Religion Studies

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Browsing Religion Studies by Author "Riekert, S. J. P. K."

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    An investigation of the notion of Avatara in the philosophical systems of Shankara
    (University of the Free State, 2013-01) Sukdaven, Maniraj; Riekert, S. J. P. K.; Verster, P.
    English: Advaita Vedanta, as a philosophy, is also known as radical non-dualism and therefore cannot accommodate a concept such as an Avatara. The concept Avatara can best be described, yet not comprehensively in the English language, as ‘incarnation’. Although the teaching of this philosophy was not established by Shankara, one could confidently admit that he firmly established it as a philosophy to be reckoned with. Advaita Vedanta, being a philosophy focused on radical non-dualism, in that it states: There is none other than the Absolute Brahman, could not conceive of any other than Brahman. This being is so, the world and everything in it, including humans and Avatara should never exist; yet in the philosophy of Shankara it does ‘exist’, albeit at an empirical level. This is possible because of the following arguments presented by Shankara in support of an empirical reality.  The first argument is based on the understanding of what reality is. According to Shankara, the understanding and testing of reality is based on the criterion of truth. For something to be true it has to have an element of non-contradiction and has to survive through the three periods of time: past, present and future. In other words it must be immutable and permanent. For Shankara, Brahman is the only reality (paramarthika) and everything else is false: it is neither real nor unreal (e.g. the world and everything in it).  The relationship between Brahman and the empirical world can be described by the term vyavaharika. This relationship is similar to an example of a rope and a snake. In this example, the rope appears as a snake for one that views this from a distance. Yet when one gets closer, one realises that it is not a snake but a rope. It can therefore be said that the snake was a superimposition on the rope. The rope was real but the snake was false. From afar the snake looked real but is in reality unreal or not real. Similarly Shankara explains the relationship between the world and Brahman. The world is a superimposition on Brahman. Upon correct knowledge, the world disappears and only Brahman remains. The world, one can therefore say, is an illusion.  This illusion according to Shankara is brought about by Maya and is related to terms such as: appearance, ignorance, superimposition, power, deception and falsehood. For Shankara this is the principle of becoming and appearance through which the absolute non-dual Brahman becomes diversified and manifold.  The state in which Brahman is therefore consciously associated with Maya to create the universe is called Ishvara (god). This causes an ontological dilemma for the status of Maya. The best way for Shankara to define Maya was to say that it is neither existent nor non-existent. If Maya was existent, then his philosophy of absolute non-dualism becomes questionable because there would be another reality. If non-existent, then the empirical world would not exist. To resolve this dilemma Shankara posits the idea of two levels of truth which includes two aspects of Brahman, Nirguna Brahman (Absolute Brahman) and Saguna Brahman (Brahman with attributes (Ishvara) or one could say ‘a superimposed Brahman’).  Ishvara (Saguna Brahman), being the ‘superimposed Brahman’ has other aspects emanating from it. According to Shankara the three most important emanations are Brahma (creator), Vishnu (preserver) and Shiva (destroyer). The Brahmasutras have also confirmed that there were other gods created as well.  With this creation of the world, other created beings were responsible for the preservation of dharma (duties) in this world. When adharma began to overpower dharma, something had to be done to bring stability in the world. For this reason, Vishnu incarnated himself as Krishna. This incarnation became better known in Hinduism as Avatara.  It was necessary for Shankara to concede to the Avatara notion, because many of his followers worshipped an aspect of Ishvara. His theory was that the worship (bhakti) of other gods and deities was simply a means to moksha, but cannot directly attain moksha. The purpose for bhakti was a way to prepare the devotee to be purified so as to acquire knowledge, which, according to Shankara, removes Maya (veil of ignorance) thus liberating the jiva from bondage to attain Brahman realisation or moksha.  Finally, in considering and understanding radical non-dualism, this research has proven that, within his philosophy of Advaita Vedanta, Shankara is forced to incorporate and utilise the concept of Avatara within the ambits of the Hindu religious tradition. This then constitutes the finding of this research.
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    ItemOpen Access
    Die verhouding "Ekklesia" tot die "Koninkryk van God": 'n hermeneutiese studie in die lig van Openbaring 1-3
    (University of the Free State, 2007-05) Wahl, Willem Petrus; Riekert, S. J. P. K.
    The purpose of this study is to do research on the relation between the terms Kingdom of God and Ecclesia, within the problem field of Biblical hermeneutics. The focus is on Revelation 1-3 as it encompasses the main idea of this study, namely that the Kingdom of God is the axel around which the existence of the Ecclesia (church) revolves. A study on the historical background indicates that the Church in Revelations has gone through an era of prosecution and that it will happen again. Victory is encompassed in the reality of a religious experience of the Kingdom that has to function in and through the Church. Revelations is an apocalyptic writing (document) with prophetic-eschatological alignment (direction). A text-critical study of Revelation 1:6 reveals that the correct use of the word basilei,a (basileia: kingdom) symbolizes selective seclusion and sovereignty with God. The Greek word basilei,a (basileia: kingdom) has a functional/abstract meaning (the fact that God reigns) but also a geographical meaning. The study of the different eschatological interpretation models contributes to consequent-eschatological dialectics; the Church experiences the reality of a religious experience now already, but also realizes that the eschatological Kingdom of God has not come yet. The coming of the Kingdom of God has two principal moments, namely the first and the second coming of Christ. The Ecclesia is essentially the communion of the faithful. A Bipolar unit model, the invisible unity of the Church, as symbolized metaphorically in the people of God and the body of Christ, is combined with the visibility of the institutional Church through the emergence of the mystical unity character of the Church through the institutional Church. Aspects concerning the mystical unity of the Church are the togetherness, the predestination, the unity in diversity and the principalship of Christ. In Revelations is, and replace the Church, the people of Israel. The relationship between the Ecclesia and the Kingdom of God will be studied alongside two symbolic images, namely the Biblical chandelier symbol and the rotation symbol. The rotation symbol refers to two powers acting between the Kingdom of God and the Ecclesia. In view of the fact that the Church is being challenged by the devil to become secular, the Church exercises a centrifugal power on the Kingdom. The Kingdom however, exercises a centrifugal power on the Church through God being actively involved in His Church. The seven chandeliers (Revelations 1:20) of the chandelier symbol refer to the seven congregations in Revelations 2-3. Two characteristics, namely the septet and the seclusion, as well as the chandelier function (providing light) link the chandelier symbol of Revelations to the sacredness of the Old Testament. The septet in the chandelier symbol point to the perfection of God, the active involvement of God and the complete representation of the universal Church of all times. The second characteristic of the chandelier symbol, namely the seclusion, not only points to the religious circle of unity where in the congregations exist (with Christ as the binding factor), but also to the various milieus the Church can find herself in. The function of the Church is to be the light for the world. The Church does not have light in herself, but carries the light of God by being an earthly representative of the eschatological Kingdom of God. In the world, the Church is exposed to an opposing evil power that attempts to move the Church away from God, externally (by means of affliction and prosecution) and internally (by means of religious slumber and deceitful doctrine). The Church may not become of this world, but must embody the Kingdom of God by means of pure doctrine that influences the life of the Church, and leads to an inner reality and passion for the Kingdom of God through the Holy Ghost. In the Kingdom of God the Church triumphs with Christ over the darkness.