Doctoral Degrees (Psychology)

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Open Access
The determinants and influence of non-resident fathers' relationships with their adolescent children
(University of the Free State, 2013-01) De Wit, Estelle; Louw, D. A. P.; Louw, A. E.
English: This study examined the patterns of contact and involvement between adolescents and their nonresident fathers after divorce in an ethnically diverse sample. The data was analysed to determine the role of Lamb, Pleck and Levine’s (1986) three constructs in the involvement of non-resident fathers, i.e. interaction, availability and responsibility. The results indicated that the majority of male and female adolescents reported continued direct and indirect contact with their fathers, regardless of paternal remarriage and the lapse of time since the divorce. In measuring father involvement, the adolescents reported on four aspects of father involvement i.e. financial contributions, shared activities, communication and feelings of emotional closeness. The results on father involvement indicate that most fathers make contributions financially in terms of the payment of maintenance, school fees and pocket money. Adolescents further reported that they spent most of their time with their non-resident fathers engaging in leisure activities such as shopping and frequenting restaurants. Boys reported higher levels of communication and feelings of emotional closeness than girls. Overall, the study postulates that non-resident fathers play a less significant role in providing parental guidance to their children. The most important limitation of the research was indicated as the lack of empirical investigation of mother-child involvement. This study investigated the influence of non-resident fathers’ involvement in the well-being of their adolescent children after divorce. Guided by a systemic ecological framework on father involvement and utilising data from a representative sample of adolescents from intact and divorced families, father involvement was measured by means of the Hawkins Inventory of Father Involvement (IFI). Adolescents’ sense of well-being was measured by means of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The results obtained on the IFI indicate that adolescents from divorced families perceived their fathers as lacking in support for their mothers and in salient aspects of all three components of Lamb, Pleck and Levine’s (1986) concept of father involvement, i.e. interaction, availability and responsibility. Consequently, the adolescents from divorced families obtained lower scores on reported well-being on the SDQ in terms of externalising behaviours (hyperactivity) and internalising behaviours (emotional symptoms and pro-social behaviour). Recommendations to promote increased father involvement were made. The purpose of this study was to examine the post-divorce attachment security of adolescents to their mothers and non-resident fathers. The Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) was used to compare the attachment security of adolescents from intact homes to those from divorced homes. The data gathered indicate that adolescents from divorced homes reported statistically significant differences in attachment security with their fathers overall and specifically in the areas of trust and communication measured by the IPPA. Therefore, the findings indicate that divorce affects attachment security negatively. No statistically significant gender differences concerning the attachment security of male and female adolescents from divorced homes for either mother or father were found. Two theoretical models (the theory of mattering and the reflective functioning of parents) are discussed as guidelines to assist policy makers in addressing problems in attachment security for children from divorced homes.
Open Access
Die gevolge van positiewe MIV-diagnosering by adolessente-leerders
(University of the Free State, 2005-11) Beyers, Christa; Kotzé, C. J.
English: In article 1 it became clear from the literature why adolescents are seen as a high-risk group for contracting and spreading HIV/Aids. Adolescents are seen as being in a developmental phase regarding the forming of an identity and the development of a self-esteem. Research has shown that adolescents have adequate knowledge about the virus, but they lack in skills to apply this knowledge. The Theory of Social Representations emphasize the idea that one must keep in mind the individual's own interpretations and realities when the Aids-pandemic is addressed. This article must be seen as an introduction to the other articles in this series. Article 2 attempts to understand the attitudes of teachers, the peergroup and the community towards the HIV-positive adolescent. Although the individuals involved showed empathy, few of them were prepared to take responsibilities in order to help prevent the problem. In addition to this, HIV/Aids are contracted and spread amongst adolescents because many misperceptions prevail. This article concludes that the sexual development of the adolescent should be redefined in order to curb this problem. The consequences of HIV-positive diagnosis on the adolescent are discussed in article 3. Responses of adolescents proved that they still experience stigmatization from the community, which in turn leads to, amongst other things, anxiety, depression and anger. It is concluded that to be diagnosed HIV-positive, does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour. It is important to support these adolescents for them to be able to live their lives with dignity. In the fourth article in this series of five, attention is firstly paid to possible implications of HIV -positive diagnosis as recorded in the literature. The researcher then tried to establish what effects HIV-positive diagnosis on the adolescent have on his/her family. It proved that these families are still discriminated against and in some cases it leads to the isolation of the family. Emotional support and counselling of family members is of utmost importance when they have to take care of an adolescent diagnosed with HIV. Article 5 attempts to highlight possible strategies and solutions that could help in the prevention of HIV. Components are discussed in two phases, namely the prevention of HIV and the support to roleplayers that are affected by HIV/Aids.
Open Access
The influence of risk and resilience factors on the life satisfaction of adolescents
(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Botha, Anja; Van den Berg, H. S.
English: The current South African adolescent cohort grew up in a decade of sociopolitical transformation, a period which has been accompanied by inevitable and continuous instability in the economic, education and health system especially. In general, South Africans are confronted with high levels of trauma exposure due to crime and violence, family dissolution, domestic abuse, accidents, illness and injury. Young adolescents, however, are further confronted with developmental changes in every area of functioning. In fact, early adolescence is often indicated as a critical life stage for interventions that are aimed at increasing well-being. Research has shown that many adolescents achieve positive outcomes, such as life satisfaction, despite the risks they are exposed to. These adolescents could be seen as resilient. Protective factors, such as strengths and coping, are considered important contributors to resilience. Continued research is needed to understand the process of resilience, especially for developing, multicultural countries such as South Africa. Thus, the aim of this study is to clarify the interrelationship between trauma exposure, strengths, coping, resilience and life satisfaction in South African adolescents. A non-experimental, correlational design was used for this purpose. A random sample of 1 073 Grade 8 learners from 10 Free State schools in both urban and rural areas was included in the study. The data were collected with standardised psychometric tests that were administered during school days under the supervision of registered psychologists. The measuring instruments, provided in English, Afrikaans and Sesotho, were a biographical questionnaire; a shortened version of the Stressful Live Events Screening Questionnaire (Goodman, Corcoran, Turner, Yuan, & Green, 1998); the Behavioural and Emotional Rating Scale (Epstein & Sharma, 1998); the Coping Schemas Inventory (Wong, Reker, & Peacock, 2006); the Resiliency Scales for Children and Adolescents (Prince-Embury, 2006); and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). The relations between the different variables were examined by means of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). The results indicate that trauma exposure is prevalent among South African adolescents, with black adolescents being exposed more than white adolescents. Also, exposure to multiple traumatic events is common. The findings show that adolescents’ levels of resilience and life satisfaction are average, whereas black adolescents’ level of resilience was proven to be significantly lower than that of white adolescents. Significant correlations were found between most of the variables included in the study. This provides evidence for the interrelated nature of the variables, and confirms the complexity of the interaction between risk and protective factors in the resilience process. The model that hypothesises the direction of the relationships between the variables was a good fit for the group of black adolescents and a reasonable fit for the total group of participants. Trauma exposure decreases life satisfaction, resilience and strengths, while it increases emotional reactivity. The results highlight the vital role of strengths in the context of trauma exposure because all of the strengths measured in this study increased resilience and decreased emotional reactivity. Coping strategies were also shown to increase resilience. Increased resilience predicts increased life satisfaction and provides evidence that developing resilience in adolescents might contribute positively to their subjective well-being. Intervention is indicated especially for black adolescents because the results point to their being less resilient than white adolescents. The findings could be used to inform intervention programmes that are aimed at enhancing well-being in adolescents. In this regard, the findings indicate that a strength-based approach be followed and that adolescents’ range of coping skills be increased. Also, the need for psycho-education for adolescents is highlighted. Parents, schools and government institutions should not only be made aware of the significance of investing in adolescents, but should also be assisted to develop the skills needed to serve as role models and sources of support in developing adolescents’ resilience.
Open Access
Managing adolescent learners with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: guidelines for educators
(University of the Free State, 2010-11) Clark, Lesley Enid; Schoeman, W. J.; Esterhuyse, K.
The educational setting is extremely difficult for adolescent learners with attentiondeficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the core and secondary symptoms of which impair their ability to meet the increasing demands of high school and set them up for academic failure as well as behavioural and social adjustment difficulties. Research reveals that high school educators do not always have an understanding of ADHD driven forms of behaviour, and few have been trained in a set of strategies for managing these or for enhancing the academic performance of learners with this condition. This qualitative study was conducted in the secondary phase of a school in South Africa. By means of participatory action research a programme in the form of a handbook was developed providing comprehensive and practical guidelines to assist educators in the management of adolescent learners with ADHD. The results of the program were positive. Educators reported an increase in knowledge about ADHD which enabled them to more easily identify learners with this condition in their classes as well as enhancing their understanding of and empathy towards these learners. Participation in the programme provided educators with the skills and strategies to better manage adolescent learners with ADHD thereby guiding them into more adaptive ways of responding to the educational environment. Educators felt that they had benefitted from participation in the program as the knowledge and skills gained lead to feelings of empowerment as they became more competent in their role as educators.
Open Access
The prediction of psychological well-being in children and adolescents with chronic, life threatening illnesses
(University of the Free State, 2012-07) Talbot, Brenda Denise; Van den Berg, H. S.; Hadley, G. P.
A life threatening illness has the potential to disrupt the child’s world at a time when significant developmental changes are taking place. Extensive literature exists on the impact of illness on the developing child however current salutogenic research has provided evidence that psychological well-being is attainable regardless of disease status, and that children with life threatening illnesses like cancer can be as psychologically well-adjusted as healthy ones. There is a need to develop a better understanding of psychological well-being despite serious risks such as life threatening illnesses. The current study aims to identify factors that promote well-being in children with life threatening illnesses, as measured by life satisfaction as a component of well-being. A mixed method sequential explanatory design was used in this study. An availability sample of children aged 10-18 years (N=44) was recruited from oncology treatment centres in Durban and Bloemfontein, South Africa. The whole sample participated in the quantitative study using self-report measures. The objectives of the quantitative component of the study were to identify factors that explain the variance in life satisfaction and to investigate the differences in coping resources between children with high and low levels of life satisfaction. The following self-report measures were used to gather quantitative data: Satisfaction with Life Scale, Coping Resources Inventory, Fortitude Scale and Children’s Hope Scale. Descriptive statistics were calculated for all scales and Pearson product moment correlation coefficients were determined between all subscales. A hierarchical regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between the predictor and criterion variables. The Mann Whitney U test was used to determine the significance of differences in children with high and low levels of life satisfaction. The quantitative findings suggested average levels of life satisfaction for the whole group even when compared to children without illness. Satisfaction with life correlated significantly with hope and social support (1% level of significance) and with cognitive coping (5% level of significance). The predictor variables accounted for 38.9% of the variance in life satisfaction. A strong interdependence was found between coping resources. The difference between children with high and low levels of life satisfaction was in their sense of hope and appraisal of social support. The goal of the qualitative component of the study was to explore the children’s experiences of the impact of the illness on their well-being. For this component of the study, participants with high life satisfaction scores were recruited (n=6). Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analysed using thematic content analysis. Insight into the significant impact of cancer was gained as well as the most frequently used coping resources and strategies that facilitate coping and well-being. The most frequently used coping resources included maintaining a sense of hope, utilising social support and gathering developmentally appropriate information, as well as cognitive coping which included cognitive reformulation, internal positive dialogue and finding meaning and purpose. Respondents also reported emotional, relational and spiritual coping. Concluding findings were that social support, hope and cognitive coping were the most powerful predictors of life satisfaction and that the difference between children with high and low levels of life satisfaction was related to sense of hope and appraisal of social support. A limitation of this study was the small sample size. Cultural variations were found in the information seeking behaviours and concept of family in terms of social support. Further investigation of these, especially for the South African context, is recommended. Knowledge of these well-being predictors for children with long term illnesses should be considered in health care policy formulations, and intervention programmes for enhancing well-being and identifying children at risk for adjustment difficulties.
Open Access
Risk and resilience in adolescent suicidal ideation
(University of the Free State, 2009-11) George, Ancel Andrew; Van den Berg, H. S.
The psychological and social impact of suicide is profound, as schools, or occupational environments, are significantly affected by merely a single suicide, and if no effective measures are taken, researchers fear society is heading for a dramatic rise in suicidal behaviour. Due to the multi-faceted nature of suicide, a range of factors, which can be divided/categorised into risk and protective factors, were found to contribute to suicidal behaviour. Psychosocial factors such as family instability (divorce, violence, and poor parental support) and socio-economic challenges impaired healthy adolescent development, thereby increasing the risk of self-destructive behaviour. The use of ineffective coping strategies is associated with an increased incidence of suicide risk. The focus of this study is to investigate the risk and protective factors underlying adolescent suicidal behaviour in the Northern Cape Province, as well as to explore the stressors experienced by adolescents that could contribute to them having a higher suicide risk. A mixed-method approach was used to analyse data by employing both quantitative and qualitative methods. Quantitatively, a cross-sectional, correlational, and criterion-group design was used, while the Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) was used for processing qualitative data. A total of 590 participants from ten schools representative of all six regions within the Northern Cape Province (NCP) have been selected from the NCP. As part of gathering data, the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire for Adolescents, the Social Stressors and Resources Inventory - Youth Form, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, the Cope Questionnaire, the Hope Scale, and a self-compiled biographical questionnaire were used. Various statistical analyses were conducted such as a variance of analysis that compared the significance of differences between coping strategies between different race groups, a hierarchical regression analysis that investigated the influence of coping strategies on suicidal ideation and a stepwise regression analysis that investigated the unique contributions of stressors, resources and coping strategies on suicidal ideation. The qualitative data was gathered through the use of an open-ended question that asked respondents to write a short paragraph on factors that caused them to feel distressed. Responses were thematically analysed with the use of the IPA method. The qualitative responses emphasised that adolescent’s immediate environment played an important role as a source of stress, especially with regard to their inner experiences of emotion and behaviour regulation and family and friends, as these were reported by a large number of respondents. Stressors associated with the macro-system such as the influence of economic and political spheres were identified by a small number of respondents as a source of stress. Quantitative results indicated the current research samples’ level of suicidal ideation was substantially higher when compared to an American sample. Participants who were previously exposed to suicide or had suicide attempts were identified as falling within the high suicide risk category. White participants reported a lower level of suicidal ideation when compared to Coloured and black groups. Emotion-focused coping strategies significantly contributed to the variance of suicidal ideation for Coloured and white groups, while dysfunctional coping strategies contributed significantly to suicidal ideation for the black group. In the stepwise regression analysis seven variables significantly (on the 1% or 5% level) contributed to the variance of suicidal ideation, explaining a combined variance of 19.27%. Variables that played a protective role (decreasing suicidal ideation) were selfesteem, acceptance as a coping strategy and seeking support for instrumental reasons (seeking tangible support such as advice from others or financial assistance), while variables associated with increased risk (increasing suicidal ideation) were denial, restraint coping, romantic relationships and negative life events. From this study it is recommended that future research focuses on identifying risk and protective factors between specific socio-economic groups as well as the use of longitudinal studies to explore the developmental course of risk and protective factors. The implementation of capacity building programs that will enhance adolescent coping and interpersonal skills was recommended. As a limitation the use of non-South African instruments within a South African context are also further discussed.
Open Access
The role of emotional intelligence in the relationship between psychosocial factors and suicide behaviour in South African adolescents
(University of the Free State, 2017-01) Du Plooy, Hilda; Tadi, N. F.; George, A. A.
English: Globally and especially in South Africa there is a growing concern about the presence of emotional disturbances among adolescents manifesting itself as suicide behaviour. Suicide behaviour among the adolescents is ranked as one of the top two causes of death in South Africa. Hence, it is necessary to explore the various factors contributing to this alarming situation. Therefore, the overall aim of this study was to investigate the role of emotional intelligence (EI) in the relationship between psychosocial factors and adolescent suicide behaviour, along with gender and racial differences. The study utilized quantitative methods with a non-experimental correlational design. The stratified sample participants included a total of 662 learners between grade 10-12 from the Eden district, Western Cape Province. The total sample consisted of male (N=275), female (N=387), Black (N=342), Coloured (N=253), and White adolescents (N=65). The quantitative measures used to obtain information was The Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire, Adolescent Version (SIQ), The Life Stressors and Social Resources Inventory, Youth Form (LISRES), the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory, Youth Version (Bar-On EQI), and a biographical questionnaire. Through moderated hierarchical regression analyses, gender and racial differences were determined in regards to significant differences in suicidal ideation, interpersonal stressors-and resources, and emotional intelligence. As suicidal ideation has been proved to be a good predictor of suicide risk behaviour among adolescents, findings in the current study indicated a high suicide risk (N = 229) among the total sample, bringing the incidence of suicide behaviour to 34.6%. Genderand racial differences were found in relation to interpersonal stressors-and resources and risk of suicide behaviour, with female adolescents reporting a stronger correlation between experienced interpersonal stressors (parents, family and school) and higher levels of suicide behaviour. The Coloured adolescents, in comparison with the White adolescents, reported friends as the main stressor that correlated with increased levels of suicide behaviour. Friends as a resource were reported to be strongly correlated with lower levels of suicide behaviour amongst the Black and White adolescent sample, but specifically among the White adolescents. The parent resource showed a significant negative correlation with suicide behaviour amongst the total group of adolescents. For the White adolescents, experiencing school as a resource decreased suicide behavior significantly. With regards to Emotional Intelligence (EI), Stress management had the most significant negative correlation with suicide behaviour among the total group of adolescents. Results suggested no gender differences between EI and suicide behaviour. Racial differences were found among the Black and White adolescents on the total EI score. A higher total EI score was more significant for the White group in relation to decreased levels of suicide behaviour, than the Black group. The group of White adolescents also reported a strong negative correlation with general mood EI (feeling optimistic and happy) and suicide behaviour. In determining the moderating role of EI in the relationship between interpersonal stressors and resources and risk towards suicide behaviour, gender-and racial differences were also reported. Among the male adolescents, poor adaptability and stress management EI led to an increase of suicide behaviour when parents and school, as stressors, were high. The findings also showed that the White adolescent group with low and high adaptability EI led to a rise in suicide behaviour when increased levels of friends as stressor were reported, while the presence of poor adaptability EI was more strongly associated with higher suicide levels among this group. Among the Coloured adolescent sample, the adolescents with higher levels of interpersonal EI displayed a greater increase in suicide behaviour with an increase in friends as stressor. This was found to be more pronounced when compared with the Coloured adolescents who reported low levels of interpersonal EI. Pertaining to resources, the total group of adolescents reported a strong negative correlation between high levels of interpersonal EI and suicide behaviour when there was an increase of parents as resource. Findings further indicated that for the total group of adolescents with higher adaptability EI, there was a decrease in suicide behaviour when there was an increase of boy-/girlfriend as resource. Among the adolescents with low levels of adaptability EI, there was a risk of displaying higher levels of suicide behaviour, regardless if support was received from a boy-/girlfriend. Lastly, high levels of interpersonal EI showed a strong negative correlation with suicide behaviour among all the adolescents who experienced increases of boy-/girlfriend as a resource. Interestingly, although a strong positive correlation between low levels of interpersonal EI and suicide behaviour was expected, it was present irrespective of whether boy-/girlfriend as a resource increased or not. The findings of this study recommend EI skills training in mental health settings and educational curricula in the prevention and intervention of suicide behaviour among adolescents. The implementation of programmes aimed at enhancing social support and skills for parents, families, the school, and adolescents, are also recommended. Additional research is recommended to explore the dynamics of other personal variables and nature of interpersonal relationships among the different gender and racial groups within the South African context. These interventions could expand on the knowledge of the risk and protective factors involved in adolescent suicide behaviour.

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