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Item Open Access Dynamism of rural mountain livelihoods under a changing climate: the case of the Eastern Free State region of South Africa(University of the Free State, 2023) Msimanga, Lokuthula; Mukwada, GeofreyThe research was conducted in the Thabo Mofutsanyane District of the Eastern Free State Region of South Africa. This region's complicated climate and topography have an impact on the environment and socioeconomic aspects of the local population. Consequently, climate change poses a significant threat to local mountain communities, directly affecting their livelihoods. As a result, local communities have developed adaptation strategies to safeguard their livelihoods. However, the success of these adaptation strategies has not been adequately analyzed in relation to climate change impacts in this region. For this reason, the study aimed at determining the most preferred adaptation strategies implemented by the local communities in Thabo Mofutsanyane District, and the extent to which these strategies could be considered effective in building resilient mountain communities. Gridded monthly maximum and minimum temperature, and average rainfall data from 1960 to 2019 were extracted from Climate Explorer. The Mann Kendall Test and Sen’s slope estimate were employed to identify the nature and magnitude of the trends and their significance. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) was calculated for the January to March (JFM) and October to December (OND) subseasons and for the ONDJFM in R-Studio 1.1.1717 software. A questionnaire survey was carried out to determine the perceptions of local communities about climate trends and the impacts of climate change on rural livelihoods in the region. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences and Microsoft Excel 2016 were used to analyse the data. The results indicate a significant rise in the long-term yearly mean minimum and maximum temperatures by 0.0340C/annum and 0.0110C/annum, respectively. SPI data show severe droughts occurred during the JFM sub-season in 1973 (-1.21), 1983 (-1.755), 1992 (-1.55), and 2016 (-1.10). Extreme droughts occurred in 1990 (SPI= -1.91) during the JFM sub-season. The most severe droughts (SPI <-1.645) in the OND seasons were recorded in 1994, 1990 and 2019. The respondents reported that their lives and livelihoods have shifted due to changes in climate, leading to implications for the agricultural and socio-economic systems. The adverse environmental impacts induced by climate change reported by the communities include declining water quality and quantity (67 %), crop loss (48 %), reduced crop yields (33 %), animal diseases (38 %), and livestock mortality (68 %). Households also cited climate-related socio-economic impacts, such as higher prices, loss of farm and non-farm income, and increased labour as adverse effects of climate change. Local households adopted different livelihood strategies, including new water and soil management tactics, purchasing of livestock feeds, adoption of drought resistant livestock species, and socio-economic measures. Respondents determined the effectiveness of adaptation measures based on observations of improved crop production and yields because of implementing soil management tactics and use of drought/frost resistant seed varieties; improved livestock health as a result of providing livestock with water and purchasing supplementary feeds; and improved health as a result of proper water management strategies. The research concludes that determining the contextspecific adaptation techniques that these communities can apply will depend on the mountain communities’ perceptions of climate change impacts on their livelihoods. Therefore, combining scientific knowledge with data on community perceptions and local knowledge about climate change could enhance effectiveness of climate change adaptation strategies. The study recommends evaluating the adaption strategies local communities have implemented over time and suggesting alternative coping mechanisms that could be implemented in the region.Item Open Access Grass nutrients estimation as an indicator of rangeland quality using satellite remote sensing(University of the Free State, 2022) Mashiane, Katlego Kgabo; Adelabu, Samuel; Ramoelo, AbelSouth Africa's grasslands are known for their rich biodiversity, which makes for rangelands with expansive landscapes for grazing. Numerous studies have been conducted on how species variety and composition affect the sustainability and productivity of grasslands. The provision of ecosystem functions and services, mainly grazing for both domestic livestock and wild animals, is threatened by rapid biodiversity loss. Hence crucial to develop monitoring systems for biodiversity, especially considering the anticipated impacts of global environmental changes. Nutritionally sufficient grass swards strongly influence the distribution and abundance of grazing animals. Although estimates of crucial ecological and biodiversity indicators can be obtained from in situ and remote sensing data, remote sensing offers timely and cost-effective data that can be used for species monitoring. This study sought to measure essential biodiversity variables in GGHNP related to plant productivity and nutrient availability using in situ and remote sensing approaches. In addition, by estimating grass species nitrogen using remote sensing, the research intended to improve carrying capacity models and stocking rate in the park, thus ensuring efficient rangeland management. Assessments of species diversity and richness are pivotal for devising effective conservation strategies. These biodiversity metrics are good indicators of rangeland quality, health, and ecological response to disturbances. Data collected using in situ methods showed that species richness are virtually similar across the park under different richness of disturbance regime. However, species richness were higher at landscape richness than at the site richness. Albeit criticised for their use in conservation, species diversity metrics could be useful for measurements of rangeland quality. Due to its intolerance to harsh environmental circumstances, mountainous grassland vegetation is probably the most susceptible to environmental changes on a worldwide scale. Understanding the factors that influence species distribution in alpine grasslands will be crucial for identifying biodiversity and preserving it. This evident in that an increase in topo-edaphic variables negatively affects species richness, while slope and elevation showed an improvement of species richness. The influence of topography and other accompanying factors on species diversity is highlighted, emphasizing how topography affects species dispersion in mountainous grassland communities. Understanding the value of environmental conditions are to the geographical distribution of biodiversity has been the focus of the most active ecological research. The selection of appropriate modelling algorithms could be beneficial for gaining insights into biodiversity-environment relations. Non-parametric and parametric modelling frameworks were used to assess these relationships. Topographically controlled edaphic variables continued to be the most significant drivers of species richness and diversity in grassland plant communities in the park, despite higher prediction accuracies being attained using parametric models. Remote sensing permits rapid and inexpensive recording and assessment of vegetation over short to long-term periods at a local and global scales. This study sought to predict and model species richness and diversity in GGHNP. Near-infrared (NIR) was the most selected spectral interval for predicting species diversity, further ascertaining the efficiency of NIR in vegetation mapping. Grass species N (grass N) estimation is valueable for rangeland management because it determines their forage quality which has nutritional implications for grazing animals. I used remote sensing data to predict grass N in the park using Sentinel 2 Multi-Spectral Instrument (S2 MSI). The results showed red edge bands as the optimal bands for estimating grass N, which makes S2 MSI superior for modelling grass N throughout grass phenology and among seasons because of its multiple red edge bands. Grassland monitoring is imperative for both assessing global change impacts and the security of sustainable development goals. Grasslands serve as rangelands that supply forage for domestic and wild animals. Monitoring of forage quality and quantity is crucial for evaluating carrying capacity models and thus ensuring effective rangeland management. Plant species richness and species diversity are key indicators for plant primary productivity in rangelands and many other ecosystem health parameters. Due to the immensity of rangeland landscapes, remote sensing could be the effective technology for determining and keeping track of ecological parameters in grasslands.Item Open Access Impacts of surface air temperature variability on agricultural droughts of southern Africa: the case of the Free State Province, South Africa(University of the Free State, 2018) Mbiriri, Mavis; Mukwada, G.; Manatsa, D.The Free State Province of South Africa is an agricultural region and a leading producer of food crops, including maize, the staple crop for the country. With the Drakensberg Mountains occupying much of its eastern part, the province does not only have a complex topography but also a highly varied climate. This makes the region, especially the highlands vulnerable to climate change. Increased temperatures are set to enhance the intensity of drought due to a reduction in the availability of water resources for crop farming due to excessive evapotranspiration. But the extent to which the rising temperatures have modified the agricultural droughts in relation to the variability of topography in this region has not yet been assessed. In this study, the impact of surface air temperature (SAT) variability on agricultural droughts in the province is assessed for the period between 1960 and 2013. This is achieved by using two drought indices, the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), and the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) where the former is based solely on precipitation and the later incorporates the effect of evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is driven by a number of variables which include wind speed, radiation, humidity and temperature. The severity and frequency of droughts is expected to increase under climate change that is primarily driven by increased temperatures. The impact of altitude on agricultural drought characteristics is also considered. Gridded monthly precipitation, SAT and SPEI data were extracted from Climate Explorer`s database, while SPIs for individual grid points were calculated using the Drought Indices Calculator (DrinC). In order to characterise drought, the clustering method of Hot-Spot analysis was employed to divide the province into homogenous regions based on altitude. All maps were produced using spatial interpolation techniques in ArcMap V.10.2. The results revealed that although the average total precipitation increases from west to east following increasing altitude, the high-altitude regions have shown higher occurrences of severe droughts (SPI ≤-1.282) in recent years, compared to the low-lying western regions. The differences between adjacent clusters are more pronounced during the early summer sub- season (October-December) than in the late summer sub-season (January-March). The observed spatiotemporal heterogeneity in SPI variability reveals that the factors governing drought interannual variability vary markedly withing the region for the two subseasons. Among these factors is altitude. To ascertain the influence of altitude on agricultural drought, an Analysis of Variance test was performed. The results show a significant relationship between drought severity and altitude during the OND but could not be confirmed for JFM. The impact of altitude is also partly manifested in the strong relationship between meridional winds and SPI extremes. Wet seasons are observed when the winds are northerly and droughts when winds are southerly of the Free State Province. When the winds are largely northerly, Free State lies predominantly in the windward side of the Drakensburg Mountains but lies in the rain shadow when the winds are predominantly southerly. The relationship between El Nino Southern Oscillation and SPI indicates stronger correlations for the early summer sub-season than for the late summer sub-season while on the overall, presenting a diminishing intensity with height over the province. The Sequential Regime Shift Detection (SRSD) was used to test for significant abrupt shifts in the variability of precipitation in the province and results were confirmed by the Cumulative significant positive shift in average SPI, during the OND subseason was detected for the far western low-lying and central regions of the province around the 1990s. Temperature, on the other hand shows a significant abrupt shift around 2003 for maximum temperature (Tmax) during the early sub-season and around 1983 for minimum temperature (Tmin) during the late sub-season. The OND Tmax shift coincides with that in cloud cover, with a strong correlation between the two variables. It is intriguing to note that the significance of temperature change is stronger towards the highland regions, to the north and northwest of the province. This shift in temperature is further investigated to explore the impact it has on the intensification of agricultural droughts in the province. It is concluded that despite the observed significant increase in temperature, SPEI does not reflect any significant effect of temperature on drought intensification. In conclusion therefore, precipitation could be the major determinant of droughts in the Free State Province since there is no significant difference between SPI and SPEI variability. There is need to investigate the role of other factors, that may also contribute to drought intensification in the province; such as humidity, solar radiation and wind speed which may have neutralised the well-known impact of temperature on agricultural drought characteristics of the province.Item Open Access The impact of socio-economic and human behavioural factors on the water of the Fontein Spruit catchment : a water management model study in a developing community(University of the Free State, 2002-09) Pretorius, Elizabeth; Viljoen, M. F.; De Villiers, G. du T.English: A world water crisis has been predicted as early as 1977 and since then, water professionals call this coming crisis to the attention of the world community at various conferences, summits and congresses. Recent assessments conducted for the United Nations and for the World Commission on Water indicated that almost half a billion people face water shortages in 29 countries and by 2025, almost two-thirds of the people are forecast to experience some form of water stress. Although this global water crisis tends to be viewed as a water quantity problem, water quality is increasingly being acknowledged as an important factor in water scarcity. In many developing countries water quality has become the principal limiting factor to water availability. The water quality situation in developing countries is highly variable reflecting social, economic and physical factors, state of development as well as climatic and geographical factors. In recent years several studies have been done in South Africa to determine the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of urban runoff and their impact on receiving waters. These studies suggest that there was a large difference in the type of pollutants that were observed in the receiving waters and that the major factor affecting the type of pollution is the type of development that the catchment is undergoing. The studies conducted on the high-density informal settlements imply that any form of urban development that includes shacks and/or informal houses will have a detrimental effect on the quality of urban runoff. Low-cost, high-density type urbanisation, with its informal housing and shack areas, is an inescapable part of South Africa and will continue to play a major role in this country for many years to come. In recent years, South Africa has experienced a massive increase in urbanisation, a large proportion of which takes the form of high-density, informal settlements that developed around existing metropolitan areas. Based on current patterns of growth, the extent of this form of urbanisation is predicted to treble within 20 years. This rapid growth of urban areas in South Africa has been accompanied by increased quantities of contaminated urban runoff and this, in turn, has accelerated the degradation of streams, rivers, lakes and estuaries. Urban runoff acts as an efficient transport mechanism for bacteria, viruses, nutrients, organic substances, heavy metals and other pollutants. Alone or in combination, these substances cause water quality problems, pose potentially serious risks to human- and environmental health through contact recreation and through the use of untreated water. Therefore, it is vitally important that the scientific and engineering society continue to study these urban catchments and to develop new and innovative ways of dealing with the problems associated with urban runoff. The study area provided a unique opportunity for the investigation, implementation and evaluation of an integrated water quality management programme, as it is a typical example of a community with rapid, largely uncontrolled, growth of low-cost, high-density housing developments. The research project was primarily aimed to gain a better understanding of the major causes of pollution in the study area, and once the principle contributing factors had been identified and investigated, a Water Quality Management Plan was developed. The research project was based on the assumption that water quality problems arising from developing communities can be managed using an integrated approach to ensure that the receiving water environmental objectives can be met on a sustainable basis and that the management practices and interventions to deal with pollution problems from developing communities can be sustained by addressing the socio-economic and human behavioural factors contributing to the problems. The Water Quality Management Plan is therefore an integrated plan addressing the management of water quality in the community in the study area, and also permits the extrapolation of the results to catchments with similar land use and human activities, locally as well as regionally.Item Open Access Bewoningsbevrediging in die blanke woonhuissektor binne die munisipaliteit van Bloemfontein: 'n studie van proses, patroon en strategie(University of the Free State, 1988-09) Lazenby, Jacobus Abraham Adriaan; Senekal, W. F. S.; Bester, C. L.Afrikaans: Die primêre doelstelling met hierdie studie behels die interpretering en geïntegreerde hiêrargiese sone-ordening van sekere gekose wooneenheid- en woonbuurtdimensies waaroor huisbewoners bepaalde vlakke van tevredenheid voorhou. 'n Sekondêre doelstelling omvat die soeke na 'n verwantskap tussen die tevredenheidsvlakke van huisbewoners en bepaalde demografiese sowel as sosio-ekonomiese faktore. Hierdie doelstellings is deurlopend in gedagte gehou en is veral deur middel van hipotese-verifiêring aangespreek. In hoofstuk I is verskeie gepgrafiese benaderings behandel waarna die humanitêr-georiênteerde gedragsbenadering, wat hierdie navorsing sterk aanspreek, as geografiese navorsingsbenadering vir hierdie studie aanvaar is. Konseptualisering van bewoningsbevrediging en die verwantskap daarvan met Omgewingsielkunde is onderskeidelik in hoofstukke 2 en 3 behandel. In hoofstuk 4 is houdings as fundamentele begrip in die metodologie van hierdie navorsing verkonseptualiseer. Nadat die na vorsLnq apro's edu re in hoofstuk 5 behandel is, is algemene beskrywende statistieke van Bloemfontein as navorsingsterrein in hoofstuk 6 verskaf, aangesien hierdie data as beïnvloedend by bewoningsbevrediging as proses beskou is. Die gestelde hipoteses is in hoofstukke 7 tot 9 geverifieer. Die belangrikste bevindinge is soos volg: - Woonhuisbewoners is oor die algemeen positief teenoor hulle gevolglik residensiêle leefruimte en 'n redelike mate ervaar bewoningsbevrediging. - Daar bestaan 'n noue verwantskap tussen fisiese voorkoms, sosiale interaksie, woonbuurtdienste, veiligheid, woonhuis en die erf as komponente van bewoningsbevrediging. - Bewoningsbevrediging toon 'n verband met bepaalde huishoudingskenmerke. Gunstige eienskappe van die huishouding sal 'n groter mate van bewoningsbevredigingin die hand werk. Dit is veral waar wat hoër sosio-ekonomiese status, hoë oudersomstadium, 'n langer residensietydperk by 'n bepaalde adres en eienaarstatus betre. - Daar is verder daarin geslaag om 'n geïntegreerdechorologiese ordegroepering met betrekking tot die bepaalde bewoningsbevredigingskomponente te maak. - Houdingsanalise het ook 'n handige metode geblyk in die bepaling van omgewingsvoorkeure. - In ooreeneenstemming met 'n geverifieerde hipotese is dit ook waar dat huishoudings intrastedelik sal verskuif weens moontlike bewoningsontevredenheid. Die navorsing is afgesluit met die gevolgtrekkings in hoofstuk 11, nadat strategieformulering in hoofstuk 10 aandag geniet het. Dit behels 'n aantal spes ifieke strategieê wat in die vorm van verbeteringsprioriteite geformuleer is. Die strategieê en aanbevelings word aan bepaalde instansies/persone gerig ten einde die tevredenheidsvlak van woonhuisbewoners met hulle behuisings en residensiêle-omgewingsopset te verhoog.Item Open Access The efficacy of small holder tobacco farmers on rural development in Zimbabwe(University of the Free State (Qwaqwa Campus), 2017-06) Chitongo, Leonard; Mukwada, G.The aim of this thesis is to assess the efficacy of smallholder tobacco farming as a tool for socio-economic transformation in rural Zimbabwe. The study was carried out in the Marondera District of Mashonaland East Province. This thesis was prompted by the need to establish the extent to which smallholder tobacco farming contributes to poverty reduction. The research was based on a comparative analysis of earlier resettlement areas that were set up between the 1980s and early 1990s, the recently established fast track resettlement areas that were established after 2000, and the communal areas. The novelty of this study partly lies in the analysis of the socio-economic contribution of tobacco farming using a dual theoretical framework combining the Sustainable Livelihood Framework and Entitlement Approach in a dynamic macroeconomic environment. The thesis assesses how the macroeconomic environment that has prevailed in Zimbabwe since 2000 has influenced production of tobacco as a livelihood option. Based on a mixed method research design encompassing observations, key informant interviews and focus group discussions, as well as a questionnaire survey, and qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analysed thematically in a manner that provides basis for co-validation. The quantitative data were analysed in SPSS V16.0 and MS Excel 2013 environments, where correlation and regression analyses were undertaken. Correlation analysis was used to determine the variables which were related to tobacco output in the three farming areas. The results from the study showed the different sources of tobacco funding and how the prevailing economic conditions affected investment into tobacco farming. Furthermore deforestation, erosion and pollution were identified as the major problems resulting from tobacco farming. The study concludes that tobacco farming has an enormous potential to reduce rural poverty. This is reflected in the increase of asset ownership and income among tobacco growing households in all farming areas. However, these improvements have taken place at the expense of the natural environment, whose capacity to provide key natural resources has been degraded. The study recommends an increase in provision of government funded extension services, capitalization, as well as energy supply and infrastructural development programmes in order to enhance sustainability.Item Open Access The property values of urban single-family housing: a case study of Bloemfontein(University of the Free State, 1987-08) Enslin, Albert George; Senekal, W. F. S.The ultimate purpose of this study is the construction of a prognostic model of the value of single-family housing. This model can be applied by valuers to determine unbiased, mass valuations of single-family housing for property tax purposes. The property tax, which is the most important independent source of income available to local authorities in South Africa, has continuously been attacked by laymen and academics alike. The primary motivation for these attacks has been the apparent inequitability and inefficiency of the property tax. By improving the administration of the property tax through upgrading and improvement of the valuation procedure, the efficiency of the property tax is enhanced while the equitability of the valuations is ensured. This in turn maximises the financial-resource-generating possibilities of the property tax and makes the tax politically and economically more acceptable. The present erosion of political owing to the increased dependence oon the undershoring of their financial base through financial assistance extended by central government, would to a large extent also be reversed. Improvement of the valuation procedure through the application of the housing price model developed in this study results in spatially neutral valuations being obtained with vertical and horizontal valuation equity resulting. The relative varying contribution of each property within a certain price and land use category to the income of local authorities would now not be the result of the valuation process but the result of a political decision by the locally elected representatives who would, through the determination of the randage or differential randage, determine this relative tax contribution. Through the combined application of factor analysis, cluster analysis and multiple regression analysis, the model of the price of housing that has been constructed, produces market value valuations that show a high degree of correspondence with observed market prices. The predictive ability of the model has been further improved by basing the theoretical foundation of the model on the ecological paradigm. The identification, within the larger overall White single dwelling residential submarket of Bloemfontein and Langenhoven Park, of spatially specific submarkets of integrated economic and socio-geographic status into which the owner-occupiers of single-family housing differentiate and the subsequent construction of separate prediction equations for each submarket, lead to the determination of superior estimates of the market value of housing. Contrary to the conclusion arrived at by Schanre and Struyk in Boston and Ball and Kirwin in Bristol, the greater Bloemfontein property market operates as a series of submarkets. Primary property submarkets (based on the restriction of the property interest activities and segregation of the property activity space of various racial groups) and secondary property submarkets (based on the segregation and restriction of the property interests and property activity space of the agents of supply and allocation and consumers of properties of different land usages) have been distinguished in the greater Bloemfontein area. Within the White single dwelling residential submarket, owner-occupiers, of dwellings, of a similar social status, cluster in spatially specific subareas. This is the result of the propensity of households to live close to other households of similar social status. These spatially specific subareas effectively form submarkets at a third level of disaggregation. The weak cross-price elasticities between submarkets result in independent hedonic price equations of the attributes of housing developing for each submarket. The strength of the coefficients differs for the submarkets because of the importance of different sets of attributes accounting for housing prices in particular submarkets. The importance of specific attributes in the hedonic price equations thus seems to be a function of the peculiar composition of the submarket and of the variability in each submarket of the attributes of housing.Item Open Access Ontwikkeling van hulpmiddels vir die bestuur en beplanning van 'n stedelike vloedvlakte: 'n GIS toepassing(University of the Free State, 2001-05) Booysen, Herman Jacobus; De Villiers, G du T; Viljoen, M. F.English: The occurrence of floods early in 2000 shows that flood damage research for better assessmentand mitigation measures of the impact of floods is always necessary. Floods were always and will always be a problem in South Africa. Floods caused damages of R150million in one day at Ladysmith (Beeld. 28/02/1996). Losseswere not only financial. but social losseswere experienced as well. "The death toll from days of driving rain and resulting floods soared above 50 yesterday and left thousands of people homeless..." (BusinessDay.16/02/1996). To limit the impact of future floods. the planning and management of flood plains is very important. Recently. the approach of disaster management has changed from reactive to proactive. The problem in South Africa is that the necessary communication systems and institutional framework does not exist. Furthermore. government institutions do not have the necessary knowledge and tools to execute disaster management effectively. The aim of this study (Chapter 1).was to develop systemsand tools that can address the above-mentioned problems and to test the developed tools in a study area. As discussed in Chapter 2. the study area along the Swartkops and Chatty Riversin the Eastern Cape was a suitable area because of the diversity of land uses. A complete survey was done. In the case of the Swartkops River the land uses include industrial. commercial and residential. Along the Chatty Riverthe land usesare mainly residential.In Chapter 3 a system for the management of South African flood plains was developed. To do this. flood policies of other countries were studied. Elements of the flood plain management systemare: • a flood plain management committee e flood studies • flood plain management studies.and • flood plain management plans In Chapter 4 the development of a computer model for the calculation of potential flood damage was discussed. Another application of the model is the evaluation of possible flood damage mitigation options for financial effectivity thereof. To develop this model it was necessary to study models that were developed internationally. The three models of two international institutionsthat were studied were developed by the USArmy Corps of Engineersand the Australian National University. The inputs of TEWA(a computer model for the calculation of Tangible Economic flood Water damages Assessment)that were developed from these models, include flood damage functions, land use data, hydrological and geographic data. The model was tested in Chapter 5, by executing the activities of the flood plain management systemand using the model to calculate the potential flood damage and evaluating the mitigation options. Options that were evaluated were derived from discussionswith role-playersin Uitenhage and Despatch. Flood damage was calculated for the different land usesand combined to get the total flood damage. Damage to the residential sector of Uitenhage, Despatch and Sowetoon- Sea were calculated first. Afterward, damage to the commercial sector of Uitenhage and Despatch and industrialdamage to Uitenhage was calculated. Two options, namely the building of a flood levee and flood proofing were evaluated in Uitenhage and Despatch. Theresultsindicated that flood proofing was the best option for industriesin Uitenhage and a levee will have the most benefits for Despatch. It must be remembered that some assumptionshave been made and that can limit the use of the results.Thestudy has achieved itsgoal to develop a flood plain management systemthat can be used in South Africa to mitigate the impact of floodsItem Open Access Landbou-en landelike ontwikkeling in die QwaQwa-gebied: 'n geografiese ondersoek(University of the Free State, 2000-05) Claassen, Johannes Hendrik Daniel; De Villiers, G. du T.; Viljoen, M. F.English: The contribution of agricultural to rural development is widely accepted by developmental specialists. In South Africa, an estimated 16 million people are living in poverty, with its incidence highest in rural areas. The Ministry for Agriculture and Land Affairs (South Africa, 1998) is of the opinion that agriculture can play an important role in the development of rural areas through the establishment of small and medium scale emerging farmers, and through the creation of opportunities to rai se their production. In this way, it is thought, the creation of additional employment opportunities and the improvement 10 household food security will follow. Under the previous government black farmers were denied the right to own and farm land in so-called white areas. In accordance with its policy of separate development, agricultural development amongst black people was limited to what was known as "black homelands". In line with this policy, 114 black farmers were. settled on farms in Qwaqwa beginning in 1989. Agriqwa, a non-profit government corporation, was founded with the task of establishing these emerging, or beginner farmers. Official information sources (South Africa, 1998) also refer to emerging farmers as small or medium scale farmers with limited access to land and capital. This same source states that these farmers have received inadequate research and extension support from the previous government. The main aim of the proj ect in Qwaqwa was the establishment of an economically viable agricultural sector, with a core of prosperous emerging farmers. It was also envisaged that this would create several entrepreneurial possibilities with job opportunities in an agricultural related sector. After the election of a new, democratic government in 1994, official policies regarding the previous homelands changed dramatically. Agriqwa was dissolved and replaced with Agri-Eco, a private company under the direct supervision of the then Minister of Agriculture of the Free State. The enormous financial burden brought about by the Reconstruction and Development Programme of the newly elected government, inevitably led to a si gni ficant reduction in state subsidies. It was not long befo re the restructuring and rationalisation of Agri-Eco meant the end of financial and agricultural assistance to the emerging farmers in Qwaqwa. The premise was that emerging farmers should compete independently In a free market environment. With this step, emerging farmers were suddenly exposed to a competitive free market environment of which they had little, or no experience. This transformation, the loss of expert managerial support, plus the downgrading and suspension of other well-proven support systems, resulted In these farmers expcrrcncmg serious managerial problems. The aim of this study is to identify and evaluate the problems experienced by emerging farmers in order to formulate workable solutions and strategies for future development projects in the field of agriculture. A brief synopsis of the chapters in the study is as follows: • The problem formulation and aim of the study are set out in Chapter 1. • Chapter 2 is concerned with an historical perspective of sustainable agricultural development. • Chapter 3 provides a geographical and agricultural overview of the study area. • Chapters 4, 5 and 6 investigate the management profiles of emerging farmers with a specific focus on: >- the educational and personal profiles of emerging farmers, their perceptions of human resources and the management thereof (Chapter 4); ~ perceptions among emergmg farmers regarding natural resources as well as the management and utilisation thereof (Chapter 5); ~ administrative and financial matters (Chapter 6). • Chapter 7 focuses on the evaluation of research data, the testing of the hypothesis and the formulation of a specific development strategy for emerging farmers in Qwaqwa. With regard to human resources, the study has established that the unacceptable conduct and poor quality of work rendered by farm workers negatively effect labour relations between farmers and workers. The study also identifies the low educational level of farm labourers, poor working conditions and insufficient training as primary factors contributing to labour problems. On the positive side, the study identifies several aspects in employment that are to the advantage of the industry and that should be kept. These refer to food and residence security, a reliable cash income and grazing rights. The study identifies a singular ignorance among emergmg farmers with regard to the utilisation of natural resources. This includes the use of alternative production methods, which are inexpensive, and which, in turn, originate on the farm, and have a minor negative impact on the natural environment. Within an environmental and sustainable perspective, this study makes certain recommendations concerning the introduction of alternative farming methods. The study also finds that a number of farmers are experiencing serious financial problems. The refusal of commercial banks and agricultural cooperatives to grant production loans for planting purposes, underlines the extent of the financial difficulties experienced by emerging farmers in the area. This has also pushed a number of crop farmers into financial crisis. Against this background it is recommended that farming units with a combination of farming activities should be included lil future development proj ects. Value adding activities seem to be a popular and profitable practice among emerging farmers. They seem to be an asset. The optimal use of existing infrastructure, labour, by-products and waste products from farming activities, are some of the important considerations in favour of value adding activities. The study reveals that emerging farmers, despite certain drawbacks pertaining to training and education, possess the will and the ingenuity to make a success of agriculture in the area. The study further finds that the success of present and future projects will be largely determined by basic support structures in training and agricultural extension work, from government and developmental agencies.Item Open Access Sustainable rural development in Lesotho(University of the Free State, 2000-05) Mashinini, Vusi Israel; De Villiers, G. du T.; Groenevald, I. B.English: The sustainability of rural development policies, strategies and projects formulated and implemented in Lesotho since independence in 1966 was investigated in this thesis. This was accomplished through the use of secondary and primary data. Secondary data was collected on all major rural development projects. Primary data was sought on the sustainability of the activities initiated by the Farm Improvement with soil conservation (FISC)/Production Through Conservation (PTC) project in the Mohale's hoek district which was used as a case study. The primary data collection involved the use of a questionnaire administered to 200 rural households selected through the use of a multi -stage sampling procedure from the households in the villages where the proj eet operated. At both the national level and the local FISC/PTC project level, the results of the study showed that the modus operandi used in donor assistance, the politicians, decision-makers and planners contributed in part to the lack of sustainable rural development in Lesotho. However, the study concluded that the biggest contribution to the demise of sustainable rural development in Lesotho came from the communities themselves due to their lack of willingness to change their perceptions of, and attitudes towards, development. The communities were reluctant and leave the unsustainable conveniences accorded by their old lifestyles to which they were accustomed for centuries and throughout generations, and adapt to the costs, pains and risks that accompanied changes in their life-styles introduced by sustainable development in their communities and regions.Item Open Access Low-income housing in the post-apartheid era: towards a policy framework for the Free State(University of the Free State, 2003-12) Marais, Johann Georg Lochner; Krige, D. S.; Beukes, E. P.; De Villiers, G. du T.English: This thesis titled “Low-income housing in a post-apartheid era: towards a policy framework for the Free State” is conducted as one of the first thorough analyses on housing policy in a single province since 1994. Furthermore, it is also conducted against a background where limited regional guidelines exist for investment by provincial government departments. The thesis poses the question as to ‘who should receive what where’ in terms of low-income housing investment in the Free State. The thesis starts off by assessing changing international trends in low-income housing policy and the role of the World Bank. The shift from the provision of formalised housing to site and services is analysed from the individualistic perspective of Turner and the economic model of the World Bank. The approach of the World Bank to housing in the early 1990s suggested that targeted housing subsidies should be provided to the poor – but mainly for infrastructure and not for the housing structures themselves. Furthermore, the emphasis on sustainability since the early 1990s and its impact on housing policy are also discussed. This international perspective is followed by an assessment of various policy documents directly or indirectly linked to housing in South Africa since 1990. South African policy was labelled a victory for width over depth because a smaller product that had to reach as many people as possible was introduced. It has been found that despite various similarities between the South African and the World Bank policies, the main difference lies in the fact that South African policy also proposed a housing structure. So, to some degree, South African housing policy - according to the World Bank - could have had more width (reaching more people) if infrastructure only had been provided. The South African policy is clear on who should become end-beneficiaries and what they should receive. However, regional guidelines for housing investment (where) in South Africa or the provinces are virtually non-existent. Housing policy in the Free State has placed more emphasis on the housing structure itself by emphasising that housing units of 40m2 should be constructed – thereby laying more emphasis on depth. However, this resulted in housing subsidies being allocated to areas where land was cheap, or where planned stands were available. Consequently, housing investment favoured small towns and middle-order towns at the expense of larger urban areas. Though some progress was actually made between 1999 and 2001 to improve on the delivery in larger urban areas in the Free State, this was achieved at the expense of municipal finance, or it required deposits from beneficiaries - which in turn excluded the poor from accessing housing subsidies. The emphasis on the size of housing further resulted in housing finance being focused only on the poor and not distributed proportionally between the income groups that were able to access the housing subsidy. As low-income housing delivery in the Free State focused mainly on the top structure and was aimed at existing stands, the infrastructure levels of housing projects in the Free State are significantly lower than in the rest of the country, and, no informal settlement upgrading has thus taken place. Against this background, the thesis proposes that the pro-poor and targeting nature of the low-income housing subsidy should be maintained; obstacles in policy that prevent private sector finance from supporting the subsidy should be minimised; the rationale for low-income housing subsidies in the Free State should be reconsidered; housing subsidies should be available incrementally; final decision-making on how to spend the subsidy should be done at the local level; low-income housing should accommodate urban growth; the emphasis on 40m2 should be reconsidered; further, there should be emphasis on width and not depth; and, a regional framework for the allocation of investment of low-income housing, based on housing need, demographic trends and economic potential, should be implemented.Item Open Access Die bevolkingsverbreiding en rassepatrone in die O.V.S.(University of the Free State, 1978-12) Van der Walt, Josef Kornelis; Nel, D. E.Afrikaans: Sedert die eerste seisoentrekke van veeboere na die Vrystaat, is die ontwikkeling van die Vrystaat nou saamgesnoer met die groei van die Blanke- en Bantoebevolkings. Aanvanklik was die bevolkingsvestiging in die suidelike en westelike dele van die O.V.S. Hierdie patroon van vestiging het geleidelik verander; in die beginjare in korrelasie met die veranderinge in die boerderypatroon. Lateraan egter onder invloed van mynbou- en industriële ontwikkeling. In hierdie studie is al die korrelatiewe faktore wat 'n invloed op die mens-landverhouding uitgeoefen het, ondersoek en bespreek. Die huidige bevolkingsverbreiding en die rassepatrone in die O.V.S. toon noue verband met ekonomiese bedrywighede in dié streek. Die bevolkingsverbreiding is dus eers onder drie ekonomiese sektore, nl. die landbou-, mynbou- en industriebevolking bestudeer. Daar is ook gevind dat verstedeliking by die Blankebevolking baie ver gevorder het; by die Kleurlinge in 'n geringer mate en by die Bantoe baie min. Dit het tot gevolg dat die Blankebevolkingsgetalle in die landelike dele baie laag en die Bantoebevolkingsgetalle besonder hoog is. In die saaistreke van die O.V.S. is die Blank-Bantoeratio gemiddeld 5,5 Blankes per 100 Bantoes. In die gemengde boerderystreke is dit 9 en in die veeboerderystreke is die graad van "witheid" die hoogste, nl. 11 Blankes per 100 Bantoes. Die Blank-Kleurlingratio is slegs in die suidelike en suidwestelike dele van die O.V.S. van toepassing. In slegs drie van die distrikte in dié gebied is die Kleurlinge meer as die Blankes met 'n ratio van gemiddeld 85. In die res is die Blankes meer met ratios wat wissel van 60 tot 90. Daar is gevind dat dele met hoë landelike bevolkingsdigthede almal in die Noordwes-Vrystaat geleë is. Bevolkingsdigthede van tot 17.5 persone per km2 word hier aangetref hoofsaaklik as gevolg van die intensiewe saaiboerdery wat toegepas word. Dit is algemeen bekend dat sulke streke altyd relatiewe hoë bevolkingsgetalle het omdat plase kleiner is en daar baie arbeid benodig word en meer intensief bewerk word. Dit betken weer 'n betreklike groot arbeidsmag. Saaiery op so 'n skaal word moontlik gemaak deur die besondere eienskappe van die grond in hierdie streke. In die Noord- en Oos-O.V.S. is die bevolkingsdigtheid ook relatief hoog, tussen 11,5 en 17,5/km2. In dié dele is dit veral die hoër neerslae wat saaiboerdery bevorder en saaiboerdery gee weer aanleiding tot hoër bevolkingsdigthede. Die sentrale dele van die O.V.S. se bevolkingsdigtheid is tussen 5,5 tot 11,5/km2. Reënval in hierdie dele is laer en gemengde boerdery word toegepas. Om 'n afdoende ekonomiese plaaseenheid te wees, moet plase in hierdie streek dus groter wees. Gepaard met die feit dat Blanke boere verder uitmekaar woon, word ook minder arbeiders benodig en dit lei tot die lae bevolkingsdigtheid. Die dele met die laagste bevolkingsdigthede lê in die suidelike en suidwestelike dele van die O.V.S. waar digthede weer laer as 5,5/km2 beloop. Die lae en wisselvallige reënval en die swak gronde het tot gevolg dat slegs skaapboerdery toegepas kan word. Plase is dus baie groter en bowendien word min arbeid vir dië soort boerdery benodig. Daar is verder ook 'n isaritmiese kaart saamgestel waarop die huidige bevolking in digtheidstreke aangetoon word.Item Open Access Conditions characterizing the sustainability of smallholder irrigation schemes: the case of Bikita District Zimbabwe(University of the Free State (Qwaqwa Campus), 2016-05) Chazovachii, Bernard; Mukwada, G.This thesis examines conditions characterizing viability and sustainability of smallholder irrigation agriculture based on four smallholder irrigation schemes in Bikita District, Masvingo Province of Zimbabwe, namely Chinyamatumwa, Mashoko, Rozva and Shereni. Climate change and variability has necessitated investment in smallholder irrigation agriculture, a sector that has been bypassed by the green revolution, leaving the resource-poor and small landholders food insecure. Smallholder irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe are unsustainable beyond external assistance. These outcomes leave plot holders worse off, due to their failure to achieve viability and sustainability. Application of Irrigation Management Transfer at country and irrigation scheme levels has lacked consideration of local conditions and specific characteristics of local scheme management. The Zimbabwean economic downturn that started in 1999 worsened the condition due to the withdrawal of government and donor support from irrigation development. This left smallholder irrigation schemes exposed to organisational and management problems, creating differences and confusion amongst institutions and irrigation project supervisors, regarding their duties and responsibilities. Hitherto, conditions characterizing the viability and sustainability of smallholder irrigation agriculture have received no direct research attention nor has the nexus of the two phenomena been theorized in Zimbabwe. This study is the first study to apply the Viability-Sustainability Model in the assessment of challenges facing smallholder irrigation agriculture in the country. The Sustainable Livelihood Approach augmented by the Viability System Based Theory was employed in the assessment of the aforementioned four smallholder irrigation schemes. The methodology of the study was informed by both the positivist and constructivist paradigms. This mixed-methods research allowed the opportunity to compensate for inherent methodological weaknesses, capitalize on inherent method strengths and offset inevitable methodological biases. A sequential exploratory design was employed where collection and analysis of qualitative data was followed by a collection and analysis of quantitative data or vise-versa. Data-collection tools included questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions, observations (using photographic equipment) and document analysis, all of which were used for triangulation purposes. Purposive sampling was used to select key informants who were interviewed while computer generated random number tables were used to select the irrigators who were included in the questionnaire survey and FGDs. SPSS, Version 16.0, was used to perform descriptive statistics, ANOVA, during quantitative data analysis. The thematic process of data-analysis (a model of content analysis), complemented by the constant comparative method, was used in qualitative analysis. In all the smallholder irrigation schemes, viability was considered to be a function of governance and social cohesion, financial management capability and technical and water resources management capability as well as a variety of capitals all of which are interconnected into a single system. However, social dissonance and poor financial management system were prevalent in all the schemes as compared to other factors. The study concludes that for smallholder irrigation schemes to develop as farming organizations, farmer empowerment is the order of the day. The study also concludes that farming organizations such as irrigation schemes are under the influence of both internal and external forces, which should be carefully managed in order to attain viability and sustainability. The ability of farmers to organize themselves or their operations depends on internal factors like competency of the IMC, WUA, systems in place, training, and financial systems. Similarly, the ability of the farmers to relate to external stakeholders such as donors, credit institutions, government policy, farmers’ cooperatives, markets and competitors is also critical for mapping the viability and sustainability of the schemes.Item Open Access Private wildlife governance in a context of radical uncertainty: dynamics of game farming policy and practice in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa(University of the Free State, 2016-04) Kamuti, Tariro; Veenswijk, M. B.; Visser, G. E.; Brooks, S. J.; Spierenburg, M. J.Conversion from livestock and/or crop farming to game farming has been a notable trend on privately owned land in South Africa over the last decades. This change has been characterised by the fast growth of wildlife ranching, reflected in the annual increase in land enclosed by game fences and the high demand for wildlife which is being traded privately and at wildlife auctions. Key environmental and agricultural legislation has been passed since 1994 that impacts the wildlife sector, for instance, legislation on property rights, (re)distribution of resources, and biodiversity conservation in South Africa. The study sought to investigate the extent to which the state is able to impose effective controls over land use activities related to wildlife conservation on private land, and to explore in detail how governance processes actually work on the ground in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. The study explores how the private game farming industry positions itself with respect to existing agricultural and environmental regulations, as well as how the state is responding to the challenge of competing needs over land and wildlife resources that is posed by the game farming sector. The basis of the study was to unravel findings that show interactions, discourses, policy positions, and power relations of stakeholders in the governance of game farming. Realising the importance of the link between environmental governance and institutions, the thesis uses the idea of institutional bricolage by Frances Cleaver to explore the governance of private game farms through various institutional arrangements. Cleaver contends that formal institutions created through abstract principles are not the primary means through which tensions inherent in the use of natural resources are resolved. Greater focus was therefore placed on how rules, norms and shared strategies get stitched together through repetitive interactions by actors involved in game ranching. Critical realism was the guiding ontological philosophy for this study. Data was obtained through in-depth interviews with key informants from major stakeholder organisations and communities linked to the private wildlife sector in KwaZulu-Natal province. I also collected data through visits to game farms and private wildlife reserves, and acted as an observer at game auctions, workshops and conferences. Documentary evidence collected also served as primary data. Critical discourse analysis (which in this study also incorporates political discourse analysis) was the major analytical framework. Evidence presented in this study points towards the fractured state in the governance of the private game farming sector. The state is not a homogeneous and monolithic entity uniformly applying itself to the regulation of the sector. There is no clear direction on the position of private game farming at the interface of environmental and agricultural regulations. The state lacks a clear vision for the South African countryside as shown by the outstanding land restitution and labour tenant claims on privately owned land earmarked for wildlife production. Instead, role players in the game farming sector are using the available governance arrangements to position themselves strategically for their own benefit, even though some of their activities cause tension. In that process, the private wildlife industry has completely changed the landscape of nature conservation in South Africa. In KwaZulu-Natal the long standing cordial relations between conservation authorities and private landowners have worked to the advantage of the private landowners. The study argues that this transformation of the institutional processes mediating the governance of the private game farming sector has been a long and enduring arrangement emerging organically over time. Changes in the regulatory regime through new laws, amendment of existing laws and unbalanced implementation of existing laws creates an environment of considerable uncertainty for the game farmers who are the major role players in the wildlife sector, yet within this context private landowners do retain significant space for manoeuvre.Item Open Access A comparative study of landslides and geohazard mitigation in Northern and Central Malawi(University of the Free State, 2007-11) Msilimba, Golden Gadinala Ashan Chizimba; Holmes, Peter J.English: In 2003, a number of landslides occurred in the Ntchenachena and the Chiweta Areas of the Rumphi District in Northern Malawi, and in the Livilivi/Mvai Catchments of Ntcheu District in Central Malawi. The landslide events caused significant damage to crops, farmland, livestock and infrastructure. Worse still, they caused the death of four people. The high density of landslides occurrences suggested instability of the slopes of these areas. In light of these landslides, this study set out to assess the slope stability status of the areas. The study addressed landslide mapping and classification of observed events; assessment of the causes and contributing factors; assessment of the socio-economic and environmental impacts of the events; exploration of traditional knowledge, beliefs and peoples perceptions surrounding landslides; determination of the coping strategies; and development of mitigations to landslides as geo-hazards. This study involved a landslide inventory of all observed This study involved a landslide inventory of all observed events. The physical characteristics of the terrain influencing slope instability were measured. The characteristics recorded included slope length, angles, aspect and altitude, and channel dimensions. Landslides were classified based on the type of movement, degree of stabilisation, and age, and materials involved in the movement. Soil samples were collected, using core and clod sampling methods and were tested for plastic limit, liquid limit, plasticity index, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, aggregate stability, and particle sizes. Structural rock weaknesses were also measured. Vegetation data was collected, using the quadrant method and was analysed for average diameters at stump and breast height, canopy cover, and height. Questionnaires/surveys were used to assess local knowledge and perceptions towards landslides. A SPSS statistical package was used to analyse both social and physical data. It was found that 131 landslides had occurred of which 98 were in the Rumphi District, Northern Malawi and 33 occurred in the Ntcheu District, Central Malawi. The variations were observed to be due to the degree of disturbance of the physical environment. The Ntchenachena Area, with the highest density (88), was under cultivation and the afro-montane vegetation had been completely destroyed. The deepest channels were observed in the Ntchenachena Area, partly because of the deep chemical weathering of the basement. In contrast, the rest of the areas had thin soils. Slope aspect and type were found to be of little significance in the occurrence and spatial distribution of the events. The analysis of data suggested that the events were caused by liquefaction of sand and silt fractions due to high and prolonged precipitation. The evidence from the Chiweta and the Mvai Areas suggests that high cleft water pressure between rock and soil masses might have caused some failures. However, destruction of vegetation, cultivation on marginal lands, high slope angle, weathering of the basement, and slope cutting contributed to the instability. The study also noted that the Ntchenachena, the Mvai and the Livilivi Areas largely require soft solutions to the landslide problem. These include afforestation, proper siting of houses, and restricting settlement activities in danger-prone areas. Income generating activities to reduce poverty, community participation in natural resources management and public awareness and outreach programmes are highly recommended. The Chiweta Area requires urgent major engineering works such as construction of embankments, cable nets, wire meshes, improving drainage and plugging. Stabilisation and rehabilitation of river banks is also recommended to minimize bank collapse and flooding. Integration of traditional knowledge into the existing scientific body knowledge is critical to a better understanding of the mechanisms that generate landslides Further work needs to be carried out in areas of willingness to relocate to safer ground; change in production system; geological analysis of the Chiweta beds; hydro-geological assessment of the areas; development of landslides predictive models for Malawi; and the development of a landslide early warning system.Item Open Access Second homes and local economic impacts in the South African post-productivist countryside(University of the Free State, 2010-11) Hoogendoorn, Gijsbertus; Visser, Gustav; Marais, LochnerEnglish: Issues concerning post-productivism have not seen any direct systematic research attention in South Africa. Nevertheless, it has recently been proposed that post-productivism, although difficult to discern in its early stages, has gathered sufficient momentum to warrant scholarly attention in the local context. This study develops this contention by focusing on the role of second homes tourism as a contributor to developing a South African post-productivist countryside using four study areas, namely, Rhodes, Greyton, Dullstroom and Clarens. It is argued that the initial development of productivist countrysides was linked to the apartheid regime’s concerns over white land ownership, black labour distribution and food security. It is then suggested that although the productivist countryside was under strain towards the final years of apartheid, the dismantling of apartheid agricultural policy and financial support for white farmers led them to seek out other economic opportunities. Movement towards consumptive leisure practices such as tourism and leisure functions has led to a diversification of farming practices resulting in a countryside in which agricultural production has decreased in importance. It is then argued that the stage was set for second homes to emerge as a new phenomenon in the countryside which further enhances the trend towards post-productivism. The project then provides an analysis of the various economic impacts of second homes in four study sites mentioned.Item Open Access Perspectives on the social impacts of second homes in rural South Africa(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Hay, Emerentia Antoinette; Visser, GustavEnglish:Second homes as phenomenon in Human Geography has been researched in some detail in developed countries, but considerably little research has been presented on this phenomenon in the developing world. The existing research focuses mainly on economic issues related to second home development – but this research was specifically undertaken better to understand the social perspectives and resultant impacts of this phenomenon on rural communities. Economic issues also came into play, but the main focus was to unravel the social intricacies that second homes bring to a rural environment. Rosendal in the Eastern Free State of South Africa was used as a case study and included the predominantly white town of Rosendal, the black township of Mautse and the surrounding farming community. The area is known as a retreat for city dwellers from the Gauteng region and the capital of the Free State province, namely Bloemfontein. The literature review revealed that social and economic impacts of second home development on host communities, worldwide and locally, play an important role and contribute to the shift of communities from a productivist to post-productivst countryside. Furthermore, social change serves to undermine the social utility of traditional farming – resulting in a differentiated or post-productivist countryside of which second home development is an example. A mixed methods approach within the interpretivist paradigm was utilised for this thesis, where a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research was implemented. Furthermore, a case study approach was used because the study wanted to provide a platform and agenda for future studies on social impacts of second homes. Case studies within the interpretivist paradigm have received relatively little attention from social scientists, especially geographers – therefore it may be argued that this is new territory for second home research in South Africa. The findings revealed that research in South Africa on people with lower incomes as second home owners is almost completely absent. One of the main contributions of this study therefore, is the unraveling of the socio-economic profiles of lower income earners who have second homes, and do not necessarily come from cities. Secondly, research on high amenity rural places often focuses on the potential v impacts of rapid growth in tourism and second home ownership on the ‘host’ community. Part of this worldwide research is the seasonal and weekend resident attachment to such a landscape, but for the current study farm dwellers’ migration was also researched – dwellers who travel during month-ends to town locations or ‘informal dwellings’, which may lead to the erosion of (or in constructive terms rather change in) the existing socio-cultural fabric, as rural values are mixed with the urban (and farm) values of incomers. Thirdly it was found that the six indicators of a post-productivist countryside of Wilson and Rigg (2003) can only be partially applied to the current case study. This indicates that developing countries are probably moving partially to a post-productivist state in the rural areas, but that certain factors not known to developed countries are also at work and contribute to permutations of the mentioned indicators. The thesis closes with a suggestion that post-productivist theory may have to be reviewed for developing country environments.Item Open Access `n Morfometriese ondersoek na landskapontwikkeling in die Sentraal-Vrystaat: `n toepassing met behulp van `n geografiese inligtingstelsel(University of the Free State, 2002-07) Barker, Charles Henry; de Villiers, G. du T.English: In the thesis, a geographic information system is used to investigate the morphometry and active geomorphic processes in a semi-arid catchment area. The construction of a digital terrain model from published sources is elucidated and an erosion model is used to explain the spatial distribution of drainage basins in the study area The study was conducted in the Modder river catchment in the central Free State. The study area was chosen as the result of tectonic stability which should lessen the impact of endogenic processes in the current form of the landscape In the first part of the study, a set of morphometric parameters were chosen to represent the current form of the landscape as accurately as possible. Several process parameters were also identified to quantify the active erosion processes in the area. To explain the relationships between form and process, a working erosion model is used. This model was calibrated by using current environmental conditions. In the second part of the thesis, a digital terrain model of the study area was constructed. Several techniques for the construction were evaluated and a method for stream and pan burning was developed. A geographic information system were used to collect data sets from different published sources and to combine it into a single database. The GIS was also used to extract the applicable parameters from the database. The last part of the study was devoted to the analysis of the data and the creation of a development model for the catchment. Several statistical techniques were used to classify the parameters and to group the drainage basins. The relationships between the parameters were investigated and quantified. From the study it was clear that a relationship exists between form and process in the Modder river catchment area and that geographic information technology can be used with success in the study of landforms. The methodology developed for the study as well as the data generated might be useful for the management of the catchment in various ways.