Doctoral Degrees (Centre for Environmental Management)
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Item Open Access Development of sustainability indicators for catchment management information systems(University of the Free State, 2002-11) Walmsley, J. J.; Seaman, M. T.; Walmsley, R. D.Abstract not availableItem Open Access Enviromental and socio-economic sustainability of marula harvesting in the Lubombo region, Swaziland(University of the Free State, 2017-01) Murye, Alfred Francis; Pelser, A. J.; Zietsman, P. C.English: People form an integral part of ecosystems and derive a range of products from, and also influence, ecosystem processes. Poverty stricken people in rural areas of Swaziland utilize marula to alleviate poverty and earn a living. To reduce poverty, the Government of Swaziland developed a Poverty Reduction Strategy and Action Plan, and put up a programme of action (2013-2018) to meet His Majesty King Mswati III’s1 dream of Swaziland becoming a developed country by 2022. Her Majesty Ntombi Thwala - the Queen Mother2 of Swaziland also initiated poverty eradication projects for rural women through the harvesting of marula fruits (Sclerocarya birrea). However, limited data exist on the socio-economic contribution of marula to rural livelihoods. Additionally, the possible impact of excessive harvesting (propelled by the commercialisation of the resource) on rural communities depending on marula for their livelihood is not known, let alone the impact of harvesting pressure on marula regeneration and recruitment. This situation can lead to overharvesting and local extinction of marula. This thesis aimed at determining the role that marula plays in the livelihoods of, and poverty alleviation among the rural population in Swaziland and set out to identify policy interventions to facilitate means of sustaining marula for future availability. A cross-sectional socio-economic survey embedded in an exploratory and descriptive research design and supplemented by a survey of the marula tree populations was carried out in the Lubombo region of Swaziland. Both quantitative and qualitative research approaches to data collection and analysis were employed. The study established that marula contributes significantly to the livelihoods of rural households in Swaziland as 53.3% of the respondents in the socio-economic survey supplemented their household income by harvesting marula. Marula was considered to be a very important source of household income by 68.5% of the respondents. About 49.8% of respondents earned an equivalent of US Dollar 36.2 (E500) per season, of which 46% used the income to buy books and uniforms and pay school fees and 42.4% used it to buy groceries, electricity and medication. Marula also contributes to cultural and spiritual enrichment and the creation of social ties. Several socio-demographic factors, such as gender, age, lack of employment and low level of education were found to be drivers of people to harvest marula for livelihoods. The thesis concluded that: marula harvesting makes a substantial contribution to the economies and livelihoods of rural households in Swaziland; marula harvesting plays a fundamental role in cultural practices and festivities in Swaziland and is paramount in creating social ties and cohesion among the Swazi nation; the increased harvesting of marula fruits and seeds has a detrimental impact on the sustainability of marula tree species in Swaziland; the current level of commercialized harvesting of marula in Swaziland is unsustainable and requires official monitoring and control of the harvesting process; environmental factors impact negatively on the regeneration, growth and sustainability of marula; distinctive socio-demographic attributes, such as gender and age, drive rural people to harvest marula beyond its sustainability thresholds; the depletion of marula will deepen the existing poverty levels of the respondents and lead to the deterioration of quality of life, especially in those impoverished households that are proportionately more dependent on marula; there are insufficient policy and legal frameworks for the protection of marula in Swaziland. The thesis recommended that: the marula population structure be stabilized by planting marula trees and nurturing seedlings in the agricultural fields and also by leaving some fruits in the fields during harvesting in order to ensure regeneration; the Department of Forestry should develop programmes to educate and train rural communities on the importance of conserving and sustaining marula trees and products in Swaziland; the Department of Forestry should revise the existing floral policies and legal frameworks in Swaziland so as to fill the existing gap in these policies on access to and control of marula harvesting; the Government of Swaziland should revisit the policies on rural development in order to encourage and strengthen the creation of employment opportunities in rural areas so as to reduce the dependency on natural resources and marula in particular; the Department of Forestry should establish the maximum sustainable yield of marula in order to set quotas for harvesting per individual/ household; the Department of Forestry should address the gaps in the existing knowledge base of marula biology in Swaziland.Item Open Access The integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation strategies into wetlands management in the Eastern Free State, South Africa(University of the Free State, 2016-12) Belle, Johanes Amate; Collins, Nacelle; Jordaan, AndriesEnglish: This research examined the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation strategies into wetlands management in the eastern Free State in South Africa. The main identified problem was the continuous degradation of wetlands under changing environmental conditions characterised by increasing disaster risks, including risks associated with climate change. Well-managed wetlands mitigate disaster risks and climate change impacts. The main research question was: “Can integrating disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation principles and practices into wetlands management promote wetlands resilience for sustainable ecological benefits in the eastern Free State?” The aim of the study was to develop a holistic wetlands management framework that promotes wetland resilience under changing environmental conditions. Resilient wetlands provide sustainable ecological services that support local communities. The study used a systems thinking approach and is well-articulated in the emerging paradigm of ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation (Eco-DRR/CCA). A combination of four frameworks were necessary given the multidisciplinary nature of the research involving environmental management, disaster management and climate change science. The post-positivist and the interpretivist philosophies blended well in this study which combined social and natural sciences. A mixed research method approach was used. Stratified random sampling and convenient sampling was used to select 95 mostly valley-bottom wetlands in the study area. Valley-bottom wetlands are the dominant wetlands in the study area. Data were collected using questionnaires (176 wetland users), interviews (30 specialists), field observations (21 wetlands) and secondary data (from two weather stations). The data were analysed using Microsoft Excel, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and thematic analysis using simple descriptive statistics. Triangulation, experts’ inputs and pilot studies added credibility to the collected data. The main conclusions were that wetlands, especially those in communal land, were very vulnerable to degradation. This vulnerability is because of poor comprehension of wetland functions and values, ignorance and problems associated with the legal and institutional arrangement for wetlands management in South Africa. There is no national wetland policy and the implementation of related legislations is not effective. There is poor coordination of wetland-stakeholders in the area. The activities of the various Expanded Public Work Programmes (EPWPs) sometimes overlap and are not properly coordinated. Wetlands were poorly managed, especially communal wetlands where poor land-use systems, overgrazed wetlands, and lack of management plans were identified. Communal wetlands are therefore not very effective in mitigating the common risks of droughts, veld fires and floods in the area. However, wetlands in protected areas and many in private commercial farms were in a good ecological state, but they also require constant monitoring as head cut erosion and the presence of alien and invasive species are still visible. The main recommendations include that the government of South Africa, through the Department of Environmental Affairs, should formulate an effective and implementable national wetland policy that will speak directly and specifically to wetland issues. The government should also unify the control of the Extended Public Works Programmes (EPWPs) under one umbrella structure and improve the allocation of both human and financial resources to these EPWPs. There is a need for proper coordination of wetland stakeholders in the area and the provincial wetland advisory forum should be more effective. Education and creating awareness for wetland functions, values and management will be key to ensure the wise and sustainable management of wetlands. To build wetland resilience in the area, an Integrated Wetland Management Framework (IWMF) was proposed to manage wetlands from a holistic perspective, unlike the reactive approach that was dominant in the past. The IWMF integrates disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation tools and strategies. Further research was recommended for the longitudinal testing of the framework that will be aided by the development of other quantifiable indicators. Finally, a study to quantify the soil organic matter (SOM) of wetlands in the study area should be conducted to investigate opportunities for carbon trading as a way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and conserving wetlands.Item Open Access A participatory sustainability assessment framework for biodiversity conservation in rural areas(University of the Free State, 2008) Letšela, Limpho Malerato Senior; Pelser, A. J.; Seaman, M. T.English: Biodiversity conservation is critical for the continued supply of ecosystem services to secure the sustainability of livelihoods, especially for poor rural people. Therefore, current rates of biodiversity loss, which threaten human survival, need to be curbed using effective interventions. Implementation and decision-making on interventions require timely information. Undertaking a Sustainability Assessment (SA) and structuring this information within a SA framework of components and objectives is one effective way to aid decision-makers. An effective SA framework addresses key sustainability issues and priorities that are aligned with the regulatory policy and legal framework, as well as stakeholder aspirations. Sustainability Assessment development and application is evolving and is more widespread in developed countries than developing countries. Hence, this study sought to investigate how to apply SA in a participatory manner within rural areas in a developing country. Key objectives of the study focused on: i) identification of key aspects that make a SA framework effective; ii) mechanisms of effectively incorporating participation into SA processes; iii) investigations of the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the ecosystem and human conditions required for the sustainability of biodiversity conservation; and iv) determination of stakeholder perceptions on progress towards sustainability. The study was conducted in Lesotho within a trans-boundary project area. The project is known as the MDTP and is a collaborative initiative between Lesotho and South Africa to conserve globally significant biodiversity. A qualitative case study approach was employed through a combination of techniques including a literature review, field observations, key informant interviews, group discussions and workshops to collect data. Study participants consisted of MDTP partners at the national, district and local levels, and some members of the general community. Two SA tools were applied in a complementary manner during the study, namely the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) SA approach and the Community Sustainability Assessment (CSA) approach, developed by the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN). Experiences of applying sustainability assessment in both developed and developing countries revealed that an overall generic SA tool is not practical. There is a need for a context-specific framework consisting of principles, criteria, generic steps, objectives, indicators, a toolkit and other context-specific components. The SA framework employed in this study had to fit biodiversity conservation conditions in rural areas. The SA process revealed that the MDTP partners were knowledgeable about the conditions of sustainability and threats to biodiversity, while members of the general community were unaware of these threats. Regarding progress towards the sustain ability of biodiversity in the study area, the results indicated that current practices are unsustainable, more from the point of view of the socio-ecological components than the socio-cultural and spiritual or the socio-economic components. Consequently, there is a need to raise awareness at the community level and implement action plans to realize changes that support the sustainability of biodiversity in the long-term. Key components for a participatory SA framework depend on whether a SA is a partial assessment or a full one. The components of a partial SA framework also depend on whether the focus is on reflection and learning or data handling. Hence, the main components of a participatory sustainability assessment framework comprise: a comprehensive vision of sustainable development; goals towards attaining the vision; a participatory process engaging various stakeholders; a toolkit of appropriate SA tools used for various tasks; relevant principles of sustainability assessment; and sustainability-led decision criteria. There is no blueprint on how to undertake a SA process and no rigid way of integrating participation within the SA processes. The application of a SA requires adaptability and flexibility in specific circumstances. Therefore, the study presents guidelines, key components of a participatory SA process, and highlights the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for applying a SA for biodiversity conservation in rural areas.Item Open Access A study on periphyton as indicator of water-quality in regulated rivers(University of the Free State, 2015-01) Vos, Adriana Tascha; Seaman, M. T.; Van Ginkel, C. E.; Scott, W. E.In the central part of South Africa, where the average rainfall is 400–600 mm/yr and evaporation far exceeds precipitation, it is important to monitor the limited freshwater resources that are available and to keep the aquatic environment in an acceptable state. Excessive nutrients (N and P) lead to algal blooms and deterioration of other aquatic biota as the water quality declines. Biological monitoring methods and programmes have been instrumental in the management and monitoring of the health of aquatic ecosystems. Various biomonitoring indices have been developed, using fish, benthic macroinvertebrates, phytoplankton and periphyton (including Bacillariophyta), as site- or non-site-specific indicators of water quality. Periphyton forms the foundation of many food webs. It is adaptable to the availability of a habitat and is directly affected by changes in water quality. In unregulated rivers, “normal” flow patterns and disturbance regimes shape the benthic community composition, while in regulated rivers the “unpredictability” of flow (as an example) adds extra stress to the ecosystem. The overall objective of this study was to determine the position of periphyton (as a group) as a biomonitoring tool and which of its components would be best suited as indicators of water quality. This study was carried out over two periods of 24 months each at two sites on the Modder River and one on the Renoster Spruit. The sites were selected because SASS5 (standard benthic macroinvertebrate index of water quality) could be carried out on “stones in current”, as this is the preferred habitat for sampling periphyton. The physical and chemical factors sampled were temperature (°C), turbidity (NTU), flow (m/s), dissolved oxygen (mg/ℓ and % saturation), electrical conductivity (μS/cm) and total dissolved salts (mg/ℓ), pH, redox potential (mV), nutrients (including dissolved inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen) and chlorophyll-a. The biotas sampled were periphyton, phytoplankton and benthic macroinvertebrates. Statistical analyses were carried out on all sampled data. Correlations and patterns between the periphyton values and the physical, chemical and biological conditions were investigated. The effect of seasonality on the periphyton and the influence of hydrological phases (dry and wet periods) on the periphyton were examined. Results indicate that the composition of the periphyton is shaped by seasons. An increase of Bacillariophyta was found during winter, and Chlorophyta and Cyanophyta during summer. The increase of flow during wet periods had a negative effect on the biovolume of periphyton, as fewer filamentous and colonial algae were present during the wet period. The cell and chlorophyll-a concentration also decreased because of dislodgement during high flow. Even though the nutrients had an influence on all the periphytic algal components, the best correlations were found with the periphytic chlorophyll-a concentration. The periphyton composition and concentration were compared to the biomonitoring indices used on the sampled rivers and sites, namely FRAI (fish) and SASS5 (benthic macroinvertebrates), as well as phytoplankton. To conclude, it was found that periphyton could be used as a biomonitoring indicator in the monitoring and management of water quality. However, as the standard biomonitoring indices operate on different spatial scales and measures, the best results would be obtained if all, or a combination of indices, were used.Item Open Access A bioindicator protocol for sustainable agribusiness in South Africa, using new crops as case studies(University of the Free State, 2014-11) Swart, Vaughn Richmond; Louw, S. VdM.; Seaman, M. T.; Louw, S.English: This study is innovative in that it proposes an Index determined by the functional qualities of arthropods and relates a monetary value to these qualities, based on new crop case studies conducted at two contrasting agroecosystem sites in South Africa. The sustainability of an agribusiness depends on the conservation of its biodiversity. The development of a robust methodology that can be used in an Environmental Management System (EMS) is thus necessary by (i) implementing measures of arthropod and general vegetation biodiversity and (ii) incorporating a monetary value to functional diversity, as mechanisms to indicate the degree of disturbance within the agro-ecosystem. The main objectives were to determine the relationship between arthropod diversity indices (species richness, abundance and evenness) and arthropod assemblages; to determine the relationship between the edge effect reaction of arthropods and the resistance and resilience of an agroecosystem; to determine the relationship between agricultural practices (such as pesticides and fertilizers), surrounding vegetation and arthropod richness and abundance; and to determine the relationship between arthropod species richness and abundance, and the proposed AFI (Agroecosystem Function Index), which is based upon the economic value of ecosystem services. Case studies were conducted to pinpoint potential indices of an ecological nature, with specific reference to the diversity indices of arthropods, as part of the methodology. Arthropods were used as an indicator community since they are prevalent, have high species diversity, are easy to sample, are important in ecosystem function, provide early detection of ecological changes and respond to environmental changes faster than vertebrates. The influence of agricultural management practices on this diversity is also taken into consideration. Quantitative and qualitative analysis revealed distinct patterns within the biodiversity at all the locations, relative to the frequency and diversity of vegetation sampled. Thus aspects of ecology (edge-effect, guild structure and functional diversity) should indicate a relationship between communities, which in turn would indicate the level of ecosystem integrity. The level of ecological integrity could be taken into consideration when adopting a quality Environmental Management System (EMS). Possibilities of incorporating a monetary value model, such as the Agroecosystem Function Index (AFI), to biodiversity analysis, that in turn has a bearing on ecosystem services and agribusiness, is also addressed. An EMS bio-indicator protocol is important as an aid to reduce the impact of agricultural management practices on the agro-ecosystem and to increase its functional efficiency.Item Open Access Application of multi-criteria analysis in land use decisions(University of the Free State, 2006-05) Kuyler, Peter; Du Preez, P. J.; Goodman, P. S.Global land use trends have resulted in extensive transformation and loss of biodiversity in natural landscapes. In South Africa these trends are apparent in the Grassland Biome. Although it has a very high level of biodiversity and provides essential ecosystem services for economic development, only 2% is formally protected and it is one of the most threatened biomes in the country. With over 60% transformed and less than 1% formally protected, the Mistbelt Grassland of KwaZulu-Natal is a priority for urgent conservation attention. The continued transformation of natural landscapes due to economic pressures and the limited opportunity for an increase in protected areas where production and development needs must be met, presents a challenge to biodiversity conservation. This study was motivated by the need for a strategic focus in the evaluation of the impacts of land use on the biodiversity integrity of landscapes in order to facilitate integrated environmental management and guide land use decisions that would promote conservation of biodiversity and sustainable development. A methodology for this evaluation is proposed that exploits the hierarchical approach to characterizing biodiversity and employs multi-criteria analysis in the form of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and decision-making by experts. Separate evaluations of the impacts of land use on biodiversity integrity in the Mistbelt Grassland of KwaZulu-Natal and the moist sub-biome of the Grassland Biome were conducted to examine the application of the methodology at the vegetation-type and biome levels. Accordingly, five land uses and fourteen biodiversity indicators were selected for the Mistbelt Grassland study, and ten land uses and fifty-two indicators for the Grassland Biome study. Indicators for the integrity of landscape composition, structure and function were selected. The overall relative weights for land uses were obtained from rankings of the impacts of each land use on indicator criteria. Relative impacts of land uses on landscape composition, function and structure were consistent and provided an unambiguous statement of the overall impact on biodiversity integrity. The greatest impact of land use was associated with that on landscape structure and was the result of the extent of transformation and fragmentation. The integrity of grassland habitat is important for landscape composition, while nutrient leakage and fire regime are considered important for landscape function. Urban settlements were considered to have the greatest negative impact on biodiversity, while timber plantations, croplands and rural settlements also had a high impact. Pastures and livestock ranching were associated with low impacts. Against the benchmark of conservation, activities like game ranching, livestock ranching and tourism accounted for slight impacts on biodiversity integrity and are recommended for the maintenance of landscape biodiversity. While timber plantations, dairy farming, rural settlements and croplands were considered to make little contribution to the maintenance of biodiversity, their spatial orientation was considered to be critical for the maintenance of regional connectivity and the biodiversity integrity of the greater landscape. In accordance with the methodology employed and insights obtained in the evaluation of land use impacts on biodiversity integrity, the Land Use Evaluation Model is proposed as an integrated environmental management tool. Within a single integrated, cost-effective evaluation procedure that allows for input by key stakeholders, the hierarchy of decisions in the Analytic Hierarchy Process can be expanded to accommodate a limitless number of indicator criteria to rank the impacts of alternative development plans or projects on the social, economic and biodiversity components of the environment. An examination was made of the Land Use Evaluation Model in strategic environmental assessments and its role in facilitating environmental impact assessment and the integrated development planning processes.Item Open Access A strategy for linking South Africa to the Water Programme of the United Nations Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS)(University of the Free State, 2005-11) Van Niekerk, HaroldEnglish: The tasks of managing and protecting South Africa’s water resources are being performed by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), although the requirement to protect water resources are also entrenched in the policies and acts of other departments. DWAF has also recognized over the past ten years the importance of international co-operation with regards to water issues. As part of South Africa’s commitment to the realization of Agenda 21 and related international water management commitments, the South African Department of Water Affairs and Forestry has committed itself to participating in the Global Surface Water Quality Monitoring Programme. The programme falls under the management of the United Nations Environmental Programme and is administrated by the UN Global Environmental Monitoring System/Water Programme (GEMS/Water). The aim of the study was to develop a strategy that would enable SA to effectively participate in this global water quality monitoring programme, by making use of existing programmes and infrastructure. A very important aspect of this study was also to test the scientific and operational ability of SA to honour this commitment, as the submission of unreliable and irrelevant data for use in international reports by the UN can lead to embarrassment on a political level. Clear objectives, based on international requirements, were formulated to serve as the basis for the design of a scientifically sound monitoring system. Three different types of monitoring data, namely global river flux, global trends, global baseline data were identified as the main focus areas. A wide variety of techniques such as statistical analyses of national water quality data, specialist workshops, meetings with international data users, geographic information system (GIS), performance auditing of existing monitoring programmes and extensive field visits were used to design a monitoring system that would enable SA to meet the set objectives. Special attention was also given to the design of a comprehensive ISO 9001:2000 based quality management system and operational structures that would ensure the production and submission of reliable data in a sustainable manner. The importance of producing a documented monitoring strategy cannot be over emphasized. Such a strategy must clearly link the information needs with monitoring objectives, which in turn must be clearly linked to the design of the monitoring programme During the design process a number of potential shortcomings in the existing systems and programmes were identified and specific recommendations are made. Some of the main recommendations related to the implementation of a quality management system for new and existing national monitoring programmes, placement of sampling sites, alteration of sampling frequencies and expansion of monitoring variables currently being tested for. It was finally concluded that South Africa does have the ability to honour their commitment to the UN GEMS/Water Programme, provided that the recommendations emanating from this study are implemented.Item Open Access Determining the water quality ecological reserve for non-perennial rivers: a prototype environmental water assessment methodology(University of the Free State, 2011) Rossouw, Linda; Scott, W. E.; Dennis, I.The South African National Water Act adopted in 1998, is implemented by means of the National Water Resource Strategy. The NWRS provides the framework for the management of the water resources. Some of the protective measures are designated Resource Directed Measures such as the establishment of the Reserve. The NWA establishes the ‘Reserve’ consisting of an unallocated portion of water that is not subject to competition with other water uses. It refers to both the quality and quantity of water and is made up from two distinct parts, namely the basic human needs reserve and the Ecological Reserve. The Ecological Reserve describes the quantity, quality and flow variability required to protect and maintain the aquatic ecosystems of the water resource on a sustainable basis. All other water demands are controlled by permits and licenses and met only after the Reserve is secured. The Ecological Reserve has to be set for every major river in the country to be able to comply with the NWA. Most of the rivers, except the largest rivers in the semi-arid west of southern Africa, are non-perennial with variable flow regimes, governed by stochastic events, with the highest variability in intermittent and ephemeral rivers. This variability is a key factor in shaping the biotic community structure of ephemeral or non-perennial systems. The hypothesis for the research was that the current, existing water quality methodology for determining the water quality component of the Ecological Reserve, which was developed for perennial rivers, could be used for non-perennial rivers. This hypothesis was addressed in a phased approach. The existing methodologies were identified through a literature review and from the information collected it was decided to use the holistic approach methodologies. The Proposed method described and approved by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry for use on the perennial rivers was applied to the Seekoei River, an example of a typical non-perennial river. The existing methodology could be used as it is for the water quality component of the Reserve determination. However, the fish, invertebrate and riparian vegetation components of the existing methodology had severe limitations and an alternative methodology was proposed. Six limitations were identified from the Seekoei River study for all the components and were the following: the establishment of reference conditions; suitable hydrological modeling; understanding pools and the connectivity between pools; the surface water/groundwater interactions and the extrapolation of data. When comparing the DWA Proposed methodology (Eight step method) applied to the Seekoei River and the Prototype Methodology (Eleven phase method) as applied to the Mokolo River there were several similarities for the water quality input into both methodologies: - An understanding of the catchment to be able to identify the water quality constituent that will be important for that specific river is required. - Water quality data, both historical and present day data are required – more data are better and improve the confidence in the output. - Standard water quality methods could be applied to both methodologies. - Both require input into a model where response curves were drawn based on different future catchment development scenarios. The water quality component did not change from the Seekoei River application as the basic steps were the same. The standard methods could be applied to the Mokolo River. The current methodologies were equally usable to determine the water quality component of the Ecological Reserve for non-perennial rivers as the same basic methods were used to determine the water quality component of the Reserve. The limitations identified in the Seekoei River study were also the limiting in the Mokolo River study. The key issue is the hydrological modelling. Without a suitable hydrological model the other the other limitations can also not be addressed. The lack of water quality data remains the single most challenging aspect of determining the water quality status of a river, perennial and non-perennial, especially the lack of historical data. One should be cautious in interpreting once-off sampling data or patchy historical data. The confidence in the data used for the EWA sites were low in many instances as a result of either very little data to no data or patchy historical data. This underlines the importance of systematic monitoring over time, as sampling once is not sufficient to draw credible conclusions. The only way to compensate for a lack of date is to use expert knowledge, local knowledge and catchment information (land use, potential pollution sources, soil types, land cover and geology).Item Open Access A participatory sustainability assessment framework for biodiversity conservation in rural areas(University of the Free State, 2008) Letšela, Limpho Malerato Senior; Pelser, A. J.; Seaman, M. T.English: Biodiversity conservation is critical for the continued supply of ecosystem services to secure the sustainability of livelihoods, especially for poor rural people. Therefore, current rates of biodiversity loss, which threaten human survival, need to be curbed using effective interventions. Implementation and decision-making on interventions require timely information. Undertaking a Sustainability Assessment (SA) and structuring this information within a SA framework of components and objectives is one effective way to aid decision-makers. An effective SA framework addresses key sustainability issues and priorities that are aligned with the regulatory policy and legal framework, as well as stakeholder aspirations. Sustainability Assessment development and application is evolving and is more widespread in developed countries than developing countries. Hence, this study sought to investigate how to apply SA in a participatory manner within rural areas in a developing country. Key objectives of the study focused on: i) identification of key aspects that make a SA framework effective; ii) mechanisms of effectively incorporating participation into SA processes; iii) investigations of the perceptions of stakeholders regarding the ecosystem and human conditions required for the sustainability of biodiversity conservation; and iv) determination of stakeholder perceptions on progress towards sustainability. The study was conducted in Lesotho within a trans-boundary project area. The project is known as the MDTP and is a collaborative initiative between Lesotho and South Africa to conserve globally significant biodiversity. A qualitative case study approach was employed through a combination of techniques including a literature review, field observations, key informant interviews, group discussions and workshops to collect data. Study participants consisted of MDTP partners at the national, district and local levels, and some members of the general community. Two SA tools were applied in a complementary manner during the study, namely the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) SA approach and the Community Sustainability Assessment (CSA) approach, developed by the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN). Experiences of applying sustainability assessment in both developed and developing countries revealed that an overall generic SA tool is not practical. There is a need for a context-specific framework consisting of principles, criteria, generic steps, objectives, indicators, a toolkit and other context-specific components. The SA framework employed in this study had to fit biodiversity conservation conditions in rural areas. The SA process revealed that the MDTP partners were knowledgeable about the conditions of sustainability and threats to biodiversity, while members of the general community were unaware of these threats. Regarding progress towards the sustainability of biodiversity in the study area, the results indicated that current practices are unsustainable, more from the point of view of the socio-ecological components than the socio-cultural and spiritual or the socio-economic components. Consequently, there is a need to raise awareness at the community level and implement action plans to realize changes that support the sustainability of biodiversity in the long-term. Key components for a participatory SA framework depend on whether a SA is a partial assessment or a full one. The components of a partial SA framework also depend on whether the focus is on reflection and learning or data handling. Hence, the main components of a participatory sustainability assessment framework comprise: a comprehensive vision of sustainable development; goals towards attaining the vision; a participatory process engaging various stakeholders; a toolkit of appropriate SA tools used for various tasks; relevant principles of sustainability assessment; and sustainability-led decision criteria. There is no blueprint on how to undertake a SA process and no rigid way of integrating participation within the SA processes. The application of a SA requires adaptability and flexibility in specific circumstances. Therefore, the study presents guidelines, key components of a participatory SA process, and highlights the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for applying a SA for biodiversity conservation in rural areas. Key words: sustainability assessment, stakeholder participation, environmental assessment, biodiversity conservation, rural areas, sustainability assessment framework.Item Open Access Towards the development of a sustainable management strategy for Canis mesomelas and caracal on rangeland(University of the Free State, 2013-10) Du Plessis, Johannes Jurie; Avenant, N. L.; De Waal, H. O.English: South Africa has a long history of human-wildlife conflict with black-backed jackal Canis mesomelas and caracal Caracal caracal, especially in the small livestock industry. Recently, wildlife ranchers and cattle farmers have also started to report losses. Despite the excessive losses and widespread efforts to curb these conflicts there is no sustainable human predator conflict management (HPCM) strategy in place. Livestock owners still tackle the challenges individually or in small groups and concentrate mostly on elimination and precautionary techniques. Blanket-control and poisoning practices in many areas results in biodiversity being under constant threat, while stock losses do not decline. Current knowledge on aspects relating to black-backed jackal and caracal in South Africa (including ecology, economics, management techniques, predation rates, sociology) was collated and evaluated. Such information is needed for the development of a sustainable HPCM strategy for damage-causing black-backed jackal and caracal on livestock farms and wildlife ranches, and to inform policy and decision-making related to these species. There is a general lack of scientific information on virtually all the identified aspects, limiting the development of management strategies. Specific information gaps with regards to each aspect were identified and a conceptual model presented for the development of a sustainable HPCM plan for damage-causing black-backed jackal and caracal in South African rangeland. Most of the available ecological research on black-backed jackal and caracal are from spatially and temporally isolated studies, limited in scope, confined to protected areas and not focused on the development of sustainable management strategies. This results in a limited understanding of the ecological role of both black-backed jackal and caracal in South African ecosystems. A prerequisite for sustainable HPCM programs is a sound ecological understanding of the animals that are to be managed, and the ecosystems in which they operate. Without such an understanding it is difficult to predict the contribution of different management v interventions to mitigate damage and the effects on the behaviour and ecology of target animals. The study has also highlighted the overall lack of scientific estimations on the economics of black-backed jackal and caracal predation, and HPCM operations. Isolated pieces of evidence confirm that the current associated costs are high. A range of benefits and costs associated with these two species, which have not yet been quantified, are also emphasized. With reference to the human dimension there is insufficient information to understand the diversity of perceptions which various stakeholders may hold towards black-backed jackal, caracal and associated HPCM actions. Understanding these perceptions and its drivers are most important for the drafting of a sustainable HPCM strategy. Further, scientific information on HPCM methods for black-backed jackal and caracal in South Africa is lacking. Most information on these methods is contained in popular literature and very few refer specifically to the management of damage-causing black-backed jackal or caracal. A number of information gaps have been identified regarding the effectiveness of available HPCM methods to curb black-backed jackal and caracal predation under different South African conditions. Some major shortcomings have been identified in the availability of current predation information. The small number of available sources on livestock and wildlife predation is limiting an understanding of specifically black-backed jackal or caracal predation patterns. Better qualitative information on livestock and wildlife predation is needed to substantiate reported losses, and provide grounds for HPCM decisions. Moreover, it could also be used to better understand the dynamics of the predation which is necessary to develop sustainable HPCM strategies. Future research should be directed, coordinated and conducted systematically to ensure that the understanding of these damage-causing species is complemented and priority knowledge gaps filled in a focused way. Setting short and long-term goals is important, as well as the continuous feedback between participating scientists, livestock farmers, wildlife ranchers, conservation managers, legislation officials, the coordinator(s) and the public.Item Open Access The use of ecosystem parameters in predicting the risk of aicraft-wildlife collisions at Namibian airports(University of the Free State, 2014-01) Hauptfleisch, Morgan Lindo; Avenant, N. L.; Toerien, D.English: Human-wildlife conflict is affecting a number of aspects of society as a result of increased competition for resources such as food and space. To address the complexity, management of human wildlife conflict needs to be innovative to achieve a difficult but possible win-win solution for both humans and wildlife. As an important form of human-wildlife conflict, aircraft-wildlife collisions (AWCs), more commonly known as bird strikes, require even greater imagination and innovation to solve. AWCs have the potential to cause loss of life to humans, and annual losses in damages as a result of such collisions runs in excess of US$ 3 billion per year to the aviation industry. Due to lack of accurate reporting of AWCs in Namibia (and Africa as a whole) losses have been impossible to quantify locally. In addition to direct damage, airlines, airports and individuals have been litigated in Europe and the USA for indirect damages resulting from AWCs. A number of studies have identified an increasing trend in AWCs globally as a result of higher flight volumes and increases in risk bird populations. Flight safety in Africa is of concern internationally, and AWCs are an important safety aspect which need to be understood better. Very little empirical research on the extent or causes of AWCs in Africa have been published. At Namibia’s two major airports, Hosea Kutako International and Eros (domestic), 128 AWC incidents were recorded between 2006 and 2010. Although none led to human injury or death, two major incidents lead to costs in excess of N$ 20 million and N$ 1million respectively. Publications on AWC minimisation strategies and techniques on the continent are limited to South Africa and Uganda. This is problematic, as mitigation measures for AWCs in Africa are therefore mostly based on research in foreign ecosystems; while we know that local knowledge of AWC factors, such as bird and mammal population dynamics and climatic seasonality are critical to the success of AWC management. This study is the first scientific investigation into any aspect of AWCs in Namibia. It aims to understand the relationship between ecosystem components and their effect on the risk of aircraft-wildlife collisions occurring at Hosea Kutako and Eros airports. Monitoring of ecosystem components such as insects and small mammals are useful to airport wildlife management as they are relatively quick and inexpensive tools for determining ecosystem health and functioning and can indicate varying environmental contexts and responses. These ecosystem components and others such as vegetation and avian communities were explored. The study found that modelling the abovementioned ecosystem factors to predict the risk of AWCs would be marginally accurate, but still useful in understanding the system, as well as the effects of various management actions on that system. Systems modelling was found to have the potential to map the complexity of influences on AWCs and make them understandable to airport management in order to allow more informed decision making and resourcing regarding the management of AWC risk. The international obligation placed on airport staff to control wildlife hazards in the vicinity of airports is often difficult to fulfil, especially at smaller airports or in countries with inadequate resources and capacity. In addition to this, research into wildlife habitat, species and their habits at airports has predominantly originated in Europe and North America, and hence mitigation measures are most effective in these conditions, and less effective elsewhere. Based on the context of its literature and empirical research, this study proposes a toolkit which was designed to guide airports in Southern Africa to minimise risk of aircraftwildlife collisions. It is based on the understanding of ecosystems in the vicinity of the two airports on which this study was based, but also on the broader understanding of capacity and resources available to many Southern African countries. It also considers the recommended practices of ICAO, global best practice and promotes a multi-stakeholder management approach. Key words: Aircraft-wildlife collision, airport habitat, avifauna, bird strike, ecosystem, human-wildlife conflict, multi-stakeholder management, systems modelling, toolkit, wildlife hazard management.