Masters Degrees (Centre for Africa Studies)
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Item Open Access Power-sharing in South Africa's municipalities: The case of Ekurhuleni and Nelson Mandela Bay Metropolitan municipalities from 2016(University of the Free State, 2022) Maneng, Neo Samuel; Ellis, W. F.; Cawood, S.English: Local government power-sharing and coalitions are likely to increase in South Africa given the ANC's declining electoral dominance as demonstrated by the 2016 and 2021 election outcomes. This has sparked increased academic debate and research in this field. This study contributes to this research by identifying power-sharing trends and assessing the stability and performance of municipalities governed through power-sharing in South Africa between 2016 and August 2022, using the case studies of Ekurhuleni and Nelson Mandela Bay metropolitan municipalities. It finds that coalitions have had a mixed impact on municipal stability and performance, with some municipalities showing stability and others instability. Therefore, it argues that while coalitions come with an inherent risk of greater political and administrative instability, it is the conduct of political parties and individuals in these coalitions and affected municipal councils that often exacerbates this risk. This study uses the case study approach and is primarily qualitative and inductive. It uses semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions to collect primary data from political actors in the two case studies. It then triangulates this data with document analysis while using the systematic review method.Item Open Access The inner workings and logics of intersectionality: an analysis of gendered (in)security in Rwanda(University of the Free State, 2021-11) Arnold, Shannon Leslie; Hudson, H.Resisting a single-axis framework and adopting intersectionality in gendered security research and practice ensures that more inclusive and holistic security, and thus sustainable peace, is achieved in post-conflict societies. Yet, the way in which intersectionality is used in research and policy-making determines different outcomes that either take us further away or closer to that goal. The aim of this study is to explore how gender intersects with other systems of oppression to create experiences of gendered (in)security in Rwandan communities. My research suggests that the failure to cultivate a thorough understanding of intersectionality in gender security practice results in gender-based violence (GBV), gender discrimination and gender hierarchies, all of which threaten the sustainability of peace in the post-conflict era. The key objective of my study is to critically evaluate the value of analysing the inner workings of intersectionality for the Rwandan context, gendered security research and practice, and Women, Peace and Security (WPS) work. The inner workings of intersectionality refer to the modes, dynamics, contestations and strategies that surround the concept. I use three logics to explore the inner workings of intersectionality. These are the logics of domination, addition, and interdependence. The logics are used in combination to cultivate a holistic understanding of intersectionality. I use a deconstructive discourse analysis to reveal how the different logics, and indeed the inner workings themselves, are (re)produced and the effects that the logics have, and have had, on gendered security in Rwanda. My conceptual exploration of the inner workings of intersectionality draws from examples in colonial, post-colonial and post-genocide Rwanda. I use a multi-level analysis, focussing on the everyday experiences of marginalised women, whose social location lies at the intersection of multiple systems of oppression, while also paying attention to larger structural power differentials that are filtered through the global economy and global security. My study shows that there is a link between the utilisation of intersectionality according to the logics and gendered (in)security. Rwanda is a useful case study for the analysis of intersectionality because the history of Hutu/Tutsi political violence lends itself to an intersectional analysis. In addition, despite Rwanda’s robust gender equality and gender security policy and legal frameworks, gendered insecurities, such as persistently high rates of GBV, continue to threaten the sustainability of peace in the post-genocide era. My analysis reveals how intersections have generated complex experiences of violence in Rwanda’s past; how the misappropriation of intersectional thinking can lead to the creation of gendered (in)security silences, which allows gender discrimination to thrive and threaten peace in the contemporary moment; and how positive intersections can be cultivated through community forums for generating positive peace and gender justice at a local level.Item Open Access Incorporating African Indigenous Knowledge Systems into the Basic Education curriculum: Experiences from two schools in the Gauteng and kwazulu-Natal Provinces, South Africa(University of the Free State, 2021-11) Cindi, Lungile; Mosimege, MogegeSouth Africa is a proudly and richly diverse country with several indigenous groups across its nine provinces. Indigenous people have a vast array of knowledge by which they have lived and sustained their livelihoods for ages. The impacts of colonisation and globalisation have meant that over time, this knowledge has been lost and not imparted to younger generations. This challenge has intensified efforts towards preserving African Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AIKS). After 1994, one of the important goals that need to be achieved is social justice and this can be attained through inclusive education. Education needs to foster the diversity of our country and continent from the foundation face by placing value on AIKS. One of the ways in which this can be done is through its inclusion in the curriculum. There has been an increasing focus on Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and its value globally, with organisations such as the World Bank and the United Nations recognising the importance of this knowledge in achieving sustainable development for indigenous communities. The current educational system in South Africa and many other African countries is still westernised and there have been many calls to decolonise the local curriculum. At the same time, there have been efforts to align the curriculum with constitutional principles and values through the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) Grades R-12 and the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS). These principles and values include human rights, inclusivity, environmental focus, social justice and valuing of indigenous knowledge systems. Through CAPS, educators are encouraged to make innovative use of various knowledge systems including indigenous knowledge to achieve inclusive education. There is, however, little mention of how educators should make use of IKS when teaching the different subjects that are in the curriculum. The focus of this study was, therefore, to find out how AIKS can be incorporated into the basic education curriculum in South African schools. The study also aimed to find out whether AIKS implementation at the classroom level is being realised. This was done by studying the educators’ experiences with the incorporation of AIKS into the current curriculum. To achieve the research’s objectives, a qualitative study was conducted using the case study design, informed by the systems and symbolic interactionism theories. Two schools were selected, one from Gauteng and the other from KwaZulu-Natal. Both primary and secondary data sources were useful in reaching the findings. Focus groups were held with the educators from the schools. The semi-structured interview approach with a representative from the DBE broadened the scope of the study. Results were organised thematically in accordance with the research questions and objectives. The findings revealed that although there is the requirement to include IKS in the curriculum, there is no clear indication of how this should to be done. Educators require more support from the Department of Basic Education (DBE) in terms of direction on how to implement AIKS into their lessons. Educators also require training and material support. It was also evident that educators have an idea through their lived experiences of what AIKS is and were able to provide examples. Some have attempted minimally to use AIKS in their lessons. Mostly, the educators agreed that there is value in incorporating indigenous knowledge into the curriculum. There are however challenges that are experienced by educators in trying to include AIKS in their lessons, such as time constraints during lessons, lack of clear support and limited content and materials to achieve this goal. The themes that emerged during the study were AIKS and the rural context, indigenous games, folklore/storytelling, traditional medicines, restoration of pride and Ubuntu and sustainable livelihoods. Some of the recommendations that came out of the study were the development of AIKS content for teaching, the introduction of AIKS campaigns and drives in schools and communities, the inclusion of different role players in the AIKS development process and the development of monitoring and evaluation systems to track AIKS development progress. Further research can focus on learners’ perspectives of AIKS and the development of different models that could form the basis of AIKS implementation in the curriculum. Further research is also suggested on the use of AIKS to improve the livelihoods of learners and their households.Item Open Access Marian shrine pilgrimages: a multi-sited exploration of Ngome, Maseru Farm and Ha Ramabanta(University of the Free State, 2021-11) Ramonaheng, Seithati Mosa Portia; Du Plooy, ShirleyPilgrimages take place all over the world for various reasons which range from spirituality to tourism. These are journeys embarked on by a group of people or an individual, stretching from one place to the other. In South Africa, various religions have specific pilgrimages to their designated sacred places. Equally, Catholics have their pilgrimages to Marian shrines; be it where there is a Marian apparition or where there isn’t any. The lack of research on Marian pilgrimages instigated this study. This study focuses on three Marian shrines, each with unique characteristics. They are Ngome Marian shrine, Fatima Ha Ramabanta and Fatima Maseru Farm. Ngome Marian shrine and Fatima Maseru Farm are located in South Africa although in different provinces. Fatima Ha Ramabanta is in Lesotho. There was a Marian apparition in Ngome Marian shrine while, in the two Fatima pilgrimages there are no apparitions. All three sites used for the case studies are sacred to Catholics and often visited by them. Their reasons for embarking on these pilgrimages differ from person to person and are not so general as often believed. The reasons for going on a are twofold; spiritual and materialistic. The spiritual reasons for going on a pilgrimage for my participants are among others; to be in solitude with the divine mother, to gain spiritual fulfilment, to offer gratitude and express penitence through the sacrament of reconciliation which is known as confessions. On the other hand, the materialistic reasons for going on a pilgrimage include praying for wellness and success. The main reason for going on a Marian pilgrimage for my participants was healing; both materialistic and spiritually. Water become an important topic in this study. Pilgrims get holy water from the shrine which they use for both domestic and spiritual purposes. These domestic purposes are bathing, washing and cooking, while the spiritual purposes are cleansing and healing. Rain also played an important role to my participants as they had different interpretations of what it means when it rains at the end of the pilgrimage. Pilgrims see Mary as the mother and the intercessor whom they run to both in good times. Just as a mother does, Mary protects and takes care of her children especially those who run to her. When a pilgrim is at the Marian shrines, it is important to respect the sacred space at all times.Item Open Access The experiences of newly initiated Basotho men in selected Botshabelo high schools, Free-State Province(University of the Free State, 2017) Monyela, Ntsofa Clasper; Ntombana, LuvuyoThis research study in selected high schools in Botshabelo, in the Free State, sought to analyse, understand and present the lived experiences of newly initiated Basotho men, when they are incorporated back into the high school environment. Such experiences include how they see themselves as new men, how they are received and treated by both male and female teachers, as well as their interaction with other learners. Therefore, this research study was conducted within the methodology of ethnography as an academic requirement, grounded in empirical work in the discipline of African studies. The theoretical framework underpinned in this study centred mainly on two theories: 1) The Rite of Passage as proposed by Van Gennep (1960); and 2) The Psychosocial Theory proposed by Erikson (1956 and 1977). The findings noted a particular paradigm shift in the meaning of manhood which suggests and juxtaposes a dichotomy between Basotho’s cultural and traditional logic of the changing meaning of manhood in a contemporary South African context. This is influenced by an existing strong relationship between age and time for initiation, high school and initiation, as well as the type of education that ma-phura-khoatla receive from initiation. This study also noted that the newly initiated men experience mockery, stigmatization and intolerance from the majority of male teachers, a few female teachers, as well from some fellow learners. On the other hand, the findings noted a mutual and convivial relationship among the majority of female teachers, as well as other learners and the newly initiated men. Therefore, this suggests that there is a partial and very limited acknowledgement of cultural knowledge and recognition of initiation as one of the African indigenous cultural and traditional practices in these schools.Item Open Access Perceptions and attitudes regarding “corrective rape” among lesbian students at the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein(University of the Free State, 2016) Moleko, Nnuku E.; Lake, N.Post-apartheid South Africa is a country filled with conflicting ideas. While the Constitution enshrines the rights of sexual minorities, homophobic attitudes tend to reflect discriminatory behaviour within society. Homosexuality has been defined as un-African and news reports suggest that black lesbians are a particularly vulnerable minority in the country. While much research has focused on violence directed against black lesbians living in South African townships, this study focuses on the lived experiences of black lesbians in a university environment. South African Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) are considered safe spaces where students can express their sexuality more freely. For this reason I have chosen to examine the realities of an under-researched community, black lesbian students at the University of the Free State (UFS). The study has relied on a qualitative research design and semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight participants who come from different backgrounds but all study at the UFS. Data was transcribed and a thematic analysis was used to identify themes. Prominent themes that emerged during this process include: 1) silence around lesbian identity, 2) visibility and lesbian identity, 3) physical environment and lesbian identity.Item Open Access Fast track land reform in Matepatepa commercial farming area, Bindura district: effects on farm workers, 2000 – 2010(University of the Free State, 2015-11) Kufandirori, Joyline Takudzwa; Phimister, I. R.; Pilossof, R.English: This dissertation examines the effects of Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP) on farm workers from 2000 to 2010. It looks at how farm workers fared during and after the process and how they dealt with the new conditions that ensued. It examines the nature of their relationships with their new employers and how the conditions under which they were employed changed and the impact of such changes on their livelihoods. The thesis also surveys the conditions of farm workers who took up other sources of livelihood after the land reform programme. It uses a case study of Matepatepa Commercial Farming area as a window to investigate the impact of the land reform exercise on farm workers in Zimbabwe. Matepatepa is located about 22 kms north of Bindura, Mashonaland Central’s provincial capital. The thesis mainly utilises narratives from farm workers in Matepatepa to explain the nature of their participation in the land reform programme and examines their relationship with some of the players who were central to the process, for example, war veterans, the government and other peasant farmers. In order to obtain a clearer understanding of the effects of the reform on farm workers’ livelihoods, the study also focuses on their conditions before the land reform and how they nurtured and developed their relations with their employers. It investigates the impact of the FTLRP in the context of the wider nature of Zimbabwe’s political and economic environment and assesses the impact of Zimbabwe’s political economy in shaping farm workers’ reactions to the changes brought about by the land reform exercise. The study acknowledges the fraught political background within which the land reform programme was carried out and consequently investigates the effect of such a background in determining the parameters within which farm workers could manoeuvre.Item Open Access Chiefs and government in post-colonial Zimbabwe: the case of Makoni District, 1980-2014(University of the Free State, 2015-11) Nkomo, Lotti; Phimister, I. R.; Masakure, C.English: This study explores the relationship between chiefs and government in Zimbabwe during the period 1980-2014. It examines how the interactions between chiefs and government evolved over three and a half decades, with specific reference to the Makoni District of Manicaland Province. The abovementioned relationship was marked by three broad phases, namely 1980-1986, 1987-1999 and 2000-2014. The phases corresponded with variations in the political climate. These changes carry the central theme of the study, namely the way in which the relationship was informed by changing political imperatives. As the case of Makoni District reveals, chiefs were rejected by the independence government in 1980 for their perceived role as anti-nationalists; they were courted when political challenges began to appear in the late 1980s; and they were effectively co-opted when more powerful political threats emerged in 1999 with the rise of strong opposition politics. The defining features of the relationship evolved around the chiefs’ power over land and judicial affairs. At first, the chiefs were stripped of their judicial and land powers when their relationship with the government was characterised by hostility. These powers were restored when the government needed the chiefs’ political support. Using the case of Makoni chiefs, the aim of the study is to show how the ZANU PF government initially rejected and later co-opted chiefs in its administrative and political system for its hegemonic convenience.Item Open Access The colonial archive and contemporary chieftainship claims: the case of Zimbabwe, 1935 to 2014(University of the Free State, 2015-07) Bishi, George; Phimister, I. R.; Williams, R.English: This thesis focuses on the uses of the colonial archive in contemporary Zimbabwe by people and families claiming chieftaincy. It uses five selected case studies: Chidziva in Masvingo, Sanyanga and Mutsago in Manicaland, Seke in Mashonaland East, and Musaigwa in Mashonaland Central Provinces of Zimbabwe. All these cases submitted written claims reports to the Ministry of Local Government for consideration for traditional leadership positions. These claims were made after Zimbabwe’s Fast Track Land Reform of 2000. At the same time, the government empowered traditional leaders to win their support against the Movement for Democratic Change (MDC). As a result of these developments, claimants to chieftaincy also emerged. To convince Local Government officials, claimants were expected to submit elaborate claims reports showing their genealogies, family trees, chieftaincies histories and territorial boundaries. It is in these circumstances that claimants resort to the National Archives of Zimbabwe (NAZ) looking for their histories in the colonial archive. Claimants hire ethnographers, archaeologists and historians to document their family or clan histories. Claimants and contracted historians both rely on colonial documents for evidence. They also use oral evidence to compliment archival evidence or to dispute it if the colonial record does not support the claimant’s case. In the light of these contemporary claims to chieftaincy, this dissertation discusses the establishment of the NAZ, not only as a site of ‘national memory’ but also as a strategic research institution so far as chieftaincy is concerned. It analyses the generation of archival sources, their acquisition and accessibility governed by access regimes at the NAZ and how this subsequently affects chieftaincy research. The dissertation discusses the nature and usefulness of archival sources claimants used to document claims reports. In the process, this study suggests supplementary sources within and without NAZ repositories that are overlooked by historians. The study also explores the dynamics of claims to chieftaincy in present day Zimbabwe. While some chieftaincy succession disputes predate colonialism, others are a product of colonial legacies. The study situates itself within the broader literature, the so-called indigenous historiography that emerged in the 1990s. It focuses on how indigenous peoples in countries such as Canada, New Zealand, Australia, South Africa and Malaysia filed land claims. They used customary rights, colonial treaties and archives for evidence to justify their claims. However, this thesis argues that archives can be used for political and social benefits by claimants of chieftaincy in Zimbabwe.Item Open Access Foreign capital, state and the development of secondary industry in Southern Rhodesia, 1939-1956(University of the Free State, 2015-07) Gwande, Victor Muchineripi; Phimister, I. R.; Van Zyl-Hermann, D.English: This thesis is a detailed historical study that examines the nature and extent of foreign capital investment in Southern Rhodesia (modern-day Zimbabwe) between 1939 and 1956, with particular focus on the development of secondary industry. A number of scholars have commented that, with the exception of South Africa, no country was as dominated by foreign capital as Southern Rhodesia. However, this claim has not been investigated empirically in great depth. The study therefore offers an account of the development of secondary industry and also demonstrates the penetration of foreign capital into this sector. This thesis argues that, while the development of secondary industries had gathered momentum during the war years, the inflow of foreign capital into secondary industries really increased during the post-war period. The trend in foreign capital inflows and the expansion of industries was consolidated by the establishment of the Central African Federation in 1953. The increase in manufacturing production occurred alongside the establishment of new industrial ventures initiated by European immigrants and local residents. In the same period influential British and South African companies took over existing small local concerns resulting in concentration of industrial production in the hands of few, big corporations. Most foreign capital came from Britain and South Africa and to a lesser extent, from the United States of America and Italy. Foreign capital came in the form of foreign direct investment or local take-overs or in a small measure through immigrants. This thesis also addressed foreign capital’s relations and partnership with the Southern Rhodesian state during this time in funding basic services and facilities pertinent to industrial development. The role of foreign capital in Southern Rhodesia’s industrialisation process was also considered in relation to the contemporaneous phenomenon of Import Substitution Industrialisation (ISI), as well as the influence of South Africa, and it concluded that industrialisation in Southern Rhodesia displayed many of the tenets of ISI as observed in Latin America.Item Open Access A study of rituals performed at two sacred sites in the eastern Free State(University of the Free State, 2011-11) Mensele, M. S.; Malete, E. N.; Nel, P. J.Oral tradition and diverse literary sources in Sesotho indicate that African peoples have for centuries been performing rituals for different purposes at the sacred sites, such as caves within their communities as well as their families. Ritual performance has served the Basotho well as a means of celebrating their religious beliefs and communication with God through ancestors (Machobane and Manyeli, 2001: 4). This study, therefore, takes its cue from this common African ritual tradition and aims to examine different rituals performed at the two sacred sites in the Eastern Free State, namely, Badimong near Rosendal and Motouleng near Clarens. These two caves were selected because of their prominence within the Basotho cultural tradition and history. The study mainly highlights the classification of rituals and the use of local language as a mode of typification of different ritual performances. The Sesotho names given to rituals and their meaning have been communicated in Sesotho and in English. Variations in the structure of rituals have been examined and highlighted including how and where as well as when the given rituals are performed. The significance of each ritual performance is also dealt with in the study. Interpretation of the Sesotho language used in ritual performance is important as interviews were conducted in Sesotho and later translated into English while still serving the purpose of the survey in classifying the major kinds and Sesotho names given to ritual performances at the two sacred sites. In this way, the study retains its aim to categorize and classify types of rituals performed at the two sacred sites specified while examining the role of language in ritual performance together with the structure and significance of rituals. The major research questions were: What is the extent and nature of rituals performed at sacred sites in the Eastern Free State? How can the rituals at the sacred sites be classified so that the local user community’s conceptualization is fully acknowledged? The major research questions directly relate to a survey and clarification of rituals performed at the sacred sites mentioned. Notion was taken that the classification of rituals cannot be done without an exploration of the different rituals in terms of their space, time, actors, audience, structure and materials. All in all, the research design is basically an explorative survey of rituals performed at the two sacred sites mentioned in the Eastern Free State. This study, therefore, employed a qualitative-explorative approach. An increased popularity of the two caves also provided an ideal opportunity to explore a wide range of rituals within centralized geographical localities. The research findings indicates that ritual activities at the sacred sites need to be taken seriously due to their association with ancestral and religious Basotho beliefs which have been an integral and is still said to be an important part in the cultural, spiritual and religious beliefs of most local user communities of the sacred sites under study. The recommendations made are that more literary sources should be made available in which ritual activities at sacred sites are not merely elaborated upon as superstitious or traditional African dilemma but as healthy, informative, religious and valuable practice that should be acknowledged and contextualized with the respect that it deserves. It is also recommended that the two major sacred sites mentioned should be preserved and maintained as sources of African Traditional Indigenous Knowledge in the Eastern Free State.Item Open Access Exploring narratives of women in leadership in post-conflict societies(University of the Free State, 2014-07-04) Morojele, Naleli; Gobodo-MadikizelaIn 2014 Rwanda had the highest representation levels of women in a national legislature. South Africa ranked eighth in the world. This is in the context of diverse women’s representation levels around the world and regionally. As a result of this diversity there is a growing academic interest and literature on women and politics. Since attaining these relatively high representation levels Rwanda and South Africa have become the subject of a growing body of research on women and leadership in Sub-Saharan Africa. This study contributes to this area of research on women and politics. The aim of this study was to gather life narratives of women in political leadership in Rwanda and South Africa in order to understand the significance of life experiences in paths to leadership and motivations as women leaders. A qualitative methodology was used as it enables for a contextual and temporal analysis of social phenomena. Women political leaders from Rwanda and South Africa were interviewed about their life experiences, how they entered politics and/or government, and they were also asked about their views on instruments such as gender quotas, as well as their views on criticisms of women’s leadership in their countries. This study found that while not all women leaders benefit from gender quotas they overwhelmingly support them as a means of increasing women’s representation where patriarchal gender ideologies and structural gender inequalities exist. It was also found that women leaders’ personal experiences are the result of the context within which they occur. These are experiences that are a result of their social locations in the societies in which they grew up. Their social locations in specific contexts influenced them in terms of their access to education, their professions, and their entries into politics. For some of these women it led to the development of a consciousness of the different kinds of inequalities that exist in society and the need create a country in which racial, gender and class inequalities do not exist (South Africa). For other women it is a realisation of the necessity of having an efficient government and a growing economy to promote peace and maintain a stable society and the importance of using woman as a resource to achieve this objective (Rwanda).Item Open Access A history of mining in Broken Hill (Kabwe): 1902-1929(University of the Free State, 2015-02) Mufinda, Buzandi; Phimister, I. R.; Koorts, L.English: This study has attempted to write a history of the Broken Hill mine in the period from 1902 to 1929. Despite the mine being the first large enterprise to be opened in Zambia, its history is largely unknown. Much of the information on which this dissertation is based was derived from archival research, primarily in the National Archives of Zambia in Lusaka; the Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Archive in Ndola; and the Livingstone Museum in Livingstone. Chapter one introduces the study. Chapter two examines the origin and development of the Broken Hill mine from 1902 to 1913. During this period, the productiveness and profitability of the Broken Hill mine was hampered by the problems of treatment of complex ores, expensive railway freights and the irregular supply of labour. In 1914 the First World War started and Chapter three traces the impact of the war on Broken Hill mine. The war was largely responsible for delays in the delivery of materials for the construction of a new treatment plant and furnaces. Because of the influenza epidemic, the mine closed towards the end of the year. However, the war also provided opportunities for the mine to increase its production, sales and profits. In particular, the war led to a high demand for lead and zinc; an increase in the price of base metals; further reduction on railway rates by the Rhodesia Railways Company and the good prices of lead and zinc in London. This was a boost to increase the supply of the metals. Yet, the Rhodesia Broken Hill mine failed to make the most of such opportunities largely because of the recurring problem of treating complex ores. During the war, considerable effort was devoted to lead-zinc experiments, as the mine searched for better methods of treating the ores. In fact the mine was only once able to supply lead to Britain’s Ministry of Munitions. Chapter four covers the position of the Broken Hill mine between 1919 and 1929. The period after the end of the war witnessed a tremendous increase in production, sales and profit margins. There was also greater infrastructure development at Broken Hill than ever before. Although between 1902 and 1929 production in terms of quantity and quality, sales and profits never reached hoped-for figures, they did roughly triple after the end of the war. This was made possible by the fact that Broken Hill mine was increasingly able to utilise cheap black labour, as well as cheap hydro-electric power. At the same time, the ores became richer even as the price of spelter increased. In the 1920s, Broken Hill mine benefited from a low cost of production per ton of lead and zinc and a selling price per ton that was nearly double the cost of production. Indeed, Rhodesia Broken Hill mine enjoyed lower production costs than most of mines in the world.Item Open Access A history of marriage and citizenship: Kalanga women’s experiences in post-colonial Botswana until 2005(University of the Free State, 2015-02) Sechele, Unaludo; Phimister, I. R.; Spence, D.English: This study examines Kalanga women‟s experiences in relation to marriage and citizenship legislation in Botswana between 1966 and 2005. The analyses of the study are based on legislation affecting all women in Botswana, but are specifically focused on a group of rural women of Kalanga origin. A number of legislations in Botswana affected the Kalanga women, but the emphasis of this study falls on the Citizenship Act (1984), leading to its amendment in 1995, and the Abolition of Marital Power Act (2004). The Citizenship Act (1984) had to be amended because it discriminated against women as it rendered the passing on of citizenship to children patrilineal. The Abolition of Marital Power Act (2004), on the other hand, came about as a result of oppression that married women faced as they did not have rights and were considered minors as per common and customary law. This study also traces the events of the Unity Dow case, and the extent to which it helped improve the status of Kalanga women. Dow took the government to Court in 1990 as she believed that she too had the right to pass citizenship on to her children despite the fact that she was married to a foreign citizen. The High Court and the Court of Appeal ruled in her favour as the Act itself contradicted the country‟s constitution. Kalanga women who faced the same challenge as Unity Dow benefited from the court ruling. After the Government lost the case it was forced to amend either the Citizenship Act (1984) or the constitution. Amending the constitution so as to allow gender discrimination was not an option. This was because the world had started to pay attention to women‟s rights in Botswana. The patriarchal nature of the Kalanga ethnic group, gave men marital power. Hence, this study examined how the Abolition of Marital Power Act (2004) improved the status of women in their families and examined whether they benefited from the newly instituted Act.Item Open Access The incorporation of indigenous knowledge in land reform projects: the Basotho Letjhabile and Maolosi Trust agricultural projects(University of the Free State, 2009) Akenji, Maghah Josephine; Cawood, S.; Nel, P.J.Indigenous peoples around the world have sought knowledge of physical reality throughout the ages. Their understanding of the physical universe is codified in their knowledge systems. However, often the content of agricultural information in less developed countries is devoid of inputs from the indigenous people. It is based on the need to modernise agriculture without consideration of the goals and strategies of indigenous people. Indigenous agriculture, however, as it was originally applied prior to colonisation and apartheid, as is the case with South Africa, can neither be fully resumed nor would it satisfy the world food needs and recession crisis of the ever-increasing world population. It will, however, if taken on a solemn note, have a significant impact on the world food production (World Bank 2005). Despite the enormous value of IKS in the sustainable management of natural resources, the world has suffered and continues to suffer from a profound loss of indigenous peoples, rural groups, and their knowledge about the natural world, which has been constructed from their intimate ties to land and place. This loss has been accompanied by neglect and the marginalisation of their practices and beliefs often figured as inferior forms of knowing that should be replaced by universalised knowledge derived from the western scientific traditions (Hardison 2005). This study is an exploration of how indigenous knowledge, which has been marginalised over the years, is incorporated in Land Reform Projects of agricultural development. It is an attempt to help indigenous people regain the value of their knowledge. Employing a multidisciplinary method, the work presents an analysis of indigenous knowledge practices in agricultural land reform projects (Basotho Letjhabile and Maolosi Trust), and how indigenous knowledge contributes to sustainability and transformation with these two community projects.