Doctoral Degrees (Sustainable Food Systems and Development)
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Item Open Access The effect of microbial and plant extract preservatives on the chemical, microbial and sensory quality of a traditional fresh South African sausage(University of the Free State, 2023) Freitag, Alicia; Hugo, C. J.; Hugo, A.; van der Merwe, S.; Cluff, M.The purpose of this study was to determine if natural preservatives in Boerewors had an effect on the aᵥᵥ, pH, and moisture content; lipid oxidative, microbial and colour stability; and sensory quality. Sulphur dioxide inclusion at 0.035% (positive control), formulation with no preservatives (negative control), protective cultures; Pediococcus acidilactici (PrC1) and Lactobacillus curvatus (PrC2), and plant extract blends; rosemary extract and acerola oil (KD1) and rosemary extract, buffered vinegar, and acerola powder (KD2), were evaluated. The goal was to best match the quality characteristics of the positive control, while complying to the consumer demands for natural ingredients. The use of KD2 increased the pH on days 0 and 6, while the aᵥᵥ of were only affected on day 0, with PrC1 having the highest aᵥᵥ and KD1 the lowest. Both plant extract preservatives increased the lipid oxidative stability more than any other treatment, including the positive control. The microbial stability results were inconclusive due to the protective cultures which increased the total bacteria count. The pathogens, coliform and Enterobacteriaceae counts were analysed, but there were no significant differences between the treatments. KD1 maintained the highest lightness colour score and lowest TBC at the same level as the positive control but increased the yellowness score. The treatments had no effect on the sensory evaluation. The use of plant preservatives as the best candidates for SO₂ replacement were confirmed for use in Boerewors. The replacement of SO₂, with natural preservatives, can affect the product safety and shelflife of fresh meat products, such as Boerewors. The effect of the replacement on the microbial communities of Boerewors have not yet been investigated. Biolog™ Ecoplate™ have been used to physiologically profile bacterial communities from different preservative treated Boerewors samples. The Boerewors were sampled on day 0 and incubated at 25 °C, in an OmniLog® system, for 72.5 h. The growth and reaction of the microbial communities to the 31 carbon compounds were measured, based on the production of formazan. The results were statistically analysed, using two methods: 1) AWCD and Shannon indices, and 2) applying the Gompertz function to analyse growth parameters. The results of the first approach showed that KD1 had the lowest growth rate and a similar microbial diversity as the PC, while the NC had the highest overall growth and diversity. The results of the second approach showed that PrC1 had a much later midpoint of growth than the other treatments, while the microbial community in KD2 had the least explosive growth of all the treatments. Overall, a reduction in microbial functional diversity and explosiveness of growth was noted in Boerewors with added preservatives. In terms of community-level physiological profiling, SO₂ replacement can, therefore, affect the microbial quality and safety of Boerewors in mostly positive ways. In this study, SO₂ replacement with plant extract preservatives containing rosemary and acerola extract (KD1) and rosemary and acerola extract with buffered vinegar (KD2), were evaluated for effects on the growth and survival of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) reference strains. The bacterial strains were inoculated separately into Boerewors batters that were stored at 4 °C for up to 6 days. The purpose of this study was to determine if these potential pathogens could use natural preservatives to their advantage in Boerewors. The inoculated E. coli struggled to survive both of the natural preservatives, especially KD1, without a significant difference to the PC. Survival decreased substantially from day 0 to 6, with the low storage temperature having a big influence on the counts. The inoculated S. aureus decreased from day 0 to 6, but the natural preservatives did not affect the counts as much as the SO₂, except on the last day of storage. For the most part, natural preservatives and an ideal storage temperature exhibited antimicrobial potential.Item Open Access Food and nutrition security among farming households in Lesotho: the role of commercial agriculture(University of the Free State, 2023) Nkoko, Nthabeleng; Cronje, Cronje; Swanepoel, Jan WillemFood insecurity and malnutrition are persistent challenges to the global community. The COVID-19 pandemic, conflicts, climate change and the Russian-Ukraine war have exacerbated hunger and poverty rates. However, agriculture continues to be regarded as a critical pathway towards tackling food insecurity and malnutrition. In Africa, investments in agricultural development have increased in the recent past, aiming to fight food insecurity and poverty. The transition from subsistence to commercial agriculture has received increased attention from significant investors. Lesotho is one of the least developed countries in the world that is also faced with persistent and high poverty rates that spread throughout the country. In the past decade, the government of Lesotho and its partners have invested in supporting farming households by commercialising agriculture and increasing market participation. However, agriculture in Lesotho is constrained by limited access to production resources and erratic climatic events, among others. As a result, agriculture suffers from low productivity and its contribution to food insecurity and nutrition security is challenged. Despite the challenges, there is a continual investment in commercial agriculture as a development approach. However, the role of agriculture in yielding food and nutrition security outcomes is unclear, and empirical evidence is limited. In light of these, the study sought to assess the contribution of commercial agriculture on household food and nutrition security. The specific objectives to address the research aim were: • To determine the food and nutrition security status of commercial and subsistence farming households in Lesotho. • To determine the factors that affect the food and nutritional security of the farming households in Lesotho. • To assess the contribution of commercial agriculture on the food and nutrition security of the farming households in Lesotho. • To assess the characteristics of the food and nutrition security clusters. • To make policy recommendations on household food and nutrition security in Lesotho. The study adopted an exploratory research approach with a cross-sectional nature. Data were collected using questionnaires and semi-structured interview schedules. The findings indicated that farming households experienced food and nutrition insecurity differently. The household food insecurity access scale indicated the prevalence of varied levels of food insecurity among 60% of the surveyed households. Individual dietary diversity scores showed low dietary diversity among the majority of women of reproductive age (79.4%), under-five children (72%) and male adults (65.4%). Significant differences in food and nutrition security status were observed between the four districts that represent the agro-ecological zones. The household dietary diversity score reflected that farming households could afford diverse diets weekly, and not daily. There were significant differences in food and nutrition security between commercial and subsistence farming households. Household income was a determinant for all household food and nutrition security indicators. After grouping the surveyed households, the findings also indicated that the food and nutrition secure cluster was characterised by small household size, higher monthly household income, farming for commercial purposes, as well as respondents who are married and have higher education status. Food secure farming households also have access to extension services and credit to purchase agricultural inputs. In assessing commercial agriculture's contribution to food and nutrition security, qualitative and quantitative findings reflected a positive contribution to most indicators. Involvement in commercial agriculture is a pathway to enhancing food and nutrition security hence a nutrition-sensitive approach to commercial agricultural interventions is recommended for better food and nutrition outcomes. The findings also demonstrate that involvement in agriculture alone is inadequate for enhancing food and nutrition security. Since household income is a significant determinant for achieving food and nutrition security, there is a need to stimulate the economy to create income-generating activities. Farming households must also be capacitated with nutrition knowledge in combination with proper allocation of agricultural produce and farm income to meet the dietary requirements for all members of the households.Item Open Access Development of a sustainable model for irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprises In Vhembe District, Limpopo Province in South Africa(University of the Free State, 2022) Mavhungu, Tsumbedzo Jutas; Nesamvuni, A. E.; Tshikolomo, K. A.; Mpandeli, N. S.; van Niekerk, J. A.The purpose of the study was to characterise irrigated smallholder agricultural enterprises led by women and youth (ISHAE-WY) in selected areas of Vhembe District Municipality, Limpopo Province. The characterisation focused on the geophysical environment and on participants in ISHAE-WY. The ISHAE-WY are suffering from a serious loss of traditional farming knowledge, which has been adequately replaced by knowledge of modern farming practices. Diverse agro-climatic zones with distinct seasons can grow a wide range of field crop commodities. It is vital to select crop commodities for cultivation according to the land suitability, so that maximum benefit can be achieved while maintaining ecological sustainability. Indeed, the greatest increases in water use in ISHAE-WY have not been from better irrigation technology or management, but rather from increased crop yields, due to better or efficient application of water to preferred field crops. Selected commodities potential of field crops on ISHAE-WY were evaluated based on the geophysical attributes (e.g., terrain form and soil), and climatic parameter of each type of field crop. This study used a combination of both primary and secondary data acquisition approaches. Long-term environmental and climate data, including topographical data was acquired from the Limpopo Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (LDARD). The data was developed by EnviroGIS as appointed to assist the LDARD in conducting field surveys and analyses to correct the national vector data to a local scale. A representative sample was based on the number of smallholder entrepreneurs per production area within the two identified agro-ecological zones. Primary data was collected using a questionnaire and transect walk (observation). At least 294 women and youth (W-Y) smallholder irrigation entrepreneurs were sampled for interviews and prompt responses were obtained on the influence of productivity and profitability of selected field crops (dry bean, sweet potatoes, and maize) on ISHAE-WY. An average selected mean output of irrigated smallholder agricultural product was determined. The study revealed that there is a great impact of climate on the suitability of the selected field crops in the stuidy area. The potential effects of the high temperatures and low relative humidity are deleterious to the growth and development of young plants. Irrigation during such hot and dry months may not be able to overcome the potential negative effects of the atmospheric evaporative demand, together with high temperature stress on crops grown during this period. Comparison between informal and formal markets show that the ISHAE-WY who rely on the informal markets are making more profit than with the latter. In selling through the formal market, the market deducts 5% of commission while the market agent deducts 7.5% of sales on the gross value of the sold product. This does not include the transportation charges to the market. The Farm Gate market opportunity seems to be the most predominant approach of marketing at ISHAE-WY. These results reaffirm that ISHAE-WY can also be an alternative employment to W-Y who remain at home, while their counterparts are looking for employment in cities. In the end, the study provides strong motivation that irrigated smallholder agricultural areas has a potential to change the lives of rural households and their local economy.Item Open Access Smallholder farmers’ perceptions and adaptation to climate change: a case of Umkhanyakude District in Kwazulu-Natal Province of South Africa(University of the Free State, 2023) Maziya, Mbongeni; Nkonki-Mandleni, B.; Van Niekerk, J.Climate change poses significant risks to smallholder farmers and affects global efforts to reduce poverty, ensure food security, and promote sustainable development. Due to their limited capacity to adapt and often residing in rural areas, smallholder farmers are susceptible to the adverse effects of climate change. The adaptation process involves two steps: farmers’ perception of climate change and adopting appropriate adaptation strategies. The study’s contribution lies in its policy implications, which aim to promote climate change adaptation in rural areas. The findings provide policymakers with valuable insights for designing effective interventions to improve rural livelihoods and enhance overall quality of life. The main objective of this study was to investigate the perceptions and adaptation strategies of smallholder farmers on climate change in the uMkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa. The specific objectives of the study were: (i) examine perceptions of smallholder farmers on climate change using information from smallholder farmers over a 20-year (1999-2019) production season; (ii) identify socioeconomic determinants of smallholder farmers’ perceptions on climate change; (iii) determine the perceived impact of climate change on smallholder farmers’ livelihoods; (iv) analyse the determinants of farmers’ choice of adaptation strategies. A survey was conducted among 400 smallholder farmers randomly selected using a stratified sampling procedure from the Jozini and uMhlabuyalingana local municipalities within the uMkhanyakude district. Farmers from various villages were randomly chosen. Farmers actively engaged in agricultural activities were invited to participate in the study. Quantitative data was collected using survey questionnaires, while qualitative data was gathered through focus groups and key informant interviews. STATA was employed for analysing quantitative data, while ATLAS.ti was used for qualitative data analysis. Principal Component Analysis was applied to identify the dominant climate change perceptions in the uMkhanyakude district. The analysis revealed five primary themes of farmers’ perceptions, namely: (i) natural disasters; (ii) institutional support; (iii) decreased crop yields and loss of assets; (iv) changes in temperature and rainfall; and (v) extension services on climate change and poor livestock production. A binary logistic regression model was used to analyse the socioeconomic factors influencing smallholder farmers’ climate change perception. The results showed that age of the household head, education level, adult equivalents, membership in farmers’ associations and access to irrigation played significant roles in shaping climate change perception. The study employed the Sustainable Livelihood Framework to analyse the perceived impact of climate change on smallholder farmers’ livelihoods. The findings indicated that drought, resulting from climate change, negatively impacted crop and livestock production in the district. Climate change also led to the depletion of forest resources, negatively affecting the income of local farming households. The Multinomial Logistic (MNL) regression model was employed to analyse the adaptation strategies adopted by farmers and the factors influencing their choices. The primary adaptation strategies were identified as mixed farming, irrigation, shifting planting dates, and cultivating drought-resistant crops. The MNL regression results highlighted that access to credit and extension services, female-headed households, market access, Tropical Livestock Units (TLUs), and land size influenced the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies. Access to credit emerged as the main driving force for adaptation across the identified strategies in the study area. The empirical findings highlight the need for developing climate change communication mechanisms tailored to specific areas, considering the perceptions of smallholder farmers. The results indicate that membership in farmer organizations play an important role in shaping climate change perceptions. Therefore, when formulating communication strategies to disseminate climate change information, this channel should be considered. The study revealed that smallholder farmers rely on various capital assets for their livelihoods, and climate change has negatively impacted their livelihoods. Considering this, it is recommended that extension services prioritise enhancing alternative livelihood strategies to diversify farm income. Access to rural finance is significant factor in facilitating the adoption of climate change adaptation strategies. Therefore, programmes supporting smallholder farmers should focus on facilitating their access to both formal and informal sources of credit.Item Open Access Enhancing productivity and resilience of semi-arid rangelands of southwestern Zimbabwe: a case of adaptation in extensive livestock production in a communal area(University of the Free State, 2023) Hlatshwayo, Alois Sifelani; Malan, P. J.The main objective of this study was to enhance productivity and resilience of semi-arid communal rangelands through manual and livestock seed dispersions and fodder production adoption. Semi-arid communal rangelands support livestock production which is the flagship of food security and livelihoods in the areas. Three treatments; Seed + Ridges, Seed +Ridges + Brushwood, Seed + Brushwood and a Control were used to reseed a degraded semi-arid communal rangeland. Results showed that Treatment had a significant effect on reseeding. Grass seedling counts were significantly higher (p<0.01) at treatments Seed + Ridges and Seed + Ridges + Brushwood. Grass species diversity increased at treatment Seed + Ridges + Brushwood where frequencies were as follows: 𝘏𝘦𝘵𝘦𝘳𝘰𝘱𝘰𝘨𝘰𝘯 𝘤𝘰𝘯𝘵𝘰𝘳𝘵𝘶𝘴 13.8%, 𝘚𝘤𝘩𝘮𝘪𝘥𝘵𝘪𝘢 𝘱𝘢𝘱𝘱𝘰𝘱𝘩𝘰𝘳𝘰𝘪𝘥𝘦𝘴 12.1%, 𝘜𝘳𝘰𝘤𝘩𝘭𝘰𝘢 𝘮𝘰𝘴𝘢𝘮𝘣𝘪𝘤𝘦𝘯𝘴𝘪𝘴 11.5%, 𝘌𝘳𝘢𝘨𝘳𝘰𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘴 𝘵𝘳𝘪𝘤𝘩𝘰𝘱𝘩𝘰𝘳𝘢 9.8%, 𝘌𝘳𝘢𝘨𝘳𝘰𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘴 𝘳𝘪𝘨𝘪𝘥𝘪𝘰𝘳 6.9%, 𝘗𝘢𝘯𝘪𝘤𝘶𝘮 𝘮𝘢𝘹𝘪𝘮𝘶𝘮 6.3% 𝘢𝘯𝘥 𝘌𝘳𝘢𝘨𝘳𝘰𝘴𝘵𝘪𝘴 𝘴𝘶𝘱𝘦𝘳𝘣𝘢 0.6%. Most observed grass species had good forage value. Treatment also influenced biomass production: Seed + Ridges + Brushwood 0.285ᵃ t/ha, Seed + Brushwood 0.254ᵃᵇ t/ha and Seed + Ridges 0.204ᵇ t/ha and Control 0.079ᶜ t/ha. In the second experiment, cows were used to reseed a semi-arid communal rangeland. Four treatments and a Control were used. Treatment 1: Seven days after grass seeds started showing physiological maturity, 40 animals were grazed for 24 hours on diversified grass species, after 24 hours, the animals were taken away. On the following day ten animals were randomly selected and 20g of dung collected from each animal. Treatment 2: The process was repeated after fourteen days, Treatment 3: twenty-one days, Treatment 4: twenty-eight days and for the Control a soil sample was collected from a degraded area. The dung samples were dried in a sample room. Each dry dung sample was gently mashed. River sand was collected, and heated in a dehydrator for 48 hours at 80⁰C to sterilise it. The sand was allowed to cool off, then put in labelled germination trays. Each mashed dung sample was spread in a labelled germination tray and watered. Results showed significantly higher seedling counts and species diversity in Treatments I and 2 than in Treatments 3 and 4. Seedling counts increased from day 7 to day 14 but decreased from day 21 to day 28. This seed dispersion method is effective however, time factor is very important for its success. Observed grass species had good forage value. An investigation on fodder production adoption in semi-arid communal areas was conducted through a structured questionnaire administered to 125 farmers. Results showed a proportion of 61.4% of respondents used fodder, 1.3% used commercial feeds and 37.7% used both. Respondents preserved their fodder as indicated by 86.7% who prepared hay, while 13,3% prepared silage. Livestock species supplemented during the dry season included cattle, goats and donkeys. Fodder production adoption had an effect on livestock mortalities; 97.3% of respondents said mortalities decreased and 2.7% saw an increase A survey to investigate allocation of financial resources from livestock sales to family needs was conducted through a structured questionnaire administered to 125 randomly selected farmers. Survey results showed 95% of respondents sold livestock to private buyers and 5% to abattoirs. A proportion of 52% of respondents conducted livestock sales every 3 – 6 months and 35% 6 – 12 months. Usually sold animals included: cattle 31.0%, goats 27.6%, Chickens 27.6%, sheep 9.2% and donkeys 4.6%. Money from livestock sales was allocated as follows; food 33.3%, medication 33.3%, school fees 27.3% and restocking 6.1%. The results indicate that semi-arid communal farmers sell their livestock, and that their animals are a store of wealth used to enhance food security and livelihoods. In conclusion, results of the two experiments show effectiveness of restoring degraded environments through manual/mechanical and livestock seed dispersions. Grass species diversity and forage value can be increased through manual and livestock seed dispersions. By manually dispersing seeds, results show that biomass production can be increased on low producing semi-arid communal rangelands, since production trebled at Treatment; Seeds + Ridges + Brushwood and doubled at Seeds + Ridges. The methods promise to be useful tools for restoring semi-arid communal rangelands, which have been constrained by degradation for many years, thereby raising productivity and resilience, which in the long term will boost livestock productivity in the areas. Further to being effective, the reseeding methods, are environmentally friendly, cheap and easy to implement. Results of the fodder production adoption survey showed high adoption among farmers which promises to reduce over dependency on rangelands for livestock feed and enhance natural regeneration in the long term. Fodder production adoption promises to be a useful tool for permanently solving feed shortages in semi-arid communal areas. Results of the financial resource allocation survey, showed that farmers sell livestock periodically and use the money to buy food, medication, pay school fees and restock to make livestock production sustainable. All these, significantly confirm that semi-arid communal rangelands play a pivotal role in food security and livelihoods.Item Open Access Integrated innovation strategies on sustainability of agricultural cooperatives in Lejweleputswa district, Free State Province, South Africa(University of the Free State, 2023) Gantsho, Siyaze Knowledge; van Niekerk, J. A.; Swanepoel, J. W.Agriculture is practiced in rural areas characterised by extreme poverty. In the Lejweleputswa district, crop farming cooperatives, together with other agricultural production activities, are significant economic engine. Conversely, modern crop producers are reluctant to incorporate innovation into their routine farming practices. This paper, which focuses on integrated innovation methods that support agricultural cooperatives, is a component of a PhD research project conducted in the province of Free State in the Lejweleputswa district municipality. The lack of enthusiasm among cooperative members in integrating innovation techniques into business operations as a trending factor for sustainability made agriculture cooperatives unsustainable, according to the study's research topic. The primary objective was to examine the impact of integrated innovation strategies on the sustainability of agriculture cooperatives in Lejweleputswa district, Free State province in order to make a policy recommendation for sustainability. The descriptive study analysis was conducted on 139 cooperative members from 25 different agriculture cooperatives. Data was collected using survey questions that were standardised. Likert scales with 5 points were used to assess these survey questions. Collected data sets were analysed using SPSS version 28 software. The data was found to be reliable as a Cronbach’s alpha was found to be 0.927 and 0.861 for product and process innovation strategy implementation. The average correlation coefficient was observed to be 0.6 which denotes an overall positive correlation between variables. The one sample test was used to determine the p-value (Sig-value), which was found to be less than 0.05. Pearson correlation coefficient was found to be 0.68 on average, denoting that there is a positive relationship between variables of organisational strategies. The p-value (0.026) < 0.05 indicated a statistically significant difference between the variables. The F-value for marketing innovation strategies variables was found to be less than the degree of freedom, 1.552 and 3.0, respectively. Thus, the hypothesis was accepted. The one-sample t test was also used to determine the mean, standard deviation, and the p-values of the results. All the mean values were significantly higher than 3, and p-values were found to be all less than 0.05, thus indicating that respondents agree with the discussed challenges. The findings indicated that RSMEA, NNFI and CFI were within the acceptable ranges for good model fit at 0.049, 0.953 and 0.957, respectively. This implies that the hypothesised model was a good fit for collected data. It was observed that only 40.29% agreed to have received financial support from FDI’s and only 58.27% agreed to have received non-financial support from government agencies. The results suggest that agricultural cooperatives are not motivated to use innovative marketing techniques. It is determined that most the Lejweleputswa district's agricultural cooperatives have a poor opinion of marketing innovation. The result of the study proves the hypothesis that the implementation of innovation strategies is significantly low in agriculture cooperatives.Item Open Access Capacity of extension and advisory services in supporting farmers to adapt to climate change in the Eastern Cape, South Africa(University of the Free State, 2023) Makamane, Anathi Siphesihle; Swanepoel, Jan WillemThis study investigates the capacity-building needs of agricultural extension practitioners in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa, focusing on their awareness and understanding of climate change and their ability to effectively communicate climate change adaptation strategies to smallholder farmers. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, including questionnaire surveys and focus group discussions, to gather data from a sample of 126 extension practitioners and managers selected using random sampling. The findings reveal that while most practitioners are aware of climate change and its impacts on agriculture, there are significant knowledge gaps due to limited formal and informal training on climate change. Furthermore, the study identifies a lack of capacity-building initiatives, with the majority of practitioners (80.2%) having never received formal or informal climate change training. The study highlights the need for a coordinated strategy for capacity-building and climate change adaptation to enhance practitioners' understanding and communication skills. Additionally, the study explores farmers' perceptions of extension practitioners' capacities related to climate change adaptation. Data from 175 farmers indicate that 72.6% perceive practitioners as knowledgeable about climate change and value the information they receive from them. Farmers also emphasize the importance of technical climate knowledge and continuous training for practitioners. The study recommends regular engagement with practitioners, ongoing training focusing on technical skills, and renewed attention to the management and education of indigenous knowledge. Furthermore, the study examines the channels used by extension practitioners to deliver services and the factors influencing the use of these channels. It finds that 60.3% of practitioners prefer interpersonal channels for communication, such as in-person visits and farmer-to-farmer interactions, over mass media and ICTs. The study suggests expanding written communication as a source of information and using mass media as communication channels to enhance practitioners' preparedness for climate change communication. Overall, the study underscores the need for targeted capacity-building initiatives, ongoing training, and improved communication channels to strengthen the resilience of smallholder farmers to climate change in the Eastern Cape Province. These findings have important implications for policy and practice, highlighting the importance of continuous professional development and training for extension practitioners to effectively address climate change challenges in agriculture.