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Item Open Access The representation of black women in magazine advertisements in 1994 and 2006: A comparative study(University of the Free State, 2011) Lombard, Elbie; Mulder, D.𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 Living the lives of second-class citizens has long been the reality of women in South Africa; so much more so for black women. The history of South Africa is a divided one, a history stained by division and suppression; a history written and determined by a few white men. The reality created for women by these men was a reality of hardship, a reality of exclusion, of being less human than white men. Black women suffered under sexism (from both white and black men), racism (from both white men and women), and c1assism (due to being excluded from the economy). When feminism became popular in South Africa, the assumption was that black women would be interested in the ideals that feminism stands for, but that was not the case: Black women suffered more under racism than under sexism and for that reason it made sense not to revolt against black men, but rather to join the struggle against apartheid. Feminism was also seen as an ideology created by white women for white women and that it did not accommodate the unique reality of black women. Oliver Tambo supported black women joining the struggle and instructed their husbands to help with household chores to allow them free time for activism. After 1994, the emancipation of women became a priority in South Africa and President Nelson Mandela appointed women in key positions in government, and also in his cabinet. In his Inaugural Speech on 10 May 1994, he famously said that true liberation could not be achieved unless women are empowered, and thanks to his commitment, a third of parliamentarians and cabinet ministers then were women. The representation of women in parliament increased after the 2009 elections from 34% to 43%. Furthermore, women empowerment is one of the Millennium Development Goals. Today, women are still a priority of the South African government and in September 2010, during the ruling party's conference, Minister Angie Motshekga proclaimed that ensuring equal opportunities for women is still a national priority. The truth is that a number of black women are enjoying their newfound status and are reaping the benefits of these policies aimed at favouring them: A study by the Unilever Institute of Strategic Marketing at the University of Cape Town found that the most confident individuals in South Africa are young black urban women. Black women, who are now in a better socio-economic position due to the political changes in South Africa, have significant purchasing power and are not afraid to use that power. The majority of these women have bought into the consumer culture, and thus enjoy reading magazines - which is one of the many products of popular culture. Magazines generate the bulk of their income from advertisements and a large part of a magazine's content is made up of advertisements. Many people enjoy relaxing with their favourite popular magazine, reading the articles, the letters to the editor, the advertisements, and more. Most people do not take popular magazines seriously, and do not think that advertisements in these magazines can have any effect on them. They do not take note of the fact that print media like newspapers and magazines are high involvement media. They are not watchful or vigilant, and because of that, the messages and images in magazines and magazine advertisements can slip into their subconscious where it can ferment, thus influencing their thoughts and behaviour. If one views advertisements as a reflection of reality, then one would expect that the current South African reality should be represented in them. Yes, we do see more advertisements in which interracial friendships are portrayed; yes, we do see many black female models in advertisements endorsing all kinds of products. The concern is, in which roles and in what ways are they represented? Are they falling victim to the same old stereotypical manner in which white women are portrayed? Or - if advertisements are realistic - do we see the most confident group in South Africa being portrayed as self-assured, as empowered, as free from oppressive stereotypes? The aim of this study was to determine in which ways black women are portrayed in South African general interest as well as women's magazine advertisements in 1994 and 2006, and to compare the results of the two year groups in order to reach conclusions. The representation of black women in South African magazine advertisements was examined within the critical paradigm, and more specifically, feminist studies. A total of 641 advertisements selected according to certain criteria were analysed and described. These advertisements were categorised according to product categories and the role portrayals identified. The advertisements were then sorted by making use of Goffman's six rubrics that he developed and used during the writing of Gender Advertisements (1987). The results revealed that the number of magazine advertisements increased from 1994 to 2006, and that the number of advertisements for hedonic goods increased. Furthermore, women were portrayed more often in non-working roles than working roles and the decorative role, which is a non-working role, was represented in the majority of advertisements. In addition, the majority of advertisements showed women in poses of subordination, and as mentally drifting from the scene, which are in direct opposition to the empowerment agenda of the South African government. It can be concluded that the improvement of the socio-economic status of a large number of black women since 1994 was not yet reflected in magazine advertisements in 2006. For an advertisement to be successful it must resonate with the target market - put differently, black women must see themselves portrayed realistically in advertisements, and not only portrayed as subordinated objects. Besides, we imitate what we see in the media; we model our behaviour according to the representations in the media. Therefore, it is important that black girls see realistic role models in advertisements, leading empowered lives, so that they rather could strive to be like them and not become mere stereotyped objects. Also, young men should see realistic images of confident women so that they can realise that women are equal to men and not less human than themselves. The primary recommendation of this study is that the advertising industry should take note of the fact that the representation of black women is not a reflection of reality. This aspect should be addressed as it might have a negative impact on the brands that the advertisements represent, as well as on the emancipation of women (specifically black women) that the South African government so actively pursues. Visual literacy should also become more prominent in our society. It could be taught at school and at tertiary institutions to all South African students. We are bombarded by media images, thus people should be empowered to understand these images so that they can protect themselves.