Doctoral Degrees (Linguistics and Language Practice)
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Item Open Access The implementation of a bilingual-bicultural literacy intervention programme for deaf learners in Namibia(University of the Free State, 2021-11) Bruwer, Beausetha Juhetha; Van Staden, A.; Du Plessis, L. T.The Bilingual-Bicultural approach is considered the best approach to teach deaf learners. This approach also provides the best opportunity for deaf learners to become biliterate. Namibia too has adopted the Bilingual-Bicultural approach to teaching deaf learners and are a signatory to national and international policies and laws to ensure deaf learners are provided with the best opportunity for an education. Contrary to the adoption of the Bilingual-Bicultural approach, policies and laws, no impact has been seen on an improvement in the deaf learners’ academic performance. Deaf learners still leave school with low literacy levels and unsure of their future. The main purpose of this study was to find the best instructional practices to teach deaf learners through the Bilingual-Bicultural approach. This was done through the implementation of an intervention programme that can narrow the delay and gap in language learning and literacy. The study adopted a programme evaluation within a multi-method research design. The research objectives accommodated the implementation of a Bilingual-Bicultural literacy intervention programme for deaf learners. The data for the study consisted of quantitative data in the form of measurements based on diagnostic tests and qualitative data in the form of document analysis, participant and non-participant observations as well as unstructured interviews. The variety of data directed the study to a multi-data analysis. The themes that were established for feedback of the research findings originated from the research objectives and the programme evaluation questions that were drawn up to guide the evaluation of the Bilingual-Bicultural literacy programme. The emphasis of the intervention programme was to draw up new and adopted Integrated Planning Manuals that are based on the NSL and Written English syllabuses and prescribed language skills of both language subjects. From the new IPMs, lessons were designed for both language subjects. Teaching and learning materials were also designed to support the lessons. The programme envisaged a systematic method of learning the deaf learners the two languages at the same time. The aim was to teach Written English based on NSL. The programme had a dual integrated approach in that it integrated into specific themes and topics for a week and the language skills for each language subject. It also integrates into the other subjects that are taught to the learners. The programme was systematic in teaching learners in small portions, every time building on these small portions. Teachers were provided with deliberate training on the instructional practices that were intended for the programme. The implementation of the Bilingual-Bicultural literacy programme resulted in a positive impact and improvement on the biliteracy of the deaf learners. Statistical analyses underscored the value of the intervention program. T-tests yielded statistical significant results for both NSL and Written English skills with regard to the total scores as well as the sub-tests included in this study (p<0.05). The teachers who participated in the study showed significant teacher attributes in the form of self-efficacy, the ability to communicate in NSL, experience and skills to teach deaf learners and good teacher-learner relationships. Even though, through the programme, the teachers gained pedagogical knowledge and understanding to applicable instructional practices that can be implemented in their teaching, they lacked support systems to sustain their instruction. Continuous interaction and support are thus recommended at all levels to sustain the further development of the Bilingual-Bicultural literacy programme.Item Open Access Sociolinguistics of Lesotho English in the Kingdom of Lesotho(University of the Free State, 2021) Hala-Hala, Mokhoele Aaron; Marais, Kobus; Muhleisen, Susanne𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 This study set out to investigate Sociolinguistics of Lesotho English in the Kingdom of Lesotho. Mainly premised on the principles of the qualitative research design and methodology, this study adopted the narrative interviews, rapid and anonymous observations as well as documentary sources for data collection in answer to the research questions. The research questions which this study set out to answer for achieving the research objectives are as follows: Is there any emerging variety worthy of the name Lesotho English (LesE) amongst the Basotho in Lesotho? If any, to what extent is such a variety critical in defining LesE at the levels of phonology, morphosyntax and lexicon? and How does LesE differ from Sub-Saharan Southern African Englishes, particularly Black South African English (BSAE) and/or other World Englishes? With the above questions, the study has, therefore, made general observations of linguisticvariations at the levels of phonology, morphosyntax and lexicon of LesE from both the oral and written data sets for this study. In particular, using the above-mentioned instruments for collecting oral and written data from the target participants, the study has found systematic salient phonological variations from English which I assume to be BrE. The findings include recurrent spelling pronunciations, syllable-timing, aspiration, missing contrastive stress and syllabic consonants, diphthongal and neutralised vowel sound patterns as well as substitution of interdental fricatives across the oral data on LesE in the context of Lesotho. Further, the morphosyntactic variants discovered from the data comprise the progressive aspect and levelling of the preterite and perfect aspect, the modal system, grammatical and notional concord, relativisation, pronominal appositions, the article system and prepositional usages. Qualitative evidence has thus revealed systematic morphosyntactic variants from the oral and written data for this study, thus highlighting features, possibly unique to LesE and/or comparable to other outer-circle, and, to some extent, inner-circle varieties of English. Similarly, at the lexical level, LesE has been found to bear systematically salient lexical and orthographic variants, coupled with alternative spellings, heteronyms and dehyphenated compound words and sporadic variants of semantic extension. It is, therefore, concluded, in this study, that sociolinguistics of LesE in the Kingdom of Lesotho could be seen as bearing nativised, endonormative and exonormative variations of English, making LesE a comparably emerging English variety to other outer-circle and inner-circle Englishes. ___________________________________________________________________Item Open Access The hermeneutics of suspicion and human empowerment: a textual and practical evaluation(University of the Free State, 2008-11) Senekal-Van der Berg, Elrika; Nel, P. J.English: Elizabeth SchUssler Fiorenza is the main and most prominent proponent of the Hermeneutics of Suspicion. This hermeneutics has as aim the liberation and empowerment of women and other subjugated groups, and starts from the base of the Biblical text. Texts must be interpreted in the same way as a murder scene in order to find traces of lost voices and clues which will enable the liberation of marginalized parties. Texts must also be read against their androcentric grain in order to glean new meanings that have not before been proclaimed to the religious community. The hermeneutics of suspicion consists of four main movements/steps: suspicion, remembrance, proclamation and creative imagination and actualization. Suspicion entails the reading of a text with lenses coloured by suspicion, and a critical close reading against the grain of the androcentric text. The step of Remembrance teaches women and other readers to remember their past and the work and struggles of parties that have gone before them. It furthermore encourages readerslwomen to remember the voices of the Biblical parties that have been silenced by the androcentric grain of the text. Proclamation involves the declaration that all texts that do not enable the liberation of women and other marginalized groups, are not the Word of God but the words of men. Creative imagination and actualization gives people the opportunity to bring the text to life by means of poems, plays, paintings, songs, etc. Despite the fact that Fiorenza's hermeneutics is well-known in academic circles overseas, it is limited to small academic communities locally. At the University of the Free State, for example, there is no chair for feminist theology - this despite the fact that it is one of the fastest-growing fields within theology today. The ordinary lay believer knows little to nothing about this theology, and is never given any exposure to its tenets. In this study I wanted to test whether Fiorenza's hermeneutics is teachable to a group of lay believers, whether such believers are interested in this hermeneutics and whether it can change the way they read the text. I furthermore wanted to test the principles of this hermeneutics on the text of Old Testament narratives, since Fiorenza herself works mainly with the New Testament. Fioreza is additionally Catholic, and it had to be tested whether her principles, especially with regards to her step of Proclamation, were acceptable to a Protestant audience. The result of this practical evaluation is listed in detail in the work, but in short amounts to the following: 1. The audience it was taught to was able to grasp the principles of the hermeneutics of suspicion, but it was found that it takes time to assimilate these principles into the reading strategy to such a degree that it becomes a natural way of reading the text and the world. 2. The audience was not willing to concede that texts that do not work liberation in hand are words of men and not the Word of God. 3. The hermeneutics of suspicion could successfully be used on the narratives of the Old Testament, and the questions stencil I developed to aid in this process was able to greatly simplify this process for the lay reader. The ordinary Afrikaans, middle class, female believer has little knowledge or awareness of her religious heritage and resultingly suffers unknowingly under the same inherited piety of her foremothers. She has progressed little towards liberation in the past 100 years. The hermeneutics of suspicion can aid to combat this situation, but time is needed to incorporate this into the religious every-day life of the lay believer.Item Open Access Developing a theoretical rationale for the attainment of greater equivalence of standard in the Grade 12 Home Language exit-level examinations(University of the Free State, 2017-02) Du Plessis, Colleen Lynne; Weideman, A. J.English: Disproportionately high pass rates and alarming discrepancies in the results of the South African National Senior Certificate (NSC) external examination for Home Language (HL) subjects have undermined the credibility of the state school curriculum and its system of assessment. This has also fuelled allegations that the same standards do not apply to all HL school subjects. Studies commissioned by the Council for Quality Assurance in General and Further Education and Training (Umalusi) to investigate the matter have confirmed that the levels of cognitive challenge do vary across HL examination papers. However, the reasons for this have not been identified and no alternatives have been proposed to improve the situation. In supplementation of the findings of Umalusi, this study seeks to develop a theoretical rationale for greater equivalence of standard in assessment across HLs. It has identified the historical lack of parity of esteem of the HLs and their continued inequitable treatment as academic languages as major factors that have constrained efforts to introduce comparability of standard and construct in the school-leaving examination. Other salient reasons for the varying standards pertain to the problematic design of the HL examination papers, a lack of conceptual clarity of constructs, and a lack of compliance with essential principles for the responsible and fair assessment of language abilities. In as much as initiatives by the former Department of Education to establish a unified national department and introduce common curricula and standards with centrally set examination papers may be laudable, they have failed to address the weak academic status of the indigenous Bantu HLs beyond the Foundation and Intermediate Phases of schooling. As a result hereof, the pivotal role that these languages could play in fostering epistemological access in other school subjects has been overlooked. The study argues that without comparable treatment of these languages to that of Afrikaans and English, it would be difficult to attain similar standards of teaching and assessment. This is a severe limitation in the quest for equality. It points to the need to raise the academic status of the indigenous Bantu HLs by exploring their use as languages of learning and teaching beyond the initial years of primary school education through bilingual pedagogies and variations of double-medium modes of instruction. A further recommendation of the study is that the HL examination papers be redesigned to accommodate a common examination component aimed at stimulating the development, inter alia, of academic vocabulary and inferential reasoning. On the basis of the prescribed curriculum, the study has identified the underlying construct of the HL examination to be the assessment of a differentiated language ability in discourse types involving typically different texts, and a generic ability incorporating task-based functional and formal aspects of language. Further to this, learners are required to display a high level of language ability as opposed to the more basic communicative kind needed for other languages offered at First Additional Language (FAL) level. Through the redesign of the exit-level HL examination papers and the introduction of a common examination component that tests generic language ability, a stimulus can be provided for the equitable advancement of the HLs. This would go hand in hand with the development of literacy materials in the HLs to strengthen skills that are needed for further study and workplace environments. At the same time, by adopting an integrated approach to language teaching and testing, the development of the crucial ability to understand, process and produce information in various formats through authentic and relevant tasks can be achieved through language instruction at school. A third major part of the study focuses on the sophisticated and specialised nature of language assessment as a branch of applied linguistics, and identifies a serious lack of compliance in the HL examination with orthodox principles that support valid and reliable assessment practices. This is particularly problematic in light of the disparities emanating from unjust educational policies in the previous political dispensation. The NSC is in need of socially just and equitable forms of assessment that are ecologically sensitive and reflect political and social accountability on the part of those tasked with overseeing the examination. Examination papers analysed for the purposes of the study show that privileged forms of literacy are still tolerated in some parts of the examination and that unacceptably high ratios of potentially subjective and unreliable scoring are allowed. By means of the proposed theoretical framework for the responsible design of the HL examination papers, a positive washback effect on language teaching is envisaged and a platform created for the eventual attainment of greater equivalence of standard and construct.Item Open Access The incremental validity of three tests of academic literacy in the context of a South African university of technology(University of the Free State, 2016) Sebolai, Kabelo Wilson; Weideman, A. J.; Van Dyk, T.𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 This study focuses on the incremental validity of three assessments of academic language readiness, compared to Grade 12 English results: the National Benchmark Test in Academic Literacy (NBT AL), the Proficiency Test English Second Language Advanced Level (PTESLAL) and the Test of Academic Literacy Levels (TALL) at the end of the first year of academic study. More specifically, the study investigates the ability of any of the four assessments to predict first year academic performance better than the others. Where those that are examined do not possess this ability, the further question is asked: can they at least add to the predictive power of the best predictor? Ultimately, the aim is to determine if the assessments designed to provide additional information about first year academic preparedness are valid for this purpose, and the extent to which this is the case. The study starts with a brief exploration of the literature on the reportedly low levels of academic language ability among first time entrants to higher education in South Africa in recent years, and the consequent need for the development and use of valid tests of academic language ability for channelling these students into academic language interventions that are aimed at dealing with this challenge. The literature on the current theories of validity is also explored in relation to the hypothesis of the study, which is that as a test designed to provide additional information about the academic language readiness of first year students, TALL will possess better incremental validity in relation to the best predictor of first year academic performance. Subsequently, an attempt is made to account for the ability of Grade 12 English results to predict first year academic performance better than the other three assessments investigated in the present study. Similarly, an effort is made to account for the ability of TALL to show evidence of incremental validity in relation to Grade 12 English results and the inability of NBT AL and PTESLAL to do the same. Furthermore, on the basis of the results of previous studies and the current one, a recommendation is made that Grade 12 results in general and Grade 12 English results in particular be used together with those of academic literacy tests to make access and placement decisions. The basis for this recommendation resides in the psychometric and other shortcomings of Grade 12 results that have been identified by previous studies as well as the evidence that similar studies have produced to show that tests of academic literacy possess better ability to partition test taker performance from different school backgrounds and at different levels of performance. Finally, the implications of the results of the study for current theories of test validity are discussed. In the main, the discussion focuses on demonstrating on the basis of these results and those of previous studies that the currently popular theory of validity wherein a unitary approach to validity is upheld and the interpretation and use of test scores are regarded as the essence of validation does not hold. At the same time, the discussion focuses on demonstrating that the traditional theory of validity, wherein validity is believed to reside in the objective ability of a test to produce valid scores and a distinction is made between the three traditional types of validity, namely construct, content and criterion-related validity is, with certain obvious qualifications, still defensible. Finally, the implications of the results of the study for validity theory are dealt with in relation to the validity of courses of academic literacy. ___________________________________________________________________Item Open Access The socio-onomastic significance of American cattle brands: a Montana case study(University of the Free State, 2015-11) Lombard, Carol Gaye; Raper, P. E.; Du Plessis, L. T.English: For more than two centuries, cattle ranchers in Montana and other American states such as Texas and Wyoming have used hot iron brands as the primary means of identifying, tracking and proving ownership of their livestock. Despite modern innovations such as the development and use of radio-frequency ear tags (RFID), hot iron brands remain the preferred means of animal identification in the Western regions of the United States. One of the leading arguments put forward in this thesis is that the system of American cattle brands is essentially a linguistic one with a prominent onomastic component. This assumption is based on the fact that cattle brands are compound entities comprising symbols (images) as well as corresponding spoken and written forms which function as proper names. In addition to possessing onomastic features of their own, cattle brands display a range of associations with other types of names. This network of onomastic relationships is socially-constructed and therefore reflects underlying social meanings. It is therefore posited that although cattle brand names do not possess lexical or linguistic meaning, they acquire various dimensions of meaning on the basis of their associations with different elements in their socio-cultural surrounds. The overall goal of this study is to ascertain and explain the social and cultural significance of the contextual meaning of cattle brands and to determine the extent to which names and naming strategies play a role in its establishment. Since this thesis is primarily concerned with exploring the relationship between the onomastic features of cattle brands and their socio-cultural meanings, it is presented as a study in socio-onomastics. The research has identified two prominent onomastic practices which play a powerful role in establishing the contextual or associative meanings of cattle brands. The first process entails the use of various types of names (including parts of names) as the basis for the visual designs of cattle brand symbols, whilst in the second approach names of cattle brands are adopted as other kinds of names. The study indicates that cattle brand (language) users purposefully employ these naming strategies to create associations between cattle brands and various elements in their socio-cultural environment. It is contended that these connections not only ascribe meaning to cattle brands but also indicate how deeply cattle brands are embedded within their socio-cultural surrounds. The study has shown, for instance, how the narratives which become attached to cattle brands by virtue of onomastic associations trigger memories of people, places and events that are deemed important in the lives of the individuals, families and groups of people who are connected to the brands. It is argued that on the basis of these connections, cattle brands become infused with diverse aspects of socio-cultural meaning which are then reflected and projected back into their surroundings during the course of everyday life. This thesis represents the first scholarly endeavour to examine the socio-cultural meanings of American cattle brands from an onomastic perspective. Through its emphasis on accounting for social and cultural influences in exploring the meanings and functions of cattle brand names, the study makes an original contribution to the field of socio-onomastics and illustrates the value of the approach in research which aims to arrive at socially and culturally-relevant interpretations of onomastic meaning. Furthermore, the intersection of the present work with research in the fields of cultural heritage, cultural identity and social semiotics emphasises the interdisciplinary nature of onomastics research and draws attention to the fact that names are important textual elements in diverse social and cultural contexts.Item Open Access The linguistic landscape as construct of the public space: a case study of post-apartheid rural South Africa(University of the Free State, 2016-02) Loth, Chrismi-Rinda; Du Plessis, L. T.English: The linguistic landscape (LL), comprised of items displaying written language in the public space, is the product of linguistic choices that are executed by a myriad of actors who are guided by numerous pragmatic or symbolic motivations. Written language in the public space has unique semiotic properties that extend beyond its communicative function. It indexes power relations and identities, and, as such, is utilised to impose or negotiate these. The LL is thus a symbolic construct finding itself in a continuous dialectic with society. This dialectic is especially interesting in a society undergoing socio-political transformation, since revised language policies and ideologies are at play. While the changes influence choices made in the LL, the LL simultaneously serves to index change. In the South African context, the shift from apartheid to democracy in 1994 heralded a new language regime. The high level of societal multilingualism in the country is now supported on an official level. The present study asks questions about the nature of the LL constructed in post-apartheid South Africa. Since peripheral LLs are generally neglected in LL research, this investigation aims to address the gap by conducting an empirical case study of the linguistic profile of a rural area in South Africa. LL research focuses on the patterns of language choice in the public space. However, the field has not yet developed a coherent methodological and theoretical framework that allows for an extensive yet systematic exploration of LL patterns. Therefore, the present study proposes a model based on concepts from the field of language policy and planning (LPP). Based on the premise that the validity of communicative actions is determined by space (as context), a model of LPP space is developed. This LPP space is constituted by a physical and a semiotic aspect. The latter is further divided into three centres, namely the regulatory, the legitimising and the implementational. These four facets of the LPP space each adhere to an internal logic, but they are interactive and compete for dominance. The prevailing LPP facet governs the rules for valid communicative actions that require or prohibit the use of certain linguistic competencies. Based on which competencies are allowed, the multilingual capacities of actors are rendered either valid or invalid. The LPP space model is applied to the LL by determining the spatio-temporal characteristics of the research site (physical aspect), analysing official directives regarding the LL (regulatory centre), exploring language attitudes in the community (legitimising centre), and documenting the language choices executed in the LL (implementational centre). How multilingualism is evaluated by each LPP facet is also considered. The implementational centre is explored by means of a complete LL survey of the nine towns in the Kopanong Local Municipality in the southern Free State province of South Africa. The dataset, comprising 5,773 signs, was compiled between 20 May 2008 and 18 August 2010. Given the extensiveness of the data, several methodological advances are developed in order to systematically codify and analyse the dataset. The combined qualitative/quantitative approach allows thorough cross-referencing of the results, where patterns of language choice are compared to the three LL variables (locality, agency and functionality) as well as the other LPP facets. For this specific context, the study concludes that all facets of the LPP space place the onus to enact multilingual competencies on the LL actors themselves. The LL resulting from their choices is constituted by a high volume of monolingual signage. In addition, English dominates at the expense of African language visibility, and, to a lesser degree, Afrikaans. However, this outcome is considered the result of lacking critical awareness about the LL rather than a negative evaluation of a multilingual LL.Item Open Access Implications and explications of police translation of complainants’ sworn statements: evidence lost in translation?(University of the Free State, 2015-07) Ralarala, Monwabisi Knowledge; Marais, Kobus; Kaschula, RussellThis interdisciplinary case study demonstrates that ‘retelling and rewriting’ of complainants’ legal narratives constitutes translation. The police officers’ (hereafter referred to as transpreters) exercise of translating such narratives from isiXhosa (ST) into English (TT) is quite essential in the administration of justice in a multilingual and multicultural environment such as South Africa, and specifically in the South African Police Service. The challenge (amongst others) in the current system is that traspreters are neither accredited nor posses the necessary credentials to perform this fundamental role and function. The key objectives of this study were investigated by means of scientific papers – both publishable and published as book chapters as well as journal articles in both international and accredited journals. Drawing on various conceptual and analytical frameworks (Sturge 2007, 2009; Asad 2010; Goffman 1981; Dollerup 1999, 2003, 2006, Schiavi 1996 and Chatman, 1978, 1990), the study teases out both micro and macro elements that emanate from 20 voice-recorded and 20 textual translation episodes of sworn statement – which were used as data. The research contributes significantly to scholarship. Apart from calling for a debate on the identifiable flaws of the current model of record construction within the criminal justice system, the study also paints a clear picture of the perpetuation of inequalities and dominance, and points out that these issues seem to have a direct bearing on the failure to observe social justice, access to justice and linguistic human rights in the South African Police Service. Elaborating on research- based explanations for these existing gaps, the study also offers important recommendations that are directed towards the revisiting of the current model of police record construction.Item Open Access Twis om woorde: ʼn forensiese ondersoek na semantiese kwessies in hofsake(University of the Free State, 2015-06) Carney, Terrence Robert; Bergh, LunaEnglish: Law is dependent on language. This is seen, amongst others, in a court of law’s responsibility to interpret the meaning of words. Cases regularly revolve around words; as a result courts have to deal with lexical semantic issues. They do this by referring to a word’s definition in the relevant act, or they cite previous (mostly reported) cases that have dealt with the same words or situations. Sometimes a court will call on a linguist to give his/her expert opinion regarding tricky linguistic issues or terminology or a presiding officer will refer to a scholarly publication. However, when neither of these approaches shed any light nor seem necessary, a court has to interpret words according to their ordinary meaning. For this they often use dictionaries. Apparently a presiding officer never makes use of any other linguistic means to determine the contextual meaning of a so-called ordinary word. Dictionaries tend to be unreliable. By no means do they contain all the words in a language, their definitions are not always clear and they seldom define words in context. Apart from this, dictionaries get outdated quickly and they are dissimilar in their definitions. This study has found that presiding officers in South Africa make use of outdated dictionaries, they sometimes use bilingual dictionaries to define words and the majority of dictionaries used by them are compiled and published outside of South Africa. Using foreign dictionaries to give meaning to words used in South African contexts leads to obvious misinterpretation. It was also found that some South African presiding officers use dictionaries with limited scope, such as pocket and compact dictionaries. All of this creates the impression that law practitioners generally do not know that dictionaries have different goals and target audiences. Because dictionaries should rather be used as a starting point when dealing with the meaning of words in court cases, I suggest law practitioners approach meaning conceptually. Drawing on the work of Rosch, Fillmore and Barsalou, this study advocates the solving of lexical semantic problems by using frames, more specifically Barsalou’s frame model (1992). Due to the fact that speakers understand and process meaning by connecting language to experience and general knowledge, and by categorising information into groups that contain exemplars considered to be the best example of that category; it makes sense for a court of law to give meaning to words in the same way. Speakers deal with information in the form of concepts and those concepts are interconnected and form vast networks of meaning. Words are the lexical representations of those interconnected networks of meaning. Defining a word outside of its conceptual web implies that an interpreter thinks words mean the same in every context, and this is not true. If courts follow a conceptual approach, they will come much closer to a word’s actual, contextual meaning than what they find in a dictionary. The study comprises the following: Chapter 2 provides an overview of both international and local activities of forensic linguistics and positions the study within this field of research. Chapter 3 discusses the different means by which South African courts deal with meaning and the interpretation of words. This includes the theories of interpretation, the Interpretation Act and the use of dictionaries. Chapter 4 focuses on the field of semantics. The different aspects of semantics are discussed, leading to the cognitive linguistic view of prototypes and frames. The chapter ends with an introduction and explanation of Barsalou’s model and the six steps needed to interpret ordinary words found in cases. In Chapter 5 the model is illustrated and tested on words found in 20 South African court cases. In Chapter 6 the conclusion is drawn that the model shows the necessary potential to interpret ordinary words alongside dictionaries.Item Open Access Die rol van taalaktivisme by die herwaardering van moedertaalonderrig in Suid-Afrikaanse skole(University of the Free State, 2012-07) Snayers, Johny Henry; Du Plessis, L. T.Afrikaans: Op 8 Mei 1996 het die Grondwetlike Vergadering van die Republiek van Suid-Afrika ’n nuwe demokratiese grondwet aanvaar. Die Grondwet maak voorsiening vir ’n redelike aantal klousules betreffende taalkwessies. Dit maak onder meer voorsiening vir elf amptelike tale wat die veeltalige en multikulturele aard van ons samelewing weerspieël. Die Nasionale Regering maak sy standpunt oor taal in die onderwys in die 1996 Suid- Afrikaanse Handves van Menseregte duidelik. Hieruit blyk dit duidelik dat die Departement van Onderwys die ontwikkeling van veeltaligheid binne die raamwerk van toevoegende tweetalige onderwys beklemtoon. Skole word byvoorbeeld sterk aanbeveel om ten minste twee tale van onderrig vanaf Graad 1 aan te bied, waarvan een van die twee tale die huistaal van die leerder moet wees. Hierdie positiewe doelwitte ten spyt, blyk dit dat die teenoorgestelde in die praktyk gebeur. Al meer klagtes kom na vore, veral uit die geledere van die minderheidstale (Afrikaans en die Afrikatale) dat hul tale, as tale van onderrig, gemarginaliseer word. ’n Positiewe ontwikkeling is egter die steun vir moedertaalonderrig, veral ook uit gemeenskappe wat tradisioneel gesien was as sou hulle ten gunste van Engelsonderrig wees. Hierdie herwaardering van die rol van die moedertaal in onderrig kan toegeskryf word aan bepaalde taalaktivistiese inisiatiewe wat sedert 1994 van stapel gestuur is. Hierdie studie ondersoek die rol wat taalaktivisme by die terugkeer na moedertaalonderwys in Suid-Afrika na die vestiging van ’n demokratiese taalbestel in die land speel. Die siening dat gemeenskappe apaties staan teenoor taalregtekwessies in die onderwys wat deur politieke en ander drukgroepe teweeggebring word wat die status quo ten opsigte van die bevordering van Engels as onderrigmedium ten koste van die minderheidstale wil bevorder, is ondersoek. Dit is gedoen deur te bepaal: (a) hoe wydverspreid die verskynsel van taalaktivisme in Suid-Afrika voorkom, (b) die vorme (indien enige) waarin taalaktivisme onder die verskillende taalgemeenskappe figureer, (c) of daar inderdaad ’n herwaardering van moedertaalonderrig is, en (d) watter rol (indien enige) taalaktivisme by die herwaardering van moedertaalonderrig speel. Hoofstuk 2 bied ’n uiteensetting van die teoretiese agtergrond waarteen die studie onderneem is. Dit bied ’n literatuuroorsig oor taalaktivisme as verskynsel (en die rol daarvan binne die taalbeplanningsveld) en hoe dit in moedertaalstryde in die wêreld manifesteer, veral met betrekking tot die onderwys. Verskeie definisies van taalbeplanning as insluitende proses, en dus nie slegs as ’n aksie van bo-na-benede nie, is ondersoek. Die rol wat gemeenskappe in die beïnvloeding van taalbeleid speel, word aan die hand van verskeie definisies wat in die literatuur rakende taalregte-aktivisme bestaan, ondersoek. Die aanwending van die instrumente van taalaktivisme, soos ontwikkel deur Martel en later Lubbe en Du Plessis, word in hierdie situasies ondersoek. Aan die einde van die hoofstuk word tot die slotsom gekom dat wisselwerking tussen regerings- en gemeenskapsorganisasies ʼn uiters belangrike rol in die behoud en ontwikkeling van die kulturele en linguistiese erfenis van enige gemeenskap kan speel. Hoofstuk 3 bied ’n oorsig van die kwalitatiewe navorsingsontwerp en -metodologie wat in die studie gevolg is. Vir die doel van hierdie ondersoek word ʼn literatuur-, dokumenteen empiriese studie, wat die ontleding van mediaknipsels behels, uitgevoer. Dit verskaf ’n uiteensetting van die metodes wat gevolg is om inligting uit die literatuur (beide nasionaal en internasionaal), tersaaklike dokumente en mediarekords wat vir die doeleindes van die studie geselekteer is, te verkry. Dit gee ook ’n uiteensetting van die strategieë wat gevolg is ten einde geldigheid en betroubaarheid te verseker. Die studie word gedoen aan die hand van die tipologie van die instrumente van taalaktivisme wat deur Martel (1999) bekendgestel en deur Lubbe et al. (2004) asook Du Plessis (2006) verder ontwikkel is. Die tipologie onderskei tussen die hoofinstrumente van taalaktivisme wat deur taalaktiviste aangewend word en gee ook ’n waardering van watter instrumente meer sukses kan behaal. Die analise is aan die hand van die definisies van taalaktivisme en die sosiale bewegingsteorie soos in Hoofstuk 2 behandel, gedoen. Hoofstuk 4 bied ’n historiese agtergrond tot taalbeplanning en taalbeleidsontwikkeling in Suid-Afrika. Die hoofstuk belig die hoofmomente binne die politieke konteks van taalbeleidsontwikkeling. Hier word gepoog om, deur die studie van die tersaaklike literatuur, die rol van taalaktivisme in Suid-Afrika aan te toon. Studies wat oor taalaktivisme en moedertaalonderrig handel, sowel as amptelike dokumente rakende taal in die onderwys word hier gebruik. Die tydperk 1652 (die begin van die Koloniale tydperk) tot na 1994 (die demokratiseringstydperk) word hier gedek. In Hoofstuk 5 word die bevindinge wat na aanleiding van die media-analise vir die tydperk 1994 tot 2005 gemaak word, behandel. Daarna volg ʼn kritiese analise en interpretasie van die bevindinge ten einde vas te stel watter rol taalaktivisme by die herwaardering van moedertaalonderrig in Suid-Afrika gespeel het. Daar word tot die slotsom gekom dat taalaktivisme wel binne die Suid-Afrikaanse gemeenskap plaasgevind het. Ook dat die twee hooftradisies van taalaktivisme steeds figureer, maar dat daar tekens is dat beide kante van die spektrum wel bereid is om inklusief saam te werk tot ʼn groter demokratiese onderwysbestel. In die laaste hoofstuk word ’n opsomming aangebied van die bevindinge in die verskillende hoofstukke. ’n Sintese van die bevindinge word aangebied na gelang van die probleemvrae soos in Hoofstuk 3 uiteengesit. Gevolgtrekkings word gemaak, gebaseer op die bevindinge, en aanbevelings word dan gemaak rakende ondersoeke na verdure probleemareas en moontlike oplossings.Item Open Access Language-in-education planning in Tanzania: a sociolinguistic analysis(University of the Free State, 2009-11) Tibategeza, Eustard Rutalemwa; Du Plessis, L. T.The study presents a sociolinguistic analysis of the current language-in-education policy implementation in Tanzania. The current sociolinguistic thinking on bilingual education and language-in-education planning informs this evaluation. The analysis is presented against the background of the sociolinguistic principles of bilingual education as developed by García (1997). The challenges regarding implementation of bilingual education policy have been identified. The study indicates that there is no link between the envisioned ideals of the state to promote bilingual education and what obtains in the Education and Training Policy (1995), the document currently relied upon as far as language policy in the Tanzanian educational set-up is concerned. Chapter 1 provides the background of language-in-education planning and policy in Africa, where the advocacy for the use of African languages is high on the agenda. The obstacles, regarding the use of African languages alongside “imported” languages, are pointed out. The common obstacles range from the perseverance of the elite to maintain the status quo, the problem of language attitudes people have towards foreign languages such as English, French and Portuguese and more importantly lack of understanding of the concept of bilingual education and how it operates. Chapter 2 discusses bilingual education programmes with the view of monolingual education, weak and strong bilingual education. Sociolinguistic principles of bilingual education and theoretical considerations related to bilingualism also form part of this chapter. The theories explain some myths which people have regarding how the brain works when it comes to having two languages in education. In addition, language planning and policy concepts have been described to avoid the misconception held in some sociolinguistic literature that they are synonyms and aspects of the same activity. Language planning is seen as the activity that leads to the promulgation of a language policy while language policy is the body of ideas, laws, regulations, rules, procedures and practices intended to achieve the objectives of the policy. Chapter 3 discusses research methodology. The study is evaluative in nature and uses four research instruments, namely documentary reviews, interviews, observations and focus group discussions. Documentary review was meant to analyse the corpus of language-in-education policy documents created by relevant Tanzanian authorities to provide information on overt language policy and its implementation. The interviews were aimed at capturing information on views and perceptions of the education stakeholders regarding the concept of bilingual education and their understanding of the current policy and implementation. Observational method was specifically for supplementing the information gathered from interviews and facilitated cross-checking information in the policy documents. Similarly, focus group discussions provide further cross-checking and informs the development of the model for strong bilingual education. Chapter 4 provides a critical overview of language-in-education policy development in Tanzania from pre-colonial times to the present day. Language issues are discussed according to three different eras, namely pre-colonialism, during colonialism and post-independence. In all these eras, different languages, German, English, Kiswahili and ethnic languages were assigned different functions according to the motives the government in power had towards the languages. During colonial regime, German and English were preferable and they were regarded as languages of high status unlike Kiswahili and other ethnic languages. However, immediately after independence in 1961, the independent state put more efforts to promote Kiswahili. Chapter 5 focuses on data presentation and discussion. Challenges regarding the implementation of strong bilingual education policy in Tanzania are identified. They evolve around inadequate language-in-education policy design, inadequate comprehension of the concept of bilingual education and poor implementation strategies of the policy. Chapter 6 outlines the overview, overall conclusions and recommendation, where a viable and relevant model for implementing strong bilingual education in the Tanzanian sociolinguistic environment is proposed to guide the policy-makers tasked with language-in-education planning.Item Open Access Language planning in South Africa: towards a language management approach(University of the Free State, 2004-11) Mwaniki, Modest Munene; Du Plessis, L. T.English: The study investigates the reasons for the non- implementation of multilingual policies and plans with special reference to South Africa’s language policy and planning implementation scenario. The study identifies four categories of explanations for the non-implementation of multilingual policies and plans in South Africa, namely political; economic; sociolinguistic; and theoretic explanations. Of particular interest is the adequacy of these explanations in explaining the non- implementation of multilingual policies and plans in South Africa. Chapter 1 introduces the study, discounts political, economic and sociolinguistic explanations as inadequate in explaining the non- implementation of multilingual policies and plans in South Africa and establishes the theoretic category as the core category to explain the non- implementation of multilingual policies and plans in South Africa. The chapter provides a preliminary review of language planning literature that explores the inadequacy of language planning theory in providing approaches that can be used to facilitate multilingual policy and planning implementation as well as statement of the research problem and questions, the aim and objectives of the study, overview of research methodology and outline of the thesis. Chapter 2 provides the background to the study. The chapter discusses the macro framework for language policy and language planning in South Africa as provided by the Constitution. The chapter elaborates on South Africa’s constitutional language developments as from the early 1990s and the socio-political and historical contexts that led to the evolution of the 1993 Interim Constitution and the 1996 Constitution. The chapter elaborates on the theoretical, ideological and discourse foundations of both the 1993 Interim Constitution and the 1996 Constitution and points out that the multilingual dispensation envisioned by the 1996 Constitution is in tandem with the project of transformative constitutionalism and advanced cultural politics espoused by the Constitution. The chapter concludes by pointing out that the obligations imposed by the Constitution with respect to language in South Africa must be fulfilled. Its attendant upon language planning actors in South Africa to formulate approaches that can be used to facilitate multilingual policy and planning implementation based on plausible theoretical premises. Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology. The research method used in the study is Grounded Theory Method. The chapter elaborates on the appropriateness of Grounded Theory Method as a method for the development of approaches from qualitative data and how the method was applied to the three elements of the study, namely, literature review; the development of an alternative approach to multilingual policy and planning implementation; and the case study. Chapter 4 reviews literature on language planning theory and models using Eastman (1983) framework. The review establishes the weaknesses of language planning theory and models. These weaknesses account for the inadequacy of language planning theory and models to provide approaches that can be used for multilingual policy and planning implementation. The chapter concludes by discussing how the inadequacies of language planning theory and models have contributed to the non- implementation of South Africa’s multilingual policy and plan. Chapter 5 develops an alternative approach to multilingual policy and planning implementation. The study names the approach “The Language Management Approach”. The approach specifies the theoretical basis for the new approach; the purpose; impediments; the variables; and the methodologies and strategies for multilingual policy and planning implementation. Chapter 6 presents a case study which was used to develop some aspects of the new approach as well as test the new approach. The case study demonstrates that the new approach facilitates multilingual policy and planning implementation. Chapter 7 outlines the conclusions and recommendations. The study contributes towards the resolution of the theoretic and practical dilemmas facing multilingual policy and planning implementation in South Africa and elsewhere.Item Open Access Die insigte van die pragmatiek vir die onderrig van Afrikaans as moedertaal in die sekondere skool(University of the Free State, 1990-06) Klopper, Andries Hendrik; Van Jaarsveld, G. J.Abstract not availableItem Open Access Metafoor in die vertaalde mediadiskoers oor aandele en markte in Finweek(University of the Free State, 2009-11) Du Preez, Erica; Naudé, J. A.English: Authors of financial media discourse use metaphors to communicate with readers. Finweek is a renowned South African financial magazine and its articles on stocks and markets are written by expert authors in the field of the South African stock market. Finweek is published in Afrikaans and English and contains the same articles, but the Afrikaans and English metaphors differ. The study of metaphor in translated financial discourse on stocks and markets is a fundamental characteristic of financial texts and in a multi-lingual country such as South Africa it may support the expansion of the lexicon in the financial domain. The hypotheses were put that the translated media discourse in Finweek on stocks and markets contains coherent metaphor clusters that centre around the metaphors WAR AND POWER, and SPORT AND GAMES; that metaphor has an ideational function in the South African discourse on stocks and markets, i.e. it extends the lexicon; that the choice of metaphor coheres with certain objectives of the translator/author in the financial text in a specific cultural background, and that metaphor has an ideological effect. The study built on the results of research by Bowker and Pearson (2002) on the use of language for special purposes in corpora; the research of McEnery, et al. (2006) on corpus based linguistics; the research of Lakoff and Johnson (1980), Lakoff and Turner (1989), Lakoff (1997), Lakoff and Johnson (1999) and Kövecses (2002) on the source and target domains of metaphors; and the research by Koller (2004) on metaphor and gender in business media discourse. The research was conducted within the framework of corpus based translation. An Afrikaans and an English electronic corpus were compiled from 1 000 articles on stocks and markets that appeared in 33 editions of Finweek from March 2006 to October 2006. The two corpora were compiled as parallel corpora and the programme ParaConc was used for the analyses. The focus was on metaphor in LSP (Language for Special Purposes). The study showed that financial discourse on stocks and markets in the Afrikaans and English versions of Finweek are characterised by coherent metaphor clusters of WAR AND POWER and SPORT AND GAMES. The use of these specific conceptual metaphors reflects the goal that the author/translator has in the cultural background of the readers, because the metaphors in the Afrikaans and English texts differ. Evidence was found that, to transfer a specific message, the authors used a specific choice of metaphor. In reports on the performance of companies and the stock market, Finweek uses conceptual metaphors to transfer their perceptions. Inherent in these metaphoric terms are conceptual, communicative and ideological principles. The discourse shows a basic reference and notion of an evolutionary struggle for survival. On the level of conceptual metaphor struggle is conceptualised in terms of physical conflict as it occurs in the domains of both WAR and SPORT. The analysis indicated that, from a quantitative viewpoint, the WAR AND POWER metaphor appeared most frequently in the Afrikaans text and that the SPORT AND GAMES metaphor appeared the second most frequently. In the English text the SPORT AND GAMES metaphor appeared most frequently and the WAR AND POWER metaphor the second most frequently. A possible explanation for this finding is that the modern society in South African is confronted with violence, power play, fear, vulnerability and struggle. When an author wants to convey the notion of a struggle for evolutionary survival in Afrikaans, metaphors from the WAR AND POWER domain are used abundantly. On the other hand, sport is an international common concept and by using metaphors from the SPORT AND GAMES domain in English, the author can transfer to international readers the notion of struggle for evolutionary survival.Item Open Access Die evaluering van tolkingbeplanning in Suid-Afrika as interlinguale kommunikasie-intervensie aan die hand van taalbeplanningsbeginsels(University of the Free State, 2015-02-02) Smit, Jacobus Alwyn; du Plessis, L. T.Afrikaans: Hierdie studie handel oor die rol van evaluering in tolkingbeplanning, soos beoordeel op grond van taalbeplanningsbeginsels. Die studie neem die sosiopolitieke taalontwikkelinge en verskuiwende maghebberverhoudinge in ag wanneer tolkingbeplanning in Suid-Afrika bestudeer word. Tolking kan wel ’n doelwit van taalbeplanning wees om interlinguale kommunikasie moontlik te maak. Die taalbeplanningsproses geskied volgens opeenvolgende stappe en hierdie studie beklemtoon dat ’n evalueringstipe saamhang met elke opeenvolgende stap van die proses. Die tolkstudieliteratuur skenk besonder baie aandag aan die bepaling van tolkgehalte, wat meestal terugskouend bepaal word nadat die tolking gelewer is. Weens die benadering vanuit Taalbeplanning, propageer hierdie studie ’n meer omvattende benadering tot evaluering van tolkingbeplanning, deurdat evaluering reeds benut word vandat oorweeg word of ’n tolkdiens tot stand gebring gaan word (konteksevaluering). Wanneer die besluit geneem is dat die tolkdiens nodig is, word evaluering benut om die beplanner te help besluit hoe die diens gestruktureer en bestuur moet word en watter fisiese en menslike hulpbronne nodig is om die tolkdiens doeltreffend te implementeer (insetevaluering). Eers nadat hierdie twee beplanningstappe; gerig deur die toepaslike evalueringstipe, afgehandel is, behoort die tolkdiens geïmplementeer te word. Wanneer implementering plaasgevind het, word geëvalueer of die implementering volgens plan geskied het en of die tolkdiens optimaal funksioneer (prosesevaluering). Aanpassings word aangebring wat die doeltreffendheid van die tolkdiens verbeter. Eers dan word produkevaluering onderneem, wat gehaltebestuur behels. Hierdie studie is metateoreties fenomenologies en modernisties met ’n empiriese kwalitatiewe kollektiewegevallestudiegebaseerde navorsingsontwerp en benut hoofsaaklik telefoniese semigestruktureerde onderhoude en dokumentêre analise om primêre, sowel as sekondêre data te versamel. Die gevallestudies wat bestudeer is, is die tolkdienste van die Parlement van die RSA, Noordwes-Universiteit, landdroshowe in die Suid-Vrystaat en Tshwane Metroraad. Hoewel die vier tolkdienste nie self die vier evalueringstipes onderskei nie, het die studie ondersoek of die betrokke evaluering wel onderneem is. In die meeste gevalle is voorbeelde gevind en beskryf van elk van die vier evalueringstipes wat deur elke betrokke tolkdiens onderneem is. Die uitsondering is by hoftolking waar konteksevaluering en insetevaluering in die oorspronklike vorm nie aangetoon kon word nie, maar hierdie onvermoë bevestig weer die samehang tussen die onderneem van beplanning en ’n evalueringstipe wat met die betrokke beplanningstap saamhang. Hierdie studie brei die oorspronklike siening van insetevaluering as beplanning oor fisiese en menslike hulpbronne uit deur die vul van vakatures as ’n deurlopende vorm van insetevaluering te beskryf. Aanstellings by die Parlement en vir hoftolke word soms gedoen op grond van potensiaal om te tolk en nie op grond van opleiding of bewese vaardigheid nie. Die groei van ’n tolkdiens soos in die geval van die NWU of Tshwane wat die diens ook vir die publiek beskikbaar stel; of die strewe na doeltreffender gehaltebeheer deur meer toesighouers soos in die geval van die Parlement en howe, is dryfvere tot prosesevaluering. Soos wat die teorie beklemtoon, is produkevaluering ook vir die Suid-Afrikaanse tolkdienste van sleutelbelang. Produkevaluering word met of sonder benutting van kriterialyste en klankopnames onderneem. Gebruikers se menings word net deur die NWU doelgerig versamel, waar dit baie tot die geloofwaardigheid van die tolkdiens bydra. Gebruikers wat ontevrede met die diens is, behoort meer en doeltreffender te kla, want klagtes is ’n kragtige instrument tot tolkgehalteverbetering. Wedersydse eksterne evaluering deur tolkdienste onderling kan evalueringsvaardigheid uitbou. Hierdie proefskrif stel die term “tolkingbeplanning” oop vir akademiese oorweging. Dit koppel die oorweging, instel en bedryf van ’n nuwe tolkdiens ook aan toepaslike deurlopende evalueringstipes. Verder beklemtoon die proefskrif dat Tolkstudies kan baat by ’n verruimde beskouing van evaluering.Item Open Access Language planning in South Africa : towards a language management approach(University of the Free State, 2004-11) Mwaniki, Modest Munene; Du Plessis, L. T.English: The study investigates the reasons for the non- implementation of multilingual policies and plans with special reference to South Africa’s language policy and planning implementation scenario. The study identifies four categories of explanations for the non-implementation of multilingual policies and plans in South Africa, namely political; economic; sociolinguistic; and theoretic explanations. Of particular interest is the adequacy of these explanations in explaining the non- implementation of multilingual policies and plans in South Africa. Chapter 1 introduces the study, discounts political, economic and sociolinguistic explanations as inadequate in explaining the non- implementation of multilingual policies and plans in South Africa and establishes the theoretic category as the core category to explain the non- implementation of multilingual policies and plans in South Africa. The chapter provides a preliminary review of language planning literature that explores the inadequacy of language planning theory in providing approaches that can be used to facilitate multilingual policy and planning implementation as well as statement of the research problem and questions, the aim and objectives of the study, overview of research methodology and outline of the thesis. Chapter 2 provides the background to the study. The chapter discusses the macro framework for language policy and language planning in South Africa as provided by the Constitution. The chapter elaborates on South Africa’s constitutional language developments as from the early 1990s and the socio-political and historical contexts that led to the evolution of the 1993 Interim Constitution and the 1996 Constitution. The chapter elaborates on the theoretical, ideological and discourse foundations of both the 1993 Interim Constitution and the 1996 Constitution and points out that the multilingual dispensation envisioned by the 1996 Constitution is in tandem with the project of transformative constitutionalism and advanced cultural politics espoused by the Constitution. The chapter concludes by pointing out that the obligations imposed by the Constitution with respect to language in South Africa must be fulfilled. Its attendant upon language planning actors in South Africa to formulate approaches that can be used to facilitate multilingual policy and planning implementation based on plausible theoretical premises. Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology. The research method used in the study is Grounded Theory Method. The chapter elaborates on the appropriateness of Grounded Theory Method as a method for the development of approaches from qualitative data and how the method was applied to the three elements of the study, namely, literature review; the development of an alternative approach to multilingual policy and planning implementation; and the case study. Chapter 4 reviews literature on language planning theory and models using Eastman (1983) framework. The review establishes the weaknesses of language planning theory and models. These weaknesses account for the inadequacy of language planning theory and models to provide approaches that can be used for multilingual policy and planning implementation. The chapter concludes by discussing how the inadequacies of language planning theory and models have contributed to the non- implementation of South Africa’s multilingual policy and plan. Chapter 5 develops an alternative approach to multilingual policy and planning implementation. The study names the approach “The Language Management Approach”. The approach specifies the theoretical basis for the new approach; the purpose; impediments; the variables; and the methodologies and strategies for multilingual policy and planning implementation. Chapter 6 presents a case study which was used to develop some aspects of the new approach as well as test the new approach. The case study demonstrates that the new approach facilitates multilingual policy and planning implementation. Chapter 7 outlines the conclusions and recommendations. The study contributes towards the resolution of the theoretic and practical dilemmas facing multilingual policy and planning implementation in South Africa and elsewhere.Item Restricted Mother tongue education in official minority languages of Zimbabwe: a language management critique(University of the Free State, 2013-02) Ndlovu, Eventhough; Du Plessis, Theodorus; Mwaniki, MuneneEnglish: In January 2002, the government of Zimbabwe officially declared six official minority languages, namely, Kalanga, Nambya, Shangani, Sotho, Tonga and Venda as languages of instruction and subjects in primary schools in the areas where they are spoken as mother tongues. The government had planned for these languages to be introduced to a grade per year until they could be taught at grade 7 level by 2005 (Secretary’s Circular Number 1 of 2002). Three of these languages (Venda, Tonga and Kalanga) under the auspices of the Venda, Tonga and Kalanga Association (VETOKA) were pioneers in advocating and lobbying for the introduction of marginalised local languages in education in the early 1980s. However, Kalanga and Venda have remained behind, despite having been the pioneers of this initiative. Long after 2005, only Tonga emerged as the first language to be examined in grade 7 in 2011. In current studies in language planning, policy and management, there have been strong suggestions that bottom-up approaches may be more successful than top-down approaches. Bottom-up approaches are said to be the most promising in terms of community commitment and sustainability (Alexander, 1992; Baldauf, 1994; 2005; 2008; Kaplan and Baldauf, 1997; Webb, 2002; 2009; 2010; Mwaniki, 2004; 2010b; Benson, 2005; Trudell, 2006; Lewis and Trudell, 2008; Liddicoat and Baldauf, 2008; Baldauf, Li & Zhao, 2008; Hatoss, 2008). The delay in the implementation of the 2002 policy development and success story of Tonga raises the questions: “Why this delay? Why was Tonga first?” This study therefore examines the possible causes for the delay in the implementation of the 2002 policy development and the conditions and factors that led to the success story of Tonga. It is expected that an understanding of these causes could help explain the delay in the implementation of the other three languages and similar initiatives elsewhere. It is also hoped that this study will enhance our understanding of the dynamics of bottom-up approaches to language planning. In evaluating and examining the implementation of the 2002 policy development and conditions and factors that led to the success story of Tonga, I adopted the Language Management Approach (LMA) proposed by Mwaniki (2004). The LMA is used alongside Kaplan & Baldauf’s (1997; 2003) seven areas of policy development for language-in-education policy implementation; the ethnolinguistic vitality model advanced by Giles, Bourhis & Taylor (1977) as well as Webb’s (2010) factors and conditions that determine the success and failure of bottom-up and top-down policies. These three frameworks interrelate and overlap with one another, and also with some of the language management variables, methodologies and strategies. It emerged that the delay in the implementation of the 2002 policy development was due to the failure to secure and deploy the language management variables, methodologies and strategies at an optimal level. The failure to timeously develop the seven areas of policy development for language-in-education policy implementation also accounts for the delay. On the one hand, the Tonga group owes its success to the deployment of some of the language management variables, methodologies and strategies and the development of some of the seven areas of policy development for language-in-education policy implementation. The ethnolinguistic vitality of the three language groups in question and the conditions and factors that determine the success or failure of bottom-up and top-down policies also contributed to the delay in the implementation of the 2002 policy development. The success story of Tonga is as a result of the Tonga group’s ethnolinguistic vitality and some of the conditions and factors that determine the success and failure of bottom-up and top-down policies.Item Open Access In the aftermath of xenophobia: a critical discourse analysis(University of the Free State, 2014-07) Els, Christina Aletta; Kriel, M.; Weideman, A. J.English: While evidence confirms that print media in South Africa has contributed to the development of a xenophobic environment (McDonald and Jacobs, 2005:306; Danso and McDonald, 2001:124), particularly in the manner in which the media has stigmatised non-nationals, this does not necessarily imply that the print media was complicit in the xenophobic outbreaks of April/May 2008 (Smith, 2011:111). However, an investigation into the representation of non-nationals in the print media is nevertheless a lacuna that needs to be addressed (Smith, 2010:188). The focus of this study is on the discursive representations of non-nationals in the tabloid, the Daily Sun, during April to May 2008 –it focuses not only on the way in which the Daily Sun represented the ‘Other’, but also identifies some of the underlying ideologies that underpin these representations. The tabloid phenomenon, which presented itself in post-1994, has created a new trend of inclusivity in South African society in that previously marginalised groups have now, for the first time, been targeted as a viable market. The Daily Sun has been instrumental in providing people, who have been voiceless under apartheid, with a sense of identity by providing access to affordable newspapers. By the same token the Daily Sun has been accused of stoking the fires of xenophobia by means of uncritical and biased reporting. This led to a formal complaint against the newspaper in 2008, spearheaded by the Media Monitoring Project (nowadays MMA). These contradictions, as Wasserman (2007:791) points out, are characteristic of a society “in rapid and unequal transition and the tabloid media as commercial entities reliant on a public caught between history and progress…”. The researcher, working within the frame of Critical Discourse Analysis, draws a parallel, although not necessarily a causal link, between the xenophobic pogroms of May 2008 and the discursive representations of the tabloid, the Daily Sun, during April to May 2008Item Open Access Intercultural discourse between Igbo and South African Sesotho people residing in Bloemfontein(University of the Free State, 2010-05) Ideh, Amaka Edith; Naudé, J. A.; Igboanusi, H.English: This study investigates the intercultural discourse between the Igbo and the Sesotho people residing in Bloemfontein. The study is motivated by the way in which the Igbo in Bloemfontein switch from one language into another, which is based on who their addressee is. The study assesses the backgrounds of the two countries (Nigeria and South Africa) where these ethnic groups emerged, including their languages. The backgrounds help in the assessment of the attitudes, feelings and opinions of the two groups under study in the way they relate with one another when they are in intercultural communication. Related literature was reviewed on different aspects of intercultural discourse and intercultural communication (Chapter 3), with focus on: different views on discourse/discourse analysis; discourse, racism and discrimination; differences in male’s and female’s speeches. The review also covers language, migration and loyalty; language contact; intercultural discourse/communication; conversation analysis, as well as conversational features: turn-taking, interruption/overlapping, and code-switching/code-mixing. The review describes the field of discourse analysis and situates the current study within this field of research. The study further explored language stereotypes and xenophobic sentiments which help in identifying the power of dominant group over minority groups and foreigners, as well as the power of press in dissemination of information in the society. Given the complexity of the research, the study employed different research instruments: questionnaire, interviews and audio-recordings of natural interactions in different contexts (shop, hospital, church, home and among friends) in collecting data. The data were analysed using qualitative and quantitative (tables and bar graphs) research methods. Intercultural interaction/communication/discourse between the Igbo and the Sesotho shows that the attitudes and feelings of the two groups are positive, as they are comfortable, not afraid, confident, not nervous and relaxed when interacting with each other. The study reveals that the two groups often (81% Igbo and 92% Sesotho) switch from one language to another during intercultural communication. However, the kind of switch the study records is word/phrase switches, mostly the words/phrases of the dominant language (Sesotho). The reasons for their switches vary: to emphasis a word or an expression, to be more polite in greeting and appreciation, to show respect, as well as to identity with the addressee. The study records four sentences switching which only occurred among the children at home context. However, the results from the study show that during the intercultural communication between the Igbo and the Sesotho, turn-taking, interruptions and discourse dominance are determined by some factors, such as; age, educational background, gender, the relationships between the interactants, and the context of the interaction. The freedom with which women speak during interaction is also assessed. The study reveals that although women speak freely, they do not speak more freely than their male counterparts, in mixed-gender interactions. In addition, the results reveal that there are no restrictions on the speech of Igbo women. However, Sesotho shows some restrictions on the language of their married women, “hlompha” (a language of respect), where a married women are bound by tradition not to pronounce any word relating to the name of her in-laws. The study establishes that there are derogatory words to refer to both women and men in both groups. For example, in Igbo “nwoke/nwaay -aga” and in Sesotho “nyopa” are used to refer to barren woman with no counterparts for men. The study in addition investigates the words used to refer to foreigners and whether such words provide evidence for xenophobic sentiments in South Africa. The study identifies both positive and negative words used by the Igbo and the Sesotho to refer to foreigners. According to the majority of the respondents (79.5%), such words do not contribute to xenophobic sentiments in South Africa generally or Bloemfontein specifically.