years), and 33 coaches. The athletes comprised both genders, male (mean age = 17.5 years) and female (mean age = 17.1 years) and two main racial groups, black (mean age = 17.1 years) and white (mean age = 17.4 years). The coaches were representative of both genders and both black and white racial groups. Pearson’s correlation coefficients (r) were computed to determine the correlations between athletes’ perceived need-supportive leadership and motivation; psychological well-being; and performance. A non-directional, two-tailed test of significance was applied, largely confirming the hypotheses that perceived need-supportive leadership is positively related to an increase in the athletes’ autonomous motivation (medium effect sizes), psychological well-being (small to medium effect sizes) and self- and coach-rated personal performance (small to medium effect sizes). The partial least squares (PLS) approach to structural equation modelling (SEM) was utilised in evaluating the results relating to the process or paths depicting the variables influencing optimal performance. The conceptual model with its hypothesised paths indicated significant path coefficients and explained 26% of the variance in performance, for the total group of athletes. In determining significant differences between the path coefficients of the gender and racial groups, a PLS-SEM multigroup analysis (PLS-MGA) was executed for comparing the PLS-SEM model estimates of each group. In general, SDT’s notion of universality held true for the models fitted to the gender and racial groups. Unique to this study, however, was the finding of gender differences in the pathway between perceived coaching style and autonomous motivation, reflecting a stronger influence for the female group and thus suggesting that female athletes’ autonomous motivation is more strongly influenced by the coaches’ perceived coaching-style than is the case for their male counterparts. A perceived need-supportive leadership style may thus be regarded as an important impetus for enhancing quality motivation and psychological well-being and thus promoting optimal performance.
Open Access
Die effek van twee sielkundige inoefeningsprogramme op die akademiese prestasie, selfkonsep en angsvlak van studente
(University of the Free State, 2003-11) De Vos, Hendrik Moller; Louw, D. A.
English: Article 1: The main objective of the present study was to verify the effect of hypnotic training programmes on the academic achievement of students empirically. A pre- and post test design was used. Two experimental and two control groups were selected from a universe of 564 undergraduate students. One of the experimental groups was submitted to active alert hypnosis and the other to relaxation hypnosis. The participants’ April marks were used as a pre-test, while their average June marks served as a re-test. The two psychological training programmes had a significant effect on the academic achievement of the participants, which was not found in the control groups. Regarding the efficacy of the two programmes, no significant difference was found. The findings of the research support the supposition that most people are hypnotically suggestible and that training in hypnotic skills can increase a person’s levels of suggestibility. The supposition that the nature of the suggestions during the induction and the hypnotic phase can be decisive, is also supported by the research. Article 2: The origin of this study was the theories and research concerning the organismic nature of mankind. The main objective of the research was to establish whether mental training programmes based on hypnosis could alter self-concept. Two experimental and two control groups were selected from a universe of 564 undergraduate students. One of the experimental groups was submitted to active alert hypnosis and the other to relaxation hypnosis. Regarding the dependant variable, the self-concept, the Greeff Self-Concept Questionnaire was used. The analysis of variance showed that the two programmes had a significant effect on the self-concept of the participants. The study supports the supposition that the inner organismic contact facilitated by hypnosis can have a positive effect on the conscious experience of the self. As a result the research also supports the holistic African perspective of the self-concept as being collective and organismic by nature. Article 3: In an achievement-orientated and test-conscious society test anxiety can drastically impair academic development. An important purpose of this study was to determine if mental training programmes based on hypnosis could aid the management of test anxiety. Two experimental groups were exposed to active alert- and relaxation hypnosis respectively. Regarding the dependant variable, test anxiety, the participants' pre- and post measurements on the Test Anxiety Scale (TAS) were used. The results of the analysis of variance indicate that the two programmes had no significant effect on test anxiety in undergraduate students. Concerning gender, no significant differences regarding test anxiety were found. In this context statements and recommendations are made.
Open Access
'n Eksperimentele ondersoek na grootte- en afstandskatting met betrekking tot die verkeersituasie
(University of the Free State, 1976-12) Erasmus, Christoffel Petrus Johannes; Langenhoven, H. P.
Abstract not available
Open Access
Emerging adults’ lived experiences of the journey of spiritual identity development
(University of the Free State, 2021-11) Buys, Corlia; Naude, L.
The aim of the study was to explore and describe emerging adults’ lived experiences of spiritual identity development in South Africa. To capture the active, intimate experience of the journey, the study focused on the processes involved in forming a spiritual identity. Developmental psychologists claim that emerging adulthood is the time in the life span (18-29 years) when decisions regarding beliefs and values are inevitable. During this developmental stage, the reconstruction of the past and imagination of the future provide individuals with a sense of the interwoven fibres of meaning. A conceptual framework for spiritual identity, consisting of three moral ethics (Shweder et al., 1997) were of vital importance. The ethic of autonomy, community, and divinity suggests a formulation of the unique ways in which people of various cultures and communities may form believes and values. The importance of a cultural-developmental approach (Jensen, 2008) alludes to the need for a study in the South African context, marked by both its diversity in terms of religions and cultures, and a strong emphasis on scriptural authority as a religious country. A South-African study on the identity-divinity link nested in the life stories of emerging adults shed light on the authentic experiences regarding autonomy, community, and divinity of South African emerging adults, especially against the background of the strong religiosity of the country. A qualitative research approach rooted in a phenomenological paradigm was undertaken, to explore the identity-divinity link in emerging adults in South Africa. An interpretative phenomenological approach enabled the researcher to search for the understanding of and aspects relating to the experiences of the participants. Seven emerging adults known to be dedicated spiritually were selected to participate: five white, one black, and one Indian. Data were collected by means of three interviews, using the life story interview and the two questions known for assessing moral views: “When you get toward the end of your life, what would you like to be able to say about your life, looking back on it?” and “What values or beliefs do you think are the most important to pass on to the next generation?” The narratives of the participants were analysed and interpreted by means of interpretative phenomenological analysis. The focus of the study was the distinct meaning and the significance of the experience of the spiritual journey for the specific participant. The interpretative approach required understanding of an experience from within. Nested in a distinctive semantic, cultural, and relational space, the participants’ relatedness to the world and the essential meaning as it was experienced, was important. Inductive interpretation processes were prioritised, and Shweder’s ethics of autonomy, community, and divinity served as sensitising concepts.With regard to the ethic of autonomy, it was found in this study that spiritual identity unfolds within the opportunity to voice a life story. Looking inside and narrating a life story is an individualistic act but also calls on the ethic of divinity as a spiritual identity emerges from the meaning making and the establishing of a narrative identity. During the process of forming a life story, a narrative identity develops. A question like “What are my beliefs” leads to the development of a religious or spiritual identity, which manifests “as a persistent sense of self that addresses ultimate questions about the nature, purpose, and meaning of life” (Kiesling et al., 2006). Secondly. it was also clear that spiritual identity grows while emerging adults become self-sufficient. The belief that self-sufficiency and independence should be reached before adult commitments (Arnett, 2015b) calls on the ethic of autonomy; however, in this study, this belief was accompanied by the ethic of divinity. Standing on their own feet and becoming self-sufficient were going along with the underlying reassurance of being dependent on God. Relying on God to help with decision making and becoming independent, these two aspects were interwoven. While they were becoming independent, living in a relationship of reliance and trust on a deity was typical of the emerging adults in this study. Thirdly, determination to find a work becomes an expression of spiritual identity nestled in a vocation. The underlying belief is that work and identity should complement each other (Arnett, 2015b). The ethic of autonomy is at the root of this belief. In this study, work, calling, and identity are inseparable. The participants explained who they were, how God had created them to be, and the work or occupation they would be doing, which would be in line with what God intended them to be doing. The ethic of divinity is the moral vein underlying this belief. Feenstra and Brouwer (2008) found that secure spiritual attachment and greater spiritual vitality and commitment were related to greater understanding of vocation. Lastly, during emerging adulthood, leisure and enjoyment can be an illustration of spiritual identity. The belief that self-focused fun and leisure are vital during this life stage (Arnett, 2015b) is underscored by the ethic of autonomy, which was true for most of the participants in the study. However, in this study, it was found that enjoyment and leisure are also part of how God is. He is joy, and a person experiences joy because of Him. The fruit of the Spirit of God is in a person, and it is becoming a person’s identity. With regard to the ethic of community, it was found in this study that 1) spiritual identity unfolds within a sense of belonging. During emerging adulthood, the importance of being embedded in a net of relationships becomes a profound realisation. The imprinting of spiritual identity in a relational world has the ethic of community and the ethic of divinity at its heart. Secondly, it was found that the finding of a soulmate can enhance spiritual identity development. The belief that the basis of marriage should be romantic love (Arnett, 2015b) can be informed by the ethic of autonomy or community, but for the participants in this study, marriage was also the covenant and safe space for dedicated worshipping and love for the Lord. Marriage is seen as a trio or triangle, where God is an important part of the covenant. The ethic of divinity is the moral vein underlying this belief. Thirdly starting a family expands spiritual identity development. Being a member of a little group and having commitments and obligations, responsibilities, and roles in a family call on the ethic of community (Shweder et al., 1997; Jensen, 2008), but experiencing the birth of a child as a gift and wonder from a deity calls on the ethic of divinity. Lastly, support and guidance on the journey enhance growth. The experience of the importance of relational connectedness calls on the ethic of community, but the search for existential meaning and the human potential dealing with ultimate purpose calls on the ethic of divinity. With regard to the ethic of divinity, it was found in this study that spiritual identity is imprinted while growing up. Emerging adults start living what they have been taught (Barry et al., 2018), especially as it was observed in this study with regard to spirituality – “when it comes to the presence of a relationship with a higher power that affects the way in which one operates in the world” (Zinnbauer & Pargament, 2005, p. 23). Secondly, suffering becomes meaningful within a spiritual identity. Personal growth in their life stories, difficult life experiences as being transformative, and the move from suffering to an enhanced state formed the redemptive script of their stories (McAdams et al., 2006). Thirdly, faithfulness, humbleness, and awe were part of the journey, and were initiated when they were confronted with major life events. Gutierrez and Park (2015) found that emerging adults’ belief in God remained stable and suggested that emerging adults refine their basic understanding of fundamental worldview constructions when they are confronted with major life events. Finally, purpose and meaning are the ultimate part of spiritual identity. Culver and Lundquist Denton (2017) also found that perceived closeness (attachment) to God was linked to the sense of life purpose in emerging adults.This study contributes to the literature on spiritual identity, especially with regard to theethics of autonomy, community, and divinity. Rich contextual information regarding spiritual identity was provided. The ethics of autonomy, community, and divinity suggest a formulation of the unique ways in which people of various cultures and communities may form beliefs and values (Jensen, 2011; Shweder et al., 1997). The South African context is unique in terms of religiosity, and the identity-divinity link is prevalent in the spiritual identity journey of emerging adults.