Oil politics in Ecuador and Nigeria: a perspective from environmental history on the struggles between ethnic minority groups, multinational oil companies and national governments

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Date
2003-11
Authors
Steyn, Maria Sophia
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Publisher
University of the Free State
Abstract
English: Oil-related struggles by ethnic minority groups against their national governments and multinational oil companies active in their traditional territories in South America and Africa have made headlines across the world in recent years. Fuelled in particular by a post-Cold War world order with its emphasis on environmental and human rights, and the rediscovery of minority groups, oil-producing ethnic minority groups set out in the course of the 1990s to confront perceived and real political, economic, social and environmental marginalisation suffered due to the perpetuation of historical inequalities which became more pronounced and intensified with the onset of oil developments and production in their traditional territories. While the adverse human and environmental consequences of oil production in their traditional territories triggered these oil-related ethnic minority struggles in South America and Africa in the 1990s, their struggles should not be viewed merely in environmental and human rights terms. On the contrary, they are as much struggles against long histories of political, economic and social marginalisation suffered at the hands of their national governments and the dominant cultures in their countries, as they are struggles against the multinational oil companies active in their traditional land. The purpose of this study is to explore the environmental and human impacts of oil developments on oil-producing ethnic minority groups in South America and Africa, by focusing on the oil-related struggles of the Cofan and the Siona -Secoya Indians in Ecuador and that of Ken Saro-Wiwa and the Ogoni in Nigeria. The Cofan, the Siona-Secoya and the Ogoni were marginalized over an extended period that commenced with the onset of colonial rule in 1533 in Ecuador and the late nineteenth century in Nigeria. Consequently their struggles waged in the course of the 1990s against Texaco and the Ecuadorian government, and Shell and the Nigerian government respectively, are essentially political, economic and environmental struggles to confront both real and perceived domination and marginalisation on numerous levels. In political terms, the Cofan and the Siona-Secoya confronted the real political marginalisation of Indian communities in Ecuador that had relegated Indians to the lowest strata of Ecuadorian society for centuries, while the Ogoni in Nigeria confronted real and perceived political domination in a Nigerian society characterised by political domination by majority ethnic groups. Political marginalisation is very closely related to economic and environmental marginalisation, since both Ecuador and Nigeria depend entirely on natural resource exploitation for their economic survival. As a result, oil production in the territories of the Cofan, the Siona-Secoya and the Ogoni have over time contributed greatly to the national economies of Ecuador and Nigeria, but these minorities have generally not shared in the economic benefits of oil production, while at the same time being forced to cope with the adverse environmental impacts of unregulated and uncontrolled oil developments and production by Texaco and Shell respectively. However, while the Ogoni in general aspire to share in the modernising benefits associated with an oil economy, the Cofan and the Siona-Secoya in Ecuador wage their oil-related struggle in order to counter their forceful incorporation into a modern economy, to protect their traditional lifestyles which are the defining elements of their cultures, and to obtain the right to shape modernity according to their own needs and on their own terms. There is no question that oil production by Texaco and Shell has had a detrimental environmental and human impact on the Cofan and the Siona-Secoya, and the Ogoni respectively, and that the Ecuadorian and Nigerian governments have paid scant attention to the environmental management and regulation of their oil industries, which exacerbated the adverse environmental impacts of oil production in the Oriente in Ecuador and Ogoniland in Nigeria. However, Texaco and Shell were slow to acknowledge and address these adverse environmental impacts of their oil-related activities in the two countries, with Shell only doing so in 1996 in reaction to negative public reaction in Europe to the company's involvement in Ogoniland (and the Brent Spar incident of 1995), while there is to date no real commitment to social and environmental responsibility from Texaco. In addition, very little is being done by the Ecuadorian and Nigerian governments to implement and enforce stringent environmental controls in their oil industries. Until this is done there is no real possibility of a successful outcome to the Cofan and Siona-Secoya, and the Ogoni struggles, and consequently these three minority groups will continue to be subjected to the adverse environmental impacts of oil production and/or its legacy in the forseeable future.
Afrikaans: In die loop van die afgelope paar jaar het die verset van etniese minderheidsgroepe teen hul regerings en multinasionale oliemaatskappye in Suid-Amerika en Afrika, hoofopskrifte gehaal. Olieproduserende etniese minderheidsgroepe het gedurende die 1990's begin om sowel beweerde as werklike politieke, ekonomiese, sosiale an omgewingsmarginalisering aan te spreek. Die konfrontasie is aangevuur deur veral die post-Koue Oorlogwêreldorde waar die klem op omgewings - en menseregte begin val het, tesame met die herontdekking van minderheidsgroepe, veral Indiaangemeenskappe in die Amerikas. Marginalisering het ontstaan as gevolg van voortgesette historiese ongelykhede wat geïntensifiseer het met die aanvang van olie -ontdekking en –produksie in hul tradisionele gebiede. Terwyl die negatiewe menslike en omgewingsgevolge van olieproduksie in die tradisionele gebiede olieverwante etniese minderheidsverset in Suid-Amerika en Afrika in die 1990's ontketen het, behoort die stryd nie uitsluitlik gesien te word in terme van omgewings- en menseregte nie. Inteendeel, dit is eweneens verset teen 'n geskiedenis van politieke, ekonomiese en sosiale marginalisering, gely aan die hand van hul regerings en die dominante kulture, en dit is ook verset teen multinasionale oliemaatskappye wat aktief in hul tradisionele gebiede werksaam is. Die doel van hierdie studie is om die impak van olie -ontwikkeling op sowel die omgewing as op olieproduserende etniese minderheidsgroepe in Suid-Amerika en Afrika te ontleed deur te fokus op die olieverwante verset van die Cofan- en die Siona- Secoya -Indiane in Ecuador, en Ken Saro-Wiwa en die Ogoni in Nigerië. In hierdie lande is die Cofan, die Siona -Secoya en die Ogoni gemarginaliseer, wat begin het met die aanvang van kolonialisme in Ecuador in 1533, en in die laat negentiende eeu in Nigerië. In die 1990's het hulle teen onderskeidelik Texaco en die Ecuadoriaanse regering, en Shell en die Nigeriese regering, in verset gekom, ten einde sowel werklike as beweerde dominasie en marginalisering op politieke, ekonomiese en omgewingsvlak te beveg. Ecuador het deur die eeue heen die Indiaanse gemeenskappe onderdruk. Op sy beurt word ook die Nigeriese samelewing gekenmerk deur politieke dominering deur die meerderheids etniese groepe. Olieproduksie in die gebiede van die Cofan, die Siona -Secoya en die Ogoni het deur die jare heen geweldig baie bygedra tot die nasionale ekonomieë van Ecuador en Nigerië, maar hierdie minderheidsgroepe het nie in die welvaart van olieproduksie gedeel nie, en moes terselfdertyd bly voortbestaan ten spyte van die nadelige omgewingsimpak van ongereguleerde en ongekontroleerde olie-ontwikkeling en -produksie deur onderskeidelik Texaco and Shell. Die Ogoni het oor die algemeen gestreef om te deel in die moderniserende voordele wat gepaard gaan met 'n olie -ekonomie. Die Cofan en die Siona-Secoya in Ecuador, daarenteen, het hul olieverwante verset voortgesit teen gedwonge deelname aan 'n moderne ekonomie, ten einde hulle tradisionele leefstyle, wat kenmerkend van hul kulture is, te behou, asook om die reg te verkry om te moderniseer volgens hulle eie behoeftes en voorwaardes. lieproduksie deur Taxaco en Shell het ongetwyfeld 'n skadelike impak op die omgewing, asook op die Cofan, die Siona-Secoya en die Ogoni gehad, en die Ecuadoriaanse en Nigeriese regerings het min aandag gegee aan die omgewingsbestuur en regulering van hul olie-industrieë. Olieproduksie in die Oriente in Ecuador en Ogoniland in Nigerië het die nadelige omgewingsimpak vererger. Texaco en Shell was egter traag om die negatiewe omgewingsimpakte van hulle olieverwante aktiwiteite te erken en aan te spreek. In reaksie op negatiewe openbare reaksie in Europa oor die maatskappy se betrokkenheid in Ogoniland (en die Brent Spar-insident van 1995), het Shell dit eers in 1996 begin aanspreek. Tot op hede het Texaco egter nog geen werklike verbintenis tot sosiale en omgewingsverantwoordelikheid aanvaar nie. Ook is daar nog geen onderneming van die Ecuadoriaanse of Nigeriese regerings om streng omgewingsbeheer in hul oliebedrywe te implementeer nie. Om hierdie rede is daar nie werklik 'n vooruitsig vir die Cofan, die Siona-Secoya en die Ogoni om hul versetstryde suksesvol te voltooi nie, en gevolglik sal hierdie drie minderheidsgroepe vir die voorsienbare toekoms steeds onderworpe bly aan die negatiewe omgewingsimpak van die oliebedryf in Ecuador en in Nigerië.
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Keywords
Human ecology -- Equador, Human ecology -- Nigeria, Petroleum industry and trade -- Environmental aspects -- Equador, Petroleum industry and trade -- Environmental aspects -- Nigeria, Thesis (Ph.D. (History))--University of the Free State, 2003
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