Understanding resilience pathways to climate change in a changing rangeland environment amongst pastoral societies of Afar Region, Ethiopia

Abstract

Die verandering in klimaat asook klimaatsekstreme word toenemend erken as ’n belangrike uitdaging vir landelike produksiestelsels. Die veerkragtigheid van landelike huishoudings teen klimaatsgeïnduseerde skokke hang af van die kennis, vaardighede en bates van huishoudings. Die huidige studie is in die Suidelike Afar-streek van Ethiopië uitgevoer om die veerkragtigheid van landelike gemeenskappe teen klimaatsverandering en -variasie in ’n veranderende weidingsomgewing te verstaan. Hierdie studie het die Mann-Kendall-toets, die Sen se helling-skattingstoets en die Gestandaardiseerde Neerslagindeks gebruik om die tendense van klimaatsverandering en -variasie, sowel as die jaarlikse en seisoenale afwykings in reënval, te ontleed en die erns van droogtes in dié studiegebied te bepaal. ’n Vraelysopname op huishoudelike vlak en fokusgroepbesprekings is gebruik om primêre data in te samel. ’n Totaal van 250 landelike huishoudings is geselekteer deur gestratifiseerde ewekansige steekproefneming. Die data wat verkry is, is ontleed deur gebruik te maak van beskrywende statistiek, ’n hoofkomponentanalise, lineêre regressie en Tobit-modelle. Daarbenewens is ’n satellietbeeldanalise en veldwaarneming gebruik om die veranderinge in grondgebruik en grondbedekking in die Suidelike Afar-streek te ondersoek. Die resultate het ’n beduidende afname in reënval gedurende die Sugum (lente)-seisoen en ’n toename gedurende die Karma (somer)-seisoen in die studiegebied getoon. Geen beduidende tendense is egter vir langtermyn jaarlikse reënval waargeneem nie. Die variasiekoëffisiënt van seisoenale reënval het gewissel tussen 25,2 en 42,7, wat die sterk variasie in reënval tussen seisoene aandui. Waardes van die Neerslagkonsentrasie-indeks het ook ’n sterk, onreëlmatige verspreiding van reënval in die studiegebied getoon wat meer onreëlmatig was in die Gewane-distrik as in die Amibara-distrik. ’n Ontleding van die Gestandaardiseerde Neerslagindeks het aangedui dat die totale persentasie droë jare (negatiewe afwykings in reënval) gewissel het van 53,3% (by Amibara) tot 43,3% (by Gewane), wat meer droogteperiodes in Amibara as in Gewane vir die waarnemingsperiodes impliseer. Die persentasies van uiterste droogtejare het egter gewissel van 6,7% (by Amibara) tot 10% (by Gewane). Die navorsing het ’n beduidende toenemende tendens in maandelikse, seisoenale en jaarlikse temperature vir die periode 1983–2014 bevestig. Die resultate het ook aangedui dat die gemiddelde jaarlikse temperatuur van die Suidelike Afar-streek met 0,67°C per dekade gestyg het, wat byna dubbel die nasionale toename is. As gevolg van die onbetroubare en wisselvallige aard van reënval en herhalende droogtes in die streek, het weiding en waterbeskikbaarheid skaars geword en veebates en produktiwiteit het in ’n hoë mate afgeneem. Die inkomste en batebesit van huishoudings het afgeneem, die markprys van vee het gedaal terwyl die prys van graanvoedsel gestyg het. As gevolg van die toenemende armoede in die Suidelike Afar-streek is die informele veiligheidsnetwerk en wedersydse ondersteuningsisteem ondermyn en individualisme het toegeneem. Landelike huishoudings het verskeie strategieë gevolg om aan te pas by die invloed van klimaatsgeïnduseerde skokke en om die spanning te hanteer. Die belangrikste strategieë wat deur die plaaslike gemeenskappe aangewend is, sluit gemengde veeboerdery en gewasverbouing, mobiliteit, verandering in kuddespesiesamestelling en -skeiding, verminderde verbruik, remise, kontant-vir-werk-programme, houtskoolverbranding en verkoop van vuurmaakhout asook voedselhulp in. Die inheemse vroeë waarskuwingstelsel en wedersydse ondersteuning tussen uitgebreide families, bure en die gemeenskap het steeds ’n belangrike rol gespeel in die bevordering van landelike huishoudings se veerkragtigheid, alhoewel die inheemse waarskuwingstelsel nie in die formele stelsel geïntegreer is nie en die informele veiligheidsnetwerke afgeneem het. Die resultate het verder aangedui dat agro-landelike huishoudings meer veerkragtig was teen klimaatsgeïnduseerde skokke as uitsluitlik landelike huishoudings. Huishoudings in die Gewane-distrik was ook meer veerkragtig as dié in die Amibara-distrik. Daarbenewens was huishoudings onder die leiding van vroue minder veerkragtig as dié onder die leiding van mans. Die bevindinge het verder getoon dat besproeiingsgewasverbouing, veebesit, opvoedingsvlak, inkomste per capita, mobiliteit en kuddeskeiding, verandering in kuddesamestelling, arbeid, remise, voedselhulp, toegang tot krediet, markte en formele vroeë waarskuwingsinligting ’n beduidende invloed gehad het op die veerkragtigheid van huishoudings teen klimaatsgeïnduseerde skokke en spanning. Die ontleding van huishoudings se kwesbaarheid het aangedui dat 28,8% van landelike huishoudings hoogs kwesbaar, 53,6% matig kwesbaar en 17,6% minder kwesbaar was teen klimaatsgeïnduseerde skokke en spanning. Die belangrikste drywers wat die vlak van kwesbaarheid bepaal het, was geslag, ouderdom en die huwelikstatus van die huishouding, huishoudingsgrootte, opvoedingsvlak, voorligtingsdienste, boerdery-ervaring, vroeë waarskuwingsinligting, veebates, besproeiingsboerdery, nieboerdery-inkomste, veemobiliteit, radio-eienaarskap, afstand tot mark en veeartsenykliniek, toegang tot krediet en landbou-insette, die aantal siek familielede, die aantal maande met voedseltekorte gedurende die normale seisoen van die jaar, en die aantal afhanklikes in die huishouding. Die resultate het ook aangedui dat daar tussen 1985 en 2015 ’n beduidende verlies aan grasbedekking (64,5%), ’n matige afname in bewerkte land (24%) en ’n dramatiese toename in struik- en bosbedekking (114,3%) was. Gevolglik is toegang tot weidingshulpbronne en landbougrond vir landelike gemeenskappe ernstig beperk, wat hierdie gemeenskappe onder toenemende bedreiging plaas. Die indringing van Prosopis juliflora, klimaatsverandering en -variasie, regeringsingryping en bevolkingsgroei (in afnemende volgorde van invloed) was die geïdentifiseerde drywers van verandering in grondgebruik en grondbedekking. Indien die verbetering van landelike huishoudings se veerkragtigheid die finale doelwit is, behoort die regering en ander vennootorganisasies eerder op langtermyn strategiese bestaansintervensies as op noodlenigingsintervensies te fokus deur plaaslike gemeenskappe toe te rus met die vermoë om klimaatgeïnduseerde skokke en spanning vroegtydig te bestuur en daarop te reageer. Verder behoort beleidmakers ’n beleid te ontwikkel vir die beheer van Prosopis juliflora, die toeganklikheid van weidingsgebiede vir beweiding te verseker en die tradisionele instellings te versterk vir die doeltreffende bestuur van weidingshulpbronne.

Change in climate and climate extremes are increasingly being acknowledged as a vital challenge to pastoral production systems. The resilience of pastoral households to climate-induced shocks depends on the knowledge, skills of households and assets. The present study was conducted in the Southern Afar region in Ethiopia to understand the resilience of pastoralists to climate change and variability in a changing rangeland environment. This study used the Mann-Kendall statistical test, the Sen’s slope estimator test and the Standardised Precipitation Index to analyse the trends of climate change and variability and the annual and seasonal anomalies of rainfall, and assess the severity of droughts in the study area. A household questionnaire survey and focus group discussion were employed to collect primary data at household level. A total of 250 pastoral households were sampled using stratified random sampling. The data obtained were analysed using descriptive statistics, principal component analysis and linear regression, as well as Tobit models. In addition, satellite image analysis and field observation were used to analyse the land-use/land-cover changes in the Southern Afar region. The results indicated a significant declining and increasing trend of Sugum (spring) season and Karma (summer) season rainfall, respectively in the study area. However, significant trend was not observed for long-term annual rainfall. The coefficient of variation of seasonal rainfall ranged from 25.2 to 42.7, indicating the strong variability of rainfall among the seasons. Precipitation Concentration Index values also indicated a strong, irregular distribution of rainfall in the study area which was more irregular in the Gewane than in the Amibara district. Analysis of the Standardised Precipitation Index indicated that the total percentage of dry years (negative anomalies of rainfall) ranged from 53.3% (at Amibara) to 43.3% (at Gewane), implying more drought periods in the Amibara than the Gewane district for the observation periods. However, the percentages of extreme drought years were from 6.7% (at Amibara) to 10% (at Gewane). The research has confirmed a significant increasing trend of monthly, seasonal and annual temperatures for the period 1983–2014. The results also indicated that the mean annual temperature of the Southern Afar has increased by 0.67 °C dec–1which is almost twice the national increase. Due to the unreliability and erratic nature of rainfall and recurrent droughts in the region, pasture and water availability became scarce and livestock assets and productivity reduced to a high degree, the income and asset ownership of households declined and the market price of livestock decreased, while the price of grain food increased. Due to deepening of poverty in the Southern Afar region, the informal safety net/mutual support system was eroded and individualism was increased. Furthermore, the pastoral households pursued different strategies to adapt/cope with climate-induced shocks and stresses. The most important strategies deployed by the local people included mixing livestock–crop farming, mobility, changing herd species composition and herd splitting, reduced consumption, remittance, cash-forwork, charcoal burning and firewood selling and food aid. The indigenous early warning system and mutual support among the extended families, neighbours and community were still significant to enhance the resilience of the pastoral households, though the indigenous early warning system was not integrated into the formal early warning system and the informal safety nets were eroded.

The results further indicated that agro-pastoral households were more resilient than pastoral households to climate-induced shock. Furthermore, households in the Gewane district were more resilient than those in the Amibara district. In addition, female-headed households were less resilient than male-headed households. The findings further indicated that irrigation crop farming, livestock ownership, education level, per capita income, mobility and herd splitting, herd composition change, labour, remittance, food aid, access to credit, market and formal early warning information had a significant impact on the resilience of households to climate-induced shocks and stresses. The findings of the household vulnerability analysis indicated that 28.8%, 53.6% and 17.6% of pastoralists were highly vulnerable, moderately vulnerable and less vulnerable, respectively, to climate-induced shocks and stresses. The most important drivers that determine the vulnerability level of households were gender, age and marital status of the household, household size, educational level, extension services, farming experience, early warning information, livestock asset, irrigation farming, non-farm income, livestock mobility, radio ownership, distance to market and veterinary clinic, access to credit and agricultural inputs, the number of sick family members, the number of months with food shortages during the normal season of the year and number of dependents in the household. The results also indicated that substantial loss of grassland cover (64.5%), moderate decline of cultivated land (24%) and a dramatic increment of shrub and bushland cover (114.3%) occurred between 1985 and 2015. Consequently, access to rangeland resources and farmlands for pastoralists was highly restricted, putting the pastoral communities under increasing threat. The identified drivers of land use/cover changes in the order of decreasing influence were the invasion of Prosopis juliflora, climate change, and variability, government intervention, and population growth. If enhancing the resilience of pastoral households is the final aim, the government and other partner organisations should focus more on long-term strategic livelihood interventions than on emergency relief interventions by equipping the local people with the capability to manage and respond to climate-induced shocks and stresses in the early stage of the crisis. Furthermore, the decision makers should develop a policy for controlling P. juliflora and ensuring accessibility of the rangeland to grazing and strengthening of the customary institution for effective management of rangeland resources.

Ukushintsha kwesimo sezulu kanye nezimo zezulu kuya ngokuya kuqashelwa njengenselele ebalulekile ezinhlelweni zokukhiqiza amadlelo. Ukuqina kwemizi yabelusi ekushayweni yisimo sezulu kuncike olwazini, emakhonweni emizi kanye nempahla. Ucwaningo lwamanje lwenziwe esifundeni sase-Ningizimu ye-Afar Etopiya ukuze kuqondwe ukukhuthazela kwabelusi ekushintsheni kwesimo sezulu kanye nokuguquguquka kwemvelo eguquguqukayo yezindawo ezifuywayo. Lolu cwaningo lusebenzise ukuhlolwa kwezibalo kwe-Mann-Kendall, ukuhlolwa kwesilinganisi somthambeka iSen kanye ne-Standardized Precipitation Index ukuze kuhlaziywe ukuthambekela kokushintsha kwesimo sezulu nokuhlukahluka kanye nokungahambi kahle kwaminyaka yonke nenkathi yemvula, kanye nokuhlola ubukhali besomiso endaweni yocwaningo. Kwasetshenziswa inhlolovo yohlu lwemibuzo yomndeni kanye nengxoxo yeqembu ukuze kuqoqwe idatha eyisisekelo ezingeni lasekhaya. Imindeni engama-250 yabelusi yathathwa kusetshenziswa amasampula angahleliwe. Idatha etholiwe yahlaziywa kusetshenziswa izibalo ezichazayo, ukuhlaziywa kwengxenye eyinhloko kanye nokuhlehla komugqa, kanye namamodeli eTobit. Ukwengeza, ukuhlaziywa kwesithombe sesathelayithi nokubhekwa kwenkundla kusetshenziswe ukuhlaziya izinguquko zokusebenzisa umhlaba/ikhava yomhlaba esifundeni saseNingizimu ye-Afar. Imiphumela ikhombise ukwehla okukhulu kanye nokukhula kwenkambiso yesizini yeSugum (entwasahlobo) kanye nemvula yesizini yeKarma (ehlobo), ngokulandelanayo endaweni yocwaningo. Nokho, ukuthambekela okuphawulekayo akuzange kubonwe ngemvula yesikhathi eside yonyaka. I-coefficient yokuhluka kwemvula yesizini yayisukela ema-25.2 kuya ema-42.7, okubonisa ukuhlukahluka okunamandla kwemvula phakathi kwezinkathi zonyaka. Amanani e-Precipitation Concentration Index aphinde abonisa ukusabalaliswa okuqinile, okungajwayelekile kwemvula endaweni yocwaningo eyayingajwayelekile e-Gewane kunasesifundeni sase-Amibara. Ukuhlaziywa kwe-Standardized Precipitation Index kubonise ukuthi isamba sephesenti leminyaka eyomile (izinkinga ezingezinhle zemvula) lalisuka ku-53.3% (e-Amibara) laya ku-43.3% (e-Gewane), okusho izikhathi zesomiso eziningi e-Amibara kunesifunda saseGewane ngezikhathi zokubuka. Nokho, amaphesenti eminyaka yesomiso esibi kakhulu ayesuka ku-6.7% (e-Amibara) aya ku-10% (e-Gewane). Ucwaningo luye lwaqinisekisa ukuthambekela okuphawulekayo okukhulayo kwamazinga okushisa anyanga zonke, unyaka nonyaka kusukela ngonyaka we-1983-2014. Imiphumela iphinde yaveza ukuthi izinga lokushisa lonyaka eNingizimu ye-Afar lenyuke ngo-0.67 °C dec–1 okucishe kube kabili ukwenyuka kwezwe lonke. Ngenxa yokungathembeki nokuguquguquka kwemvelo yemvula kanye nesomiso esiphindelelayo esifundeni, ukutholakala kwamadlelo namanzi kuye kwaba yindlala futhi impahla yemfuyo kanye nokukhiqiza kwehliswa ngezinga eliphezulu, imali engenayo kanye nobunikazi bempahla yemindeni yehla kanye nentengo yemakethe yemfuyo yehla, kuyilapho intengo yokudla okusanhlamvu ikhuphuka. Ngenxa yokudlondlobala kobumpofu esifundeni saseNingizimu ye-Afar, inetha yokuphepha engakahleleki/uhlelo lokusekelana lwaqedwa futhi kwanda ukucabangela komuntu ngamunye. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amakhaya abelusi alandele amasu ahlukene okuzivumelanisa/ukumelana nokushaqeka okubangelwa isimo sezulu kanye nezingcindezi. Amaqhinga abaluleke kakhulu asetshenziswa abantu bendawo ahlanganisa ukuxuba imfuyo-ukulima, ukuhambahamba, ukushintsha ukwakheka kwezinhlobo zemihlambi kanye nokuhlukaniswa kwemihlambi, ukunciphisa ukusetshenziswa, ukuthunyelwa kwemali, umsebenzi wemali, ukushiswa kwamalahle nokudayiswa kwezinkuni kanye nosizo lokudla. Uhlelo lokwexwayisa kusenesikhathi abomdabu kanye nokwesekana phakathi kwemindeni eyandisiwe, omakhelwane kanye nomphakathi bekusabalulekile ukuqinisa ukuqina kwemizi yabelusi, nakuba uhlelo lokuxwayisa ngentululwane yendabuko lwalungahlanganisiwe ohlelweni lokuxwayisa kusenesikhathi futhi amanetha okuphepha aguguleka. Imiphumela iphinde yaveza ukuthi imindeni yabalimi-belusi iyakwazi ukumelana nokushaqeka okudalwa yisimo sezulu kuneyakwalusayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, amakhaya esifundeni saseGewane ayekwazi ukumelana nalesi simo kunalawo asesifundeni sase-Amibara. Ukwengeza, imindeni ephethwe ngabesifazane ibingaqinile kangako kunemizi ephethwe ngamadoda. Okutholakele kuphinde kwaveza ukuthi ukulinywa kwezilimo eziniselwa ngenkasa, ubunikazi bemfuyo, izinga lemfundo, imali engenayo ngomuntu ngamunye, ukuhamba nokuhlukaniswa komhlambi, ukushintsha kwemihlambi, abasebenzi, ukuthunyelwa kwemali, usizo lokudla, ukuthola isikweletu, izimakethe kanye nolwazi olusemthethweni oluyisixwayiso kusenesikhathi kube nomthelela omkhulu ekuqineni kwemindeni ekushaqekeni nasekucindezelekeni okubangelwa yisimo sezulu. Okutholwe ekuhlaziyweni kokuba sengozini kwemizi kukhombise ukuthi ama-28.8%, 53.6% kanye no-17.6% abelusi basengozini kakhulu. Basengozini ngokusesilinganisweni futhi besengozini ngokulandelana, ngenxa yokushaqeka okubangelwa isimo sezulu kanye nengcindezi. Abashayeli ababaluleke kakhulu abanquma izinga lobungozi bemizi ubulili, ubudala kanye nesimo somshado wekhaya, ubukhulu bomndeni, izinga lemfundo, izinsizakalo zokwandisa, ulwazi lokulima, ulwazi oluyisixwayiso sangaphambi kwesikhathi, impahla yemfuyo, ukulima ngenkasa, imali engenayo yepulazi, ukuhamba kwemfuyo, ubunikazi bomsakazo, ibanga lokuya ezimakethe kanye nomtholampilo wezilwane, ukufinyelela kwezikweletu kanye nezinsiza zezolimo, inombolo yezinyanga ezijwayelekile zokudla kanye nenani lezinyanga zomndeni ogulayo yabondliwa ekhaya. Imiphumela iphinde yaveza ukuthi ukulahlekelwa okukhulu kwendawo yotshani (64.5%), ukwehla okumaphakathi kwendawo elinywayo (24%) kanye nokwenyuka okumangalisayo kwezihlahlana (114.3%) kwenzeka phakathi kuka-1985 no-2015. Ngenxa yalokho, ukufinyelela kwezinsiza zemihlaba kanye namapulazi kwabelusi kwaba nemingcele kakhulu, okubeka imiphakathi yabelusi engozini. Izizathu ezihlonziwe zokushintsha ukusetshenziswa komhlaba/ikhava ngohlelo lokuncipha kwethonya kwaba ukuhlasela kweProsopis juliflora, ukuguquka kwesimo sezulu, nokuhlukahluka, ukungenelela kukahulumeni, kanye nokwanda kwabantu. Uma ukuqinisa ukuqina kwemindeni yabelusi kuyinhloso yokugcina, uhulumeni nezinye izinhlangano ezibambisene nabo kufanele bagxile kakhulu ekungeneleleni kwamasu okuziphilisa okuhlala isikhathi eside kunasekungeneleleni kosizo oluphuthumayo ngokuhlomisa abantu bendawo amandla okuphatha nokubhekana nokushaqeka okubangelwa isimo sezulu kanye nezingcindezi ekuqaleni kwenhlekelele. Ngaphezu kwalokho, abenzi bezinqumo kufanele benze inqubomgomo yokulawula i-P. juliflora kanye nokuqinisekisa ukufinyeleleka kwendawo eklanyelwe ukuklama amadlelo futhi kuqiniswe isikhungo sesintu ukuze kuphathwe ngendlela efanele izinsiza zemihlaba.

Phetoho ya boemo ba lehodimo le maemo a lehodimo a feteletseng di ntse di nkwa e le phephetso ya bohlokwa tsamaisong ya tlhahiso ya makgulo. Ho tiya ha malapa a badisa ho tsitsipano e bakwang ke boemo ba lehodimo ho itshetlehile ka tsebo, ditsebo tsa malapa le thepa. Boithuto ba hona jwale bo entswe sebakeng sa Afar e Borwa naheng ya Ethiopia ho utlwisisa ho tiya ha badisa ho fetoha ha maemo a lehodimo le ho fetoha ha maemo a lehodimo. Boithuto bona bo sebedisitse tlhahlobo ya dipalopalo ya Mann-Kendall, tlhahlobo ya slope estimator ya Sen le Standardized Precipitation Index ho sekaseka mekgwa ya phetoho ya maemo a lehodimo le ho fetoha ha maemo a lehodimo a selemo le selemo a pula, le ho lekola botebo ba komello sebakeng sa diphuputso. Ho ile ha sebediswa dipatlisiso tsa lenane la dipotso tsa malapa le dipuisano tsa sehlopha ho bokella dintlha tsa pele maemong a lelapa. Kakaretso ya malapa a badisa a 250 a ile a etswa disampole ho sebediswa sampole e sa rerwang ya katamelo. Dintlha tse fumanweng di ile tsa hlahlojwa ho sebediswa dipalopalo tse hlalosang, tlhahlobo ya dikarolo tse ka sehloohong le ho fokotseha ha mela, hammoho le mehlala ya Tobit. Ho phaella moo, tlhahlobo ya ditshwantsho tsa sathelaete le ho shebella masimo di ile tsa sebediswa ho hlahloba diphetoho tsa tshebediso ya mobu/sekwahelo sa mobu sebakeng sa Afar e Borwa. Diphetho di bontshitse ho fokotseha ho hoholo le mokgwa o ntseng o eketseha wa dipula tsa sehla sa Sugum (selemo) le Karma (lehlabula), ka ho latellana sebakeng sa diphuputso. Leha ho le jwalo, tshebetso e kgolo ha e a bonwa bakeng sa pula ya nako e telele ya selemo. Phapano ya mefutafuta ya dipula tsa sehla e ne e tloha ho 25.2 ho ya ho 42.7, e leng se bontshang phapano e matla ya pula hara dinako tsa selemo. Ditekanyetso tsa Ditlhaloso tsa Phallo ya Pula di boetse di bontshitse kabo e matla, e sa tlwaelehang ya pula sebakeng sa diphuputso se neng se sa tlwaeleha ho Gewane ho feta seterekeng sa Amibara. Tlhahlobo ya Standardized Precipitation Index e bontshitse hore palo yohle ya dilemo tse omileng (anomadies tse mpe tsa pula) di ne di tloha ho 53.3% (Amibara) ho ya ho 43.3% (Gewane), e leng se bolelang dinako tsa komello Amibara ho feta seterekeng sa Gewane bakeng sa dinako tsa ho shebella. Leha ho le jwalo, diphesente tsa dilemo tsa komello e feteletseng di ne di tloha ho 6.7% (Amibara) ho ya ho 10% (Gewane). Patlisiso e nnetefaditse mokgwa o moholo o ntseng o eketseha wa motjheso wa kgwedi le kgwedi, wa selemo le selemo bakeng sa nako ya 1983-2014. Diphetho di boetse di bontshitse hore motjheso wa selemo le selemo wa Afar e Borwa o eketsehile ka 0.67 °C dec-1 e leng hoo e ka bang habedi keketseho ya naha. Ka lebaka la ho se tshepahale le mokgwa o sa tsitsang wa dipula le komello e etsahalang kgafetsa tikolohong eo, ho fumaneha ha lekgulo le metsi ho ile ha fokola mme thepa ya diphoofolo le tlhahiso ya theoha ka tekanyo e phahameng, tjhelete e kenang le thepa ya malapa e ile ya theoha mme theko ya mmaraka ya mehlape ya theoha, ha theko ya dijothollo e ntse e eketseha. Ka lebaka la bofutsana bo tebileng sebakeng sa Afar e Borwa, tshebetso ya tshireletso e sa rerwang/tshehetso e kopanetsweng e ile ya senyeha mme boinotshing bo ile ba eketseha. Ho feta moo, malapa a badisa a ile a latela maano a fapaneng a ho ikamahanya le maemo a lehodimo le kgatello ya maikutlo. Maano a bohlokwa ka ho fetisisa a ileng a sebediswa ke batho ba sebaka seo a ne a kenyelletsa ho kopanya mehlape le temo ya dijalo, ho tsamaya, ho fetola mefuta ya mehlape le ho petsoha ha mehlape, ho fokotsa tshebediso, ho romela tjhelete, ho sebetsa ka tjhelete, ho tjheswa ha mashala le thekiso ya patsi le thuso ya dijo. Tsamaiso ya temoso ya matswallwa a pele le ho tshehetsana hara malapa a atolositsweng, baahelani le setjhaba e ne e ntse e le tsa bohlokwa ho matlafatsa botsitso ba malapa a badisa, le hoja mokgwa wa temoso wa pele ho nako o ne o sa kenngwa tsamaisong e hlophisitsweng ya temoso le matlowa a tshireletso a sa rerwang a ile a senyeha. Diphetho di boetse di bontsha hore malapa a agro-pastoral a kgona ho mamella ho feta malapa a bodisa ho tshwenyeho e bakilweng ke maemo a lehodimo. Ho feta moo, malapa a seterekeng sa Gewane a ne a tsitsitse ho feta a setereke sa Amibara. Ho feta moo, malapa a eteletsweng pele ke basadi a ne a se na matla a matle ha a bapiswa le ao a etelletsweng pele ke banna. Diphuputso di boetse di bontsha hore temo ya dijalo tse nosetsang, leruo la mehlape, boemo ba thuto, moputso wa motho ka mong, ho falla le ho arolwa ha mehlape, ho fetoha ha mehlape, basebetsi, ho ntsha tjhelete, ho thusa ka dijo, phihlello ya mekoloto, mebaraka le lesedi ya nako e sa le teng e bile le phello e kgolo ho tiiseng ha malapa ho tshoenyeha le kgatello ya maikutlo. Diphuputso tsa tlhahlobo ya tlokotsi ya malapa di bontshitse hore 28.8%, 53.6% le 17.6% ya badisa ba ne ba le kotsing e kgolo, ba le kotsing e itekanetseng, mme ba sa hlaselehe habonolo, ka ho latellana, ho makala le dikgatello tsa boemo ba lehodimo. Dintho tse ka sehloohong tse etsang hore malapa a be kotsing e ne e le bong, dilemo le boemo ba lenyalo la lelapa, boholo ba lelapa, boemo ba thuto, ditshebeletso tsa katoloso, phihlelo ya temo, temoso ya pele ho nako, leruo la diphoofolo, temo ya nosetso, tjhelete e seng ya polasi, ho tsamaya ha diphoofolo, ho ba le seyalemoya, sebaka sa ho ya mmarakeng le tleliniki ya bongaka ba diphoofolo, monyetla wa ho fumana dikoloto le disebediswa tsa temo, palo ya ba kulang le palo ya ba kulang nakong ya selemo, ya bahlomphehi ka lapeng. Diphetho di bontshitse hore tahlehelo e kgolo ya makgulo a makgulo (64.5%), phokotseho e itekanetseng ya masimo a lengwang (24%) le keketseho e makatsang ya dihlahla (114.3%) e etsahetse dipakeng tsa 1985 le 2015. Diphello tse hlwailweng tsa tshebediso ya mobu/diphetoho tsa sekwaelo ka tatellano ya ho fokotseha ha tshusumetso e bile tlhaselo ya Prosopis judiflora, phetoho ya maemo a lehodimo, le ho fetofetoha ha maemo, ho kenella ha mmuso, le kgolo ya baahi. Haeba sepheo sa ho qetela ke ho matlafatsa boitelo ba malapa a bodisa, mmuso le mekgatlo e meng e sebetsang le bona ba lokela ho tsepamisa maikutlo haholo ditabeng tsa nako e telele tsa mekgwa ya boiphediso ho ena le ho fana ka diphallelo tsa maemo a tshohanyetso ka ho hlomella batho ba sebaka seo ka bokgoni ba ho laola le ho arabela dikgatellong tse bakwang ke boemo ba lehodimo qalong ya koduwa. Ho feta moo, baetsi ba diqeto ba lokela ho theha lyano la ho laola P. judiflora le ho nnetefatsa phihlello ya makgulo a makgulo le ho matlafatsa setsi sa setso bakeng sa taolo e nepahetseng ya mehlodi ya naha.