CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA Submitted by GUMANI ENOS MUKATUNI STD (MAKHADO COLLEGE), ACE (WITS), BSC ED HONS (WITS), MSC ED (WITS), in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree qualification PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR OF EDUCATION in the SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS, NATURAL SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION FACULTY OF EDUCATION At the UNIVERSITY OF FREE STATE Supervisor: Prof. Loyiso Jita Co-supervisor: Dr Maria Tsakeni 15 June 2022 i DECLARATION I (Gumani Enos Mukatuni) declare: Controversial topics in the school curriculum: a case study on the teaching of evolution in South Africa Is my own independent work, that the work contained in this research proposal is my own and all the sources. I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of references. I also declare that I have not previously submitted this research proposal or any part of it to any university in order to obtain a degree. Gumani Enos Mukatuni Signature: GEMukatuni Date: 15/06/2022 ii DEDICATION Firstly, I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my late father and closest friend, Sampson Ndalammbi Mukatuni and my late aunt Nyamukamadi Maranda, who passed away just when I had completed my Secondary Teachers’ Diploma, and who, although no longer on this earth, played an important role during my lifetime when they taught me about life in its entirety, humility, strength, integrity, and compassion. Secondly, the dissertation is dedicated to my late grandmother, Ms Nyamukamadi Lugisani, who is also no longer with us. The role she played was evident when she realised that I was not keen on hard labour and therefore motivated me to go for the work of the pen through hard work in school. To show that she understood the importance of education, she insisted that i receive a good education. Her reputation as an illiterate and hardworking old lady for her big family at that time, outlived her. She is still remembered for her personal contribution to many people’s lives even today. Thirdly, the thesis is dedicated to the unqualified support of my portable family, my wife Girly Mukatuni and our three children: Fhulufhedzani Collen, Vhuthuhawe Carol, and Zwothe Conrad; they are my joy. To them, I say, “Dear children, real life has always proved to be tough, particularly to those who are lazy. It needs hard work, hard work and more hard work if one is to survive in it, so work very hard and do not rest until you have achieved what you want in life, no matter how and what impatient people say!” iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most sincerely appreciative and grateful to the following people who have contributed in various ways to ensure the completion of this study: My supervisor – Prof Loyiso Jita for motivating, supporting and guiding me through every step of this study. He is a true leader by example and has inspired me to succeed regardless of circumstances and time constraints. A word of thanks also goes to Dr Maria Tsakeni for her contribution as co-supervisor. For financial support, I thank the University of Free State (and SANRAL). Without their assistance, this study would not have been possible My director and a true proponent to lifelong learning – Dr David Makhado for his unwavering support in allowing me to devote sufficient time to complete this research. All the participants in this study who gave so freely of their time and were patient throughout the interview. This study would not have been possible without you. Ms Magda from UNISA for the transcriptions of all my interviews, Dr M Doidge and Prof T Lelliott from WITS for assisting with the literature review, and Ms Kabelo Malungana for assisting with technical and proof reading. My family for allowing me to pursue this project and having to endure many take-out meals and leftovers in the process! My mother – Luvhengo Mukatuni – for her endless support and encouragement throughout this endeavour. Thank you for impressing upon me the love for books and for creating a sound home in which the teachings of all religions were accepted and the right values always nurtured. Over and above all else, I express deep and humble gratitude to the Almighty, the Supreme Energy, all-pervading in the Universe for bestowing upon me the ability and perseverance to complete this study. iv ABSTRACT This study sought to explore how Life Science teachers in South Africa deal with challenges of teaching evolution in a country where Christianity remains dominant and is celebrated through public and/or national holidays. The theoretical framework underpinning this study is a cognitive framework of implementation, enabling the exploration of how teachers can construct understandings of the policy message; construct an interpretation of their own practice and how they integrated the policy signals in their practice. A qualitative approach was employed using an in-depth case study design in order to explore how three Life Sciences teachers in South Africa negotiate controversial topics like evolution within the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement, and what the challenges and opportunities are for teaching about evolution. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. Five major findings emerged from this cross-case analysis. First, it could be observed that two of the teachers did not study evolution when they trained to become teachers, whilst the topic of evolution was part of the third teacher’s training programme. The second finding speaks to the influence of teachers’ beliefs and perspectives on evolution during the lesson. The third finding shows that teachers demonstrated that they could use both teacher-centred and learner-centred approaches when teaching evolution. However, teacher-centred instructional strategies were dominant. The fourth major finding indicates that the teachers experienced challenges that stood in the way of teaching the topic of evolution effectively, which includes the notion that evolution stands as a competing worldview to the learners’ and teachers’ beliefs on the origins of the earth and its people. The fifth major finding shows that the teaching and learning of evolution exposed learners to critical thinking. The study recommends that decision makers, policy makers and educational authorities responsible for the education system in Gauteng and similar school contexts provide clear policy guidelines on the teaching and learning of evolution as a controversial topic and, where possible, provide continuous professional development programmes at various educational levels to equip teachers’ pedagogical practices. Key words: evolution, creation, life sciences, natural selection, religious beliefs, opinions v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CAPS : Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement NES : National Education System BES : Bantu Education System CNE : Christian National Education OBE : Outcomes Based Education RNCS : Revised National Curriculum Statement NCS : National Curriculum statement CAPS : Curriculum and Assessment policy statement DoE : Department of Education FET : Further Education and Training NSC : National Senior Certificate NSTA ; National Science Teachers’ Association GDE : Gauteng Department of Education OBE : Outcomes-Based Education NOS : Nature of Science BSC : Bachelor of Science STD : Secondary Teachers’ Diploma GET: General Education and Training ATP : Annual Teaching Plan HDE : Higher Diploma in Education BoE : Bachelor of Education PCK : Pedagogical Content Knowledge vi TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION..............................................................................................................................ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..........................................................................................................iii ABSTRACT ...............................................................................................................................iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ..........................................................................v LIST OF TABLES .....................................................................................................................xii LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................xiii LIST OF PICTURES ................................................................................................................xiv CHAPTER 1: SYNOPSIS OF THE STUDY ..............................................................................15 1.1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................15 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .................................................................................19 1.2.1 The Education System before Democracy, before 1994............................................19 1.2.2 The Education System during Democracy, after 1994 ...............................................20 1.2.3 Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) .............................................21 1.2.4 Inclusion of evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum ................................................21 1.2.5 The importance of teaching evolution ........................................................................22 1.2.6 Teaching and learning evolution................................................................................24 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ..............................................................................................24 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.............................................................................................26 1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES .............................................................................................27 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ..................................................................................27 1.7 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ..................................................................................29 1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .....................................................................................30 1.8.1 Research paradigm ...................................................................................................31 1.8.2 Research approach ...................................................................................................31 1.8.3 Research design .......................................................................................................31 1.8.4 Sampling ...................................................................................................................32 1.8.5 Data collection techniques ........................................................................................33 1.8.6 Qualitative data analysis ...........................................................................................33 1.8.7 Validity and reliability .................................................................................................34 vii 1.8.8 Trustworthiness and credibility ..................................................................................34 1.9 ETHICAL ISSUES .........................................................................................................35 1.10 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................36 1.11 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .....................................................................................36 1.12 THESIS OUTLINE .........................................................................................................37 1.13 CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................38 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND .................................................................39 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................39 2.2 CONTROVERSY AND CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES AROUND TEACHING OF EVOLUTION..................................................................................................................40 2.2 1 Meaning of the word ‘controversial’ ...........................................................................40 2.2.2 Controversial issues challenging teaching .................................................................40 2.3 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY ...............................................41 2.3.1 Cognitive framework of the implementation ...............................................................43 2.3.2 Stages of the cognitive framework of the implementation ..........................................43 2.3.3 Sketching a cognitive framework of the implementation ............................................44 2.3.4 Core elements of basic cognitive framework .............................................................45 2.3.4.1 Teachers in the classroom create meaning of the content learned and influence learner understanding ........................................................................................45 2.3.4.2 Teachers’ use of prior knowledge influences learner understanding ...................46 2.3.4.3 Teachers’ interpretation of the subject content contributes to learner understanding ....................................................................................................48 2.3.4.4 Teachers’ misunderstanding of new ideas leads to learner confusion .................49 2.3.4.5 Teachers’ focus on superficial features influences understanding .......................49 2.3.4.6 The implementing agent as social sense-maker .................................................50 2.3.4.7 Learners’ understanding occurs in a learning environment .................................50 2.3.4.8 Dialogue and debate in the learning environment shape learner understanding .51 2.4 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................53 2.4.1 Curriculum implementation in the classroom .............................................................53 2.4.1.1 International studies on curriculum implementation .............................................53 2.4.1.2 South African studies on curriculum implementation ...........................................57 2.5 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF EVOLUTION ............................................................59 2.5.1 The introduction of evolution in South Africa .............................................................59 2.5.2 International studies on the teaching and learning of evolution..................................61 2.5.2.1 Acceptance of teaching and learning evolution in schools ..................................61 2.5.2.2 Approaches and strategies for teaching evolution ...............................................62 2.5.2.3 Challenges of teaching and learning evolution ....................................................63 2.5.3 Studies on teaching and learning evolution in South Africa .......................................64 viii 2.5.3.1 Teacher training on teaching of evolution ...........................................................64 2.5.3.2 Teachers’ misunderstanding of evolution ............................................................66 2.5.3.3 Managing controversy during teaching and learning ...........................................68 2.5.3.4 Teachers’ acceptance of teaching and learning evolution in the classroom ........68 2.5.3.5 Knowledge of learners’ understanding of evolution .............................................69 2.5.3.6 Approaches and strategies for teaching evolution ...............................................70 2.5.3.7 Public knowledge and views about evolution ......................................................72 2.5.3.8 Teachers’ knowledge and views about evolution ................................................74 2.5.3.9 Religious views related to evolution ideas and opinions ......................................75 2.5.3.10 Challenges to teaching and learning of evolution ..............................................76 2.6 CONCLUSION ..............................................................................................................79 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH, DESIGN, AND METHODOLOGY........................................81 3.1 OVERVIEW ...................................................................................................................81 3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.............................................................................................81 3.3 RESEARCH PARADIGM ..............................................................................................83 3.4 RESEARCH APPROACH .............................................................................................84 3.5 RESEARCH DESIGN ....................................................................................................86 3.6 CASE STUDY ...............................................................................................................86 3.7 POPULATION ...............................................................................................................88 3.7.1 Selection of site .........................................................................................................88 3.8 SAMPLING ...................................................................................................................89 3.8.1 Purposive sampling of participants ............................................................................90 3.8.2 Pilot Sample ..............................................................................................................90 3.8.3 Participants of the study ............................................................................................91 3.9 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES (RESEARCH METHODS) ...................................92 3.9.1 Building rapport .........................................................................................................92 3.9.2 Generating and recording data ..................................................................................93 3.9.3 Lesson observations .................................................................................................93 3.9.4 Semi-structured interviews ........................................................................................95 3.9.5 Audio-recording of the interview ................................................................................96 3.9.6 Document analysis ......................................................................................................96 3.10 QUALITATIVE DATA ANAYSIS ...................................................................................97 3.11 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY .......................................................................................99 3.11.1 Internal and Respondent Validity ............................................................................. 100 3.11.2 Trustworthiness ....................................................................................................... 100 3.11.3 Triangulation ........................................................................................................... 100 ix 3.12 ETHICS ....................................................................................................................... 100 3.12.1 Negotiating access .................................................................................................. 101 3.12.2 Informed consent .................................................................................................... 101 3.12.3 Confidentiality and anonymity ................................................................................. 102 3.12.5 Voluntary participation ............................................................................................. 102 3.12.6 Respect ................................................................................................................... 102 3.12.7 Publications of findings ........................................................................................... 103 3.12.8 Feedback to participants ......................................................................................... 103 3.13 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 103 CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION OF DATA AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS ........... 104 4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 104 4.2 DEMOGRAPHICS OF THE PARTICIPANTS .............................................................. 105 4.3 CASE 1: TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN MR ABBY’S CLASSROOM ...................... 106 4.3.1 Teacher, school, and classroom background .......................................................... 106 4.3.2 Overview of emerging themes ................................................................................. 109 4.3.2.1 Theme 1: Teachers’ beliefs and perspectives about evolution .......................... 110 4.3.2.2 Theme 2: Mr Abby’s approach to teaching and learning of evolution ................ 118 4.3.2.3 Theme 3: Challenges and opportunities for teaching about evolution in the Life Sciences .......................................................................................................... 132 4.3.2.4 Conclusion on Mr Abby’s case .......................................................................... 141 4.4 CASE 2: TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN MR JOHNSON’S CLASSROOM ............... 142 4.4.1 Teacher, School, and Classroom Background ................................................... 142 4.4.2 Overview of the emerging themes ........................................................................... 145 4.4.2.1 Theme 1: Teachers’ beliefs and perspectives about evolution .......................... 146 4.4.2.2 Mr Johnson’s observed teaching-learning interactions ...................................... 154 4.4.2.3 Theme 3: The challenges and opportunities for teaching about evolution ......... 163 4.4.2.4 Conclusion on Mr Johnson’s case .................................................................... 169 4.5 CASE 3: TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN MS DECHABA’S CLASSROOM ............... 170 4.5.1 Teacher and school background ............................................................................. 170 4.5.2 Overview of the emerging Themes .......................................................................... 173 4.5.2.1 Teachers’ beliefs and perspectives about evolution .......................................... 174 4.5.2.2 Ms Dechaba’s observed teaching-learning transactions ................................... 178 4.5.2.3 The challenges and opportunities for teaching evolution ................................... 193 4.5.2.4 Conclusion on Ms Dechaba’s case ................................................................... 196 4.6 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 197 CHAPTER FIVE: CROSS-CASE ANALYSIS, DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................... 198 x 5.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 198 5.2 SUMMARY OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................... 199 5.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 199 5.2.2. The cognitive framework of implementation as a theoretical lens for the present study ................................................................................................................................ 200 5.2.2.1 Individual cognition ........................................................................................... 200 5.2.2.2 Situated cognition ............................................................................................. 201 5.2.2.3 Role of representation ...................................................................................... 201 5.3 CROSS ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS OF THE STUDY .................................................. 202 5.3.1 What are the Life Sciences Teachers’ Perspectives and Beliefs about Evolution as a Topic in the South African Curriculum? ................................................................... 202 5.3.1.1 Teachers’ beliefs about evolution ...................................................................... 202 5.3.1.2 Teachers’ perspectives about evolution ............................................................ 204 5.3.2 How do selected Life Sciences Teachers Approach the Teaching of Evolution in their Classrooms? ........................................................................................................... 207 5.3.2.1 Understanding of teaching approaches ............................................................. 207 5.3.2.2 Common teaching and learning style ................................................................ 209 5.3.2.3 Exceptional teaching practices.......................................................................... 215 5.3.2.4 Learner engagement during the lesson ............................................................. 216 5.3.2.5 Use of learner’s prior knowledge to enhance teaching and learning.................. 217 5.3.2.6 Use of physical experiences and concrete biological models ............................ 218 5.3.3 What are the challenges and opportunities for teaching about evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum? .............................................................................................. 219 5.3.3.1 Challenges when teaching evolution ................................................................. 219 5.3.3.2 Opportunities for teaching about evolution ........................................................ 225 5.4. KEY FINDINGS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS ............................................................. 228 5.4.1 Perspectives and beliefs on teaching and learning of evolution ............................... 228 5.4.1.1 Qualification, experience, and teacher development ......................................... 228 5.4.1.2 Teacher beliefs and perspectives about evolution............................................. 228 5.4.2 Life sciences teachers’ approaches to teach evolution ............................................ 231 5.4.3 Challenges and opportunities for teaching evolution .................................................. 232 5.4.3.1 Challenges for teaching evolution ..................................................................... 232 5.4.3.2 Opportunities for teaching about evolution ........................................................ 235 5.5 Summary of findings and contribution of the study ............................................... 236 5.6 RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 238 5.6.1 Recommendations for practice ................................................................................ 238 5.6.1.1 Teamwork ......................................................................................................... 238 5.6.1.2 Training programme ......................................................................................... 239 5.6.1.3 Proper planning ................................................................................................ 239 5.6.1.4 Sufficient and effective resources ..................................................................... 240 5.6.1.5 Excursions and school trips .............................................................................. 240 xi 5.6.2 Recommendations for further research ................................................................... 240 5.6.3 Recommendations for policy ................................................................................... 241 5.7 REFLECTIONS ON THE RESEARCH PROCESS ...................................................... 242 5.8 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 243 REFERENCES ............................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. APPENDICES......................................................................................................................... 262 Appendix A: Grade 12 Prescribed work on evolution from the CAPS (DBE, 2008) .......... 262 Appendix B: Examples of Lesson observed on evolution ................................................. 263 Appendix C: Pre-Instructional Practice (Pre-Lesson Discussion) ..................................... 266 Appendix D: Observation Schedule and its Justification .................................................. 267 Appendix E: Post-Instructional Practice (Post-lesson discussion)................................... 269 Appendix F (a): Interview Schedule ..................................................................................... 270 Appendix F (b): Interview schedule ..................................................................................... 271 Appendix G: UFS Ethical Clearance .................................................................................... 274 Appendix H: GDE Ethical Clearance .................................................................................... 276 Appendix I: School Principal Consent Letters .................................................................... 280 Appendix J: School Teacher Consent Letters .................................................................... 284 Appendix K: School Parents’ Consent Letters ................................................................... 288 Appendix L: Turn-it-in Receipt ............................................................................................. 290 Appendix M: Editor’s Report ................................................................................................ 291 xii LIST OF TABLES Table3-1: Conducting a case study .............................................................................. 87 Table3-2: Overview of the biographical data of the teachers ........................................ 91 Table3-3: Themes, sub-themes, and categories .......................................................... 99 Table 4-1: Topics presented in class during observation ............................................ 105 Table 4-2: Demographics of the participants .............................................................. 106 Table 4-3: Themes, sub-themes, and categories of Mr Abby's tenets ........................ 110 Table 4-4: Themes, sub-themes and categorise ........................................................ 146 Table 4-5:Themes, sub-themes and categorise .......................................................... 174 xiii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3-1: Map of Gauteng Province ......................................................................................89 Figure 4-1: Lesson on an understanding of human beings and African apes ......................... 120 Figure 4-2: Lesson on fossil evidence and speciation ............................................................ 125 Figure 4-3: Use of open-ended questions .............................................................................. 130 Figure 4-4: Lesson on evolution by Charles Darwin and Lamarck .......................................... 152 Figure 4-5: Lesson on evolution by Charles Darwin and Lamarck .......................................... 156 Figure 4- 7: Lesson on introduction to evolution ..................................................................... 161 Figure 4- 8: Lesson on evolution by Charles Darwin and Lamarck ......................................... 161 Figure 4-9: Use of vernacular languages ................................................................................ 178 Figure 4-11: Vignette of a lesson on theory by Lamarck ......................................................... 180 Figure 4-12: Use of question and answers ............................................................................. 185 Figure 4-13: Use of questions and answers ........................................................................... 186 Figure 4-14: Vignette of the lesson on the evidence of evolution ............................................ 192 Figure 4-15: Vignette of the lesson on the Out-of-Africa hypothesis ....................................... 192 xiv LIST OF PICTURES Picture 4-1: Learners in the school’s Life Sciences classroom ............................................... 109 Picture 4-2: Life Sciences textbooks ...................................................................................... 113 Picture 4-3: Classroom with interactive Smartboard ............................................................... 115 Picture 4-4: Animation video on Lamarck's theory of evolution and human evolution ............. 121 Picture 4-5: Animated video on natural selection of Finches .................................................. 122 Picture 4-6: Grade 12 Life Sciences e-Books/books .............................................................. 123 Picture 4-7: Hominid species ................................................................................................. 126 Picture 4-8: Common Ancestors ............................................................................................ 127 Picture 4-9: Human evolution ................................................................................................. 127 Picture 4-10: PowerPoint presentation on human evolution and natural selection .................. 128 Picture 4-11: Internet search on what is evolution and the adaptation of species ................... 132 Picture 4-12: Natural selection (genetic variation) .................................................................. 139 Picture 4-13: Variation in the size of beaks ............................................................................ 140 Picture 4-14: Life Sciences classroom in the school............................................................... 144 Picture 4-15: Understanding Life Sciences ............................................................................ 156 Picture 4-16: A video on human evolution .............................................................................. 158 Picture 4-17: PowerPoint slide of giraffes ............................................................................... 159 Picture 4-18: Life Sciences classroom at School C ................................................................ 172 Picture 4-19: Learners in the Life Sciences classroom ........................................................... 173 Picture 4-21: Sympatric speciation ......................................................................................... 182 Picture 4-22: Video on theories of evolution ........................................................................... 184 Picture 4-23: Video about Darwin’s theory on Natural Selection ............................................ 184 Picture 4-24: Common ancestors over years.......................................................................... 187 Picture 4-25: Homo habilis (Handyman)................................................................................. 188 Picture 4-26: Homo erectus ................................................................................................... 189 Picture 4-27: Homo neanderthalensis .................................................................................... 190 CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 15 CHAPTER 1: SYNOPSIS OF THE STUDY This chapter provides an overview, justification, and purpose of the study, with a summary of the theoretical framework and research questions used in the study. The research explores the teaching of controversial topics in the life sciences science curriculum and in particular how teachers teach the topic of evolution. The chapter further introduces the literature and the theoretical background; methodology; and concludes with an outline of the order of the chapters. 1.1 INTRODUCTION The topic of evolution in the school curriculum is seen as a challenge because it touches on some of the most sensitive issues such as beliefs, religion, and culture (Sutherland & L’Abbé, 2019; Sanders, 2018; Abrie, 2010). The overview of the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) in South Africa requires schools to cover all sections of evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum for secondary schools. However, in most cases, teachers may have different beliefs and cultural backgrounds from those of the learners and their parents (Long, 2012). Some parents might view such teachings of evolution as misleading, confusing, and blasphemous, and emotions might cloud the learning process during the lesson (Hahn, Brem & Semken, 2005). It is these considerations about the challenges in the teaching of evolution that have propelled me to explore the topic of controversial topics in the context of a didactical stance on evolution in South African schools' Life Sciences curriculum. A research report by Sanders (2010) shows that there are many international studies on perceptions and challenges of teaching and learning evolution. Some of the international studies were conducted by Bilica (2012), Knippels, Waarlo & Boersma (2005), Neubrand and Harms (2017), Scharmann (2018) and Sutherland (2019). Furthermore, some international studies report that teaching of evolution creates tension among stakeholders due to their religious and social positions and was rejected in some countries (Abrie, 2010; Sanders, 2018). Some studies on evolution have also been conducted in South Africa, CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 16 i.e. by Sanders (2008; 2009; 2010; 2018), Abrie (2010), Van der Mark (2012), Yalvac (2012) and Reddy (2012), and Sutherland and L’Abbé (2019). One of the international studies by Knippels et al. (2005) has found that Dutch teachers are usually challenged by the terminology in evolution, which is often not used consistently and explicitly in curriculum materials. The complex nature of the concept of evolution requires of teachers to think deeper about molecular, cellular, organism, and population levels of understanding, among other things that may be partly blamed. According to the literature, other factors that contribute to the difficulties in teaching evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum include learners' prior knowledge, which either provides a context for their understanding of the concepts or is a source of confusion in the learning of the topic (Tsui & Treagust, 2007; Scharmann, 2018). Traditional methods of teaching often rely on textbooks; yet textbooks tend to focus more on theory than the conceptual understanding about evolution (Reddy, 2012) and the abstract nature of the concept, with a limited area of focus for examinations, which make other aspects of the topic look useless, yet are important for conceptual understanding (Sanders, 2010). The teaching of evolution was seen to be a challenge in various countries (Sanders, 2010). A report conducted in America by Bilica (2012) shows that teachers regularly fail to deal with arguments when teaching natural evolution because teachers tend not to allow learners to think and share their understanding about evolution. The study notes that if learners are given time to think effectively around new controversial topics, they will have the knowledge and understand the theory of evolution Some seminal research by Sutherland (2019) and Menton (1991) on teaching the origin of species in schools indicates that there are differences in religious and professional understanding concerning evolution and creationism in different US open schools. Robins, Rountree & Rountree (2003) argues that teachers’ religions make it problematic for them to communicate the teaching of evolution effectively and efficiently. Sutherland’s (2019) report shows that public education suggests that study on the origin of life should be excluded from the school science classroom and that evolutionism only ought to be communicated as a logically reasonable concept or hypothesis of roots. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 17 A study by Long (2012) investigated the politics and laws of teaching evolution, school science education benchmarks, and what it implies to be a creationist. The study discovered that there is a challenge to manage the academic stance of evolution and creation in American science classrooms. This is supported by Glaze and Goldston (2019), who discovered that there is a challenge in understanding the language used in evolution and creation in some American science classrooms. As a result, the study concluded that several high school Life Sciences teachers do not teach the section of evolution for learners to understand (Glaze & Goldston, 2019). Similarly, South Africa introduced subject matter on evolution in secondary schools in 2008, and some teachers were not prepared to teach the content as they were facing evolution content for the first time (De Beer & Henning, 2010). For this reason, the Department of Basic Education (DBE) organised workshops and trainings to prepare all Life Sciences teachers (De Beer & Henning, 2010; Sutherland & L'Abbe, 2019). However, some educators and pupils continue to find evolution problematic to teach and learn respectively (Sanders, 2010). Reddy (2012) adds that this difficulty in teaching evolution exists at both theoretical and linguistic levels, and he blames the lack of satisfactory teacher development by the DBE. Research by Holtman (2000) and Neubrand and Harms (2017) on the teaching of evolution reveals that some teachers do not usually use the word 'evolution' in their teaching, citing religious issues, even while the syllabus covers theories that are meant to deliver a concrete foundation for learning about evolution. Dempster and Hugo (2006) report that evolution remains a controversial topic in the schools' science curriculum. Holtman (2000) further argues that evolution is the merging source to accept the associations among the living, the history, and reliance of lifespan on the biosphere. The study suggests that scientific literacy, a primary aim of the current Life Sciences curriculum, may not be achieved without an understanding of the topic of biological evolution (Holtman, 2000; Neubrand & Harms 2017). Hahn et al. (2005) explored the influence of societal, ethical, and temporal abilities of teachers’ narratives of evolution, while Kyriacou (2013) undertook a study that looked at CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 18 teachers’ conceptual understanding of evolution. Both studies argue that high school teachers experience discomfort when teaching evolution, in part due to poor teacher knowledge. The study recommends that workshops with longer learning programs for teachers should be conducted to assist them to gain more knowledge and understanding. The report shows that the link between common issues, evolution, and difficulties may assist teachers' conceptualizations of human evolution. Similarly, Van der Mark (2012) looked at the use of concept cartoons to encourage higher thinking skills about geological time. The results provide an exciting way forward for future teacher programs and a strategy for overcoming some of the cognitive and affective barriers hampering the teaching of evolution. Reports by Yalvac (2011) and Reddy (2012) discuss the teaching of evolution by Muslim and Hindu educators in South African Muslim and Hindu schools. Yalvac (2011)'s study focuses on the challenges of teaching evolution while Reddy studied Hindu teachers teaching evolution in secondary schools. The findings by Yalvac show that the pedagogy of evolution demands a theoretical alteration, since evolution is frequently understood to be in direct contrast with some religious beliefs, while Reddy (2012) discovered that there is no conflict regarding evolution amongst Hindu teachers and learners, as they are ignorant of their religion (Reddy, 2012). A study by Sanders (2008) reports on several difficulties that South African school teachers come across when teaching evolution, such as poor Pedagogical Content Knowledge; lack of adequate training and controversy in evolution; misconceptions held by teachers; and poor consideration of the nature of science. A study by Abrie (2010) on attitudes and willingness to teach the content on evolution by teachers found that some teachers reject the theory of evolution, citing religious and Christian beliefs. Considering all the various studies that have been conducted and areas recommended for future study by various researchers outlined above, I noted that most of the studies conducted focus on teacher and learner beliefs, and teacher training, and do not examine how teachers provide instruction to learners to understand evolution in the classroom. This study explores how teachers teach controversial topics such as evolution during CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 19 classroom instruction. The study also seeks to explore how Life Sciences teachers in South Africa deal with the challenge of teaching evolution in a country where Christianity remains dominant and is celebrated even through public and/or national holidays. 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY To create a clear picture of the introduction of evolution in the South African school curriculum, one needs to make a distinction between apartheid South Africa (before 1994) and post-apartheid South Africa (after 1994). 1.2.1 The Education System before Democracy, before 1994 During this period, the curriculum was isolated into the National Instruction Framework (based on Christian National Instruction, 1967–1994) and the Bantu Education System (initiated in 1952). The South African education system was mostly Christian-based and overlooked evolution, because it conflicted with the widely accepted Christian National Education values and religious beliefs of the government. Science instruction was neglected in the Bantu Instruction program (Dempster & Hugo, 2006; Sanders, 2018). When science instruction was permitted as part of Christian National Education (Van Eeden & Vermeulen, 2005), the science of evolution was disregarded. Dempster and Hugo (2006:106) explain this education practices as being “based on Calvinism, which has as its cornerstone the absolute sovereignty of God”. Creationism was seen as the only belief of how life on Earth came to be. As a result, the Department of Education promoted creationism, loyalty, race associations, and religion as part of the everyday school experience. The promotion of Creationism caused that South African government schools rarely mentioned evolution in their classrooms because the laws of the country promoted the absolute sovereignty of the Christian god (Dempster & Hugo, 2006; Sanders, 2018). CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 20 1.2.2 The Education System during Democracy, after 1994 After 1994, the new democratic South African government began to change instruction to provide all South Africans with access to quality learning. Social transformation is now foregrounded in the new curriculum, as is the production of internationally competitive, literate, creative, and critical citizens (Dempster & Hugo, 2006). The education curriculum was changed several times to improve the South African education system. Previously, the education system was segregated, based on racial lines where Black people received Bantu Education and was implemented before 1994. After 1994, the new curriculum in the name of Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) was implemented, and over the years was changed to the Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS), the National Curriculum Statement (NCS), and finally to the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS). The change of curriculum was the mandate of the government in 1994 to change instruction to create a globally competitive, proficient, inventive curriculum that will enable individuals to cope with the needs of the country (DoE, 2011). To improve the curriculum, the reorganization of the curriculum addressed three issues: • Racist and sexist language, including controversial subjects, were banished from syllabi. • Curriculum plans were modelled according to an OBE model called Curriculum 2005, which was intended to alter the education system so that that learner could acquire skills to use the knowledge to reach certain outcomes (DoE, 2011); and • Curriculum 2005 was revised before it was practised, resulting in the RNCS: Natural Sciences for Grades R–9 and the NCS for Grades 10–12. These curricula were implemented gradually: Grades 1–3 in 2004, Grade 6 in 2005, Grades 7 and 10 in 2006, Grades 8 and 11 in 2007, and Grades 9 and 12 in 2008. In 2010, the NCS was amended to become CAPS (DoE, 2010). During the curriculum change, in the Grade 12 Life Sciences syllabus there was an introduction of different Knowledge Areas, such as the topic on evolution and natural selection. In 2010, we saw the start of the CAPS preparation, which was a new curriculum document (DoE, 2010), and was implemented in 2012 in Grade 10. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 21 1.2.3 Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS) The Republic of South Africa announced the CAPS curriculum for all the grades in 2010 (DoE, 2010), providing teachers with detailed guidelines on what to teach and assess in all grades. The CAPS are based on several values, and one of the principles is that of providing learners with the necessary information that can support them to participate in the real world (DoE, 2010). The CAPS encourages teachers to support and guide learners during the lessons. The school system in South Africa is comprised of two phases, with the Further Education and Training (FET) band as one of the two phases, spanning from Grades 10–12. In the FET Phase, Life Sciences is one of the subjects for the National Senior Certificate (DoE, 2010), and comprising of four Knowledge Areas in Grades 10, 11, and 12, i.e. life at molecular, cellular, and tissue level; life processes in plants and animals; diversity, change, and continuity, and environmental studies. The topic of evolution belongs to the diversity, change, and continuity’ knowledge area. 1.2.4 Inclusion of evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum The year 2008 saw the implementation of the NCS in South African schools. One of the previously excluded topics within the Life Sciences educational modules was evolution. Some of the topics included in the Life Sciences CAPS document are Lamarck and Erasmus Darwin’s theories; natural selection; human evolution; and alternative theories to evolution (DoE, 2011:10). Even though evolution is not a completely new theme in South African schools, it did not appear to produce many concerns or contention among teachers and guardians of the learners. This may have caused teachers not to pay special attention to the topic, probably since it comprised only a few percentage marks of the final examinations (Yalvac, 2011). In 2008, the area of evolution was included as a portion of an externally examinable educational module, where it comprised 25% of the ultimate registration examination, and concerns about lack of knowledge and beliefs started to emerge (Sanders & Ngxola, 2009). CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 22 Despite the development made in South Africa by including evolution in the syllabus, understanding and acknowledgment of the topic are still lacking in the country (Sanders & Ngxola, 2009). Research has shown that these days people react to the theory of evolution much as they did in Darwin's time – they worry about and doubt it and are greatly resistant to change (Yalvac, 2011). As a result, numerous teachers, schools, and school frameworks in South Africa either maintain a strategic distance from teaching evolution even though it is included in the set curriculum, or they do not teach it as it should be done (Sanders & Ngxola, 2009; Yalvac, 2011). This issue is compounded by the notion that evolution is an intrinsically troublesome concept to instruct and to learn (Sanders, 2016). The history of evolution has, regrettably, fuelled the growth of misconceptions and distrust on the reality of evolution (De Beer & Henning, 2010). 1.2.5 The importance of teaching evolution The teaching of evolution leads to learners becoming mindful of the “powerful modern problem-solving tool”, organic evolution (Scharmann, 2005:13). Teaching learners evolutionary theory will moreover permit learners to understand the scientific principles and processes underpinning the nature of science (NOS), enabling them to analyse scientific evidence insightfully (Cavallo & McCall, 2008; Sutherland & L’Abbé 2019). There are three reasons why evolution is vital in science: • Evolution is a unifying concept The logic communities around the world have acknowledged that evolution is one of the foremost connective concepts in science (Rutledge & Warden, 2000; Rutledge & Mitchell, 2002; National Science Teachers Association, 2013). The concept of moderate changes in populaces over time is a "golden thread" (Scharmann, 2018) that joins science disciplines such as fossil science, biogeography, physiology, biology, efficiency, embryology, hereditary qualities, and cytology (Scharmann, 2018). Many textbook creators do not treat evolution as a separate topic, but utilize it as a topic in several topics and disciplines, as is the case in a few present-day tertiary courses such as the biology textbook by Raven et al. (2005). From a report by the National Science Teachers Association (2013), it appears that evolution could be a connective concept in science CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 23 since disciplines like material science, space science, topography, human studies, and geochronology all support the premise that change occurs over time. • Evolution could be an effective illustrative apparatus As an informative concept, evolution can be utilized to reply to the "why", "what" and "how" inquiries concerning the assortment of life. The National Science Teachers Association (2013) clarifies that understanding organic evolution permits one to understand other things. The differences of life have come into existence due to organisms adapting to environments because of natural selection. The environment does not cause living beings to advance, but provides challenges that living beings will react to by adjusting, because of the genetic variations they possess (Dobzhansky, 1973; Sutherland & L'Abbé 2019). Adjusting to diverse natural conditions, the accessibility of diverse nourishment sorts, and creating distinctive components for survival have resulted in a wide diversity of different types of living organisms. • Evolution could be a modern problem-solving device Researchers use the components of evolution to explain some of the abstract and complex formations on earth (Pigliucci, 2005). The hypothesis of evolution has become "the establishment of malady following and the recognizable proof of species in therapeutic, pharmacological, or preservation settings" (Bull & Wichman, 2001:1). The likenesses between life forms are utilized in present-day biomedical investigations to study organisms to understand "biological forms basic to humankind" (National Science Teachers Association, 2013:31), which can be utilized to illuminate issues that people need to understand. By applying their understanding of hereditary qualities, characteristic determination, and common parentage, well-being analysts can create immunizations and can bargain with anti-microbial resistance of microbes and HIV resistance (Scharmann, 2005). The National Academy of Sciences (2008) shows that to solve the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) pandemic, researchers needed an understanding of evolution, i.e. that living things change over time. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 24 1.2.6 Teaching and learning evolution Life Sciences is required if the public is to be involved in an informed, expressive way on social issues such as Human and Plant evolution (Haga, 2006). The main source of Life Sciences knowledge is through biology education. However, some teachers and learners find evolution a controversial topic to teach and learn, respectively (Sanders, 2010; Reddy, 2012; Neubrand & Harms, 2017). Tsui and Treagust (2007) add that this difficulty is at both theoretical and semantic levels, promoted by a lack of adequate training on evolution by the DBE. The other contributing factors to the difficulties on the teaching evolution in schools include learners' prior knowledge, which either provides context for their understanding of the concepts or is a source of confusion in studying the topic (Tsui & Treagust, 2007; Neubrand & Harms, 2017). Traditional methods of teaching often rely on textbooks; yet textbooks tend to focus more on theory than the conceptual understanding of evolution (Reddy, 2012). The abstract nature of the concept and limited area of focus for examinations make other aspects of the topic look useless, yet important in conceptual understanding (Sanders, 2010). 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT The topic of evolution is a controversial subject in many parts of the world where Christianity and other religions that subscribe to the idea of creation are dominant. Sanders and Ngxola (2009) report that when evolution somehow finds its way into the school curriculum, it can be expected that teachers will face a constant challenge on how to approach the subject in a way that is sensitive enough to some of the stakeholder concerns, while doing justice to the curriculum requirements (Sanders & Ngxola, 2009). This study seeks to explore how teachers in South Africa deal with this challenge of teaching evolution in a country where Christianity remains dominant and is celebrated through public and/or national holidays. Various issues on pedagogical practices of evolution have been recorded in other nations, particularly in the United States of America, and provide data on how one might understand instruction on evolution. For CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 25 example, in the USA people (51%) and UK (54%) support teaching of evolution in schools (Shepherd, 2009). A major difficulty in the science education system in South Africa is one of justice. If learners are denied access to higher-order thinking skills such as the consilience of inductions (combining multiple disparate avenues of evidence into a coherent theory), and a correct understanding of subjects like evolution, the social justice imperative that frames the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement is undermined. Moreover, misconceptions around evolution (Okoth, 2016; Govender, 2018) may often result in further teaching problems when scientifically incorrect prior knowledge is committed to long-term memory and functions as the basis for further learning. In this study, the researcher explored how teachers teach controversial topics in the school science curriculum and explore the perspectives, practices and challenges of teachers about evolution in the classroom. In CAPS, teachers are expected to support learners during the pedagogic process. During teaching and learning, teachers lead, support, simplify and provide the way, while learners become dynamic participants, deliberate in groups, and complete activities (Schreuder, 1998; Govender, 2018). The CAPS outlines the necessity to consider other ways of knowing, i.e. faith-based and indigenous knowledge systems (DoE, 2010). The recommendation of the use of faith- based and indigenous knowledge systems places a weight on the teachers in dealing with multicultural classes with different faiths. However, the DoE (2010) does not allow schools to value, judge, and criticize various religious issues in the school science classroom in respect of religious rights as set by the Constitution of South Africa. This is because schools accommodate learners and stakeholders from various religious positions. As a result, learners' views and perceptions of their beliefs should be protected in schools. A study by Reddy (2012) reveals that at certain schools, learners were not interested in studying evolution, due to their spiritual philosophies, and they are not open to evolution because of their beliefs. As a result, it is difficult for learners to make an intellectual effort to understand evolution, even though there is a reason for learning about evolution. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 26 During the lesson, teachers worry more about teaching the practical work of Life Sciences than thinking of learners' understanding of science, because practical work makes learners understand their lessons. Dempster and Hugo (2006) indicate that evolution is one of the questionable points within the science curriculum that require the use of practical work to enhance understanding, due to the abstract nature of the concepts of the curriculum. Against a history of enormous educational disparities and Christian National Education, South African teachers now face the task of teaching a revised and updated science curriculum. Diverse and complex topics such as evolutionary biology pose an enormous challenge. According to Cronje (2011), a proper understanding of evolutionary processes requires a solid graduate education embedded in evolutionary thinking and explanation – an education that was not available to many practising teachers. A study by De Beer and Henning (2010) indicates that the DoE organized workshops in the form of in-service training, and short learning programs over weekends or after school. Some of the training was offered by the various provincial Departments of Education, and by designated service providers such as the universities. In addition, since evolution was presented in the school Life Sciences educational modules, information has been documented in South Africa on the problems that teachers encounter when teaching evolution; understanding of the topic; their conflicts; and those of the learners and communities in which they teach. This study intended to explore how perceptions, beliefs, and other challenges affect Life Sciences teachers’ approaches in the classroom. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The leading research problem addressed by the study was: How do Life Sciences teachers in South Africa teach the topic of evolution within the school science curriculum? To answer this major research question, the following sub-questions were proposed: CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 27 ➢ What are the Life Sciences teachers’ perspectives and beliefs about evolution as a topic in the curriculum? ➢ How do selected teachers' perspectives and beliefs influence the approach to the teaching of evolution in their classrooms? ➢ What are the challenges and opportunities for teaching evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum? ➢ How can South African teachers’ perspectives and practices on evolution be understood and/or explained? 1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The main question of this report was to explore how Life Sciences teachers in South Africa engage with controversial topics like evolution in the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statements in their classroom teaching. The objectives of this study were to: • Describe Life Sciences teachers' perspectives and beliefs about evolution as a topic in the South African curriculum • Determine how Life Sciences teachers' perspectives and beliefs influence the approach to the teaching of evolution in their classrooms • Identify the challenges and opportunities for teaching about evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum • Develop an understanding of South African Life Sciences teachers’ perspectives and practices on evolution 1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY This case study is important in numerous ways. Firstly, I was a professional Life Sciences teacher teaching at secondary schools and had an interest in the Life Sciences CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 28 curriculum. This study would assist me and other researchers with the necessary knowledge and understanding of evolution as a controversial topic in the science curriculum. Through this study, I also sought to develop my capacity to become a critical and reflective education specialist educationist after observing teachers using a variety of teaching approaches, as prescribed by CAPS. Reports by Sanders (2010; 2016) indicate that certain studies on evolution were conducted in South Africa on teaching and learning. It is anticipated that this research will add to the current body of academic literature and scholarship on the teaching of evolution. Considering that most studies on evolution are conducted internationally, this report endeavours to provide a perspective of what is happening in South Africa, which may guide other researchers in terms of what has to be done to move forward when teaching evolution. The research report by Neubrand and Harms (2017) reveals that some teachers do not use the word 'evolution' in their teaching, citing religious issues. All through my career as a school Life Sciences teacher and analyst inside the DoE, I can relate to the teachers’ battles, not as it were with the teaching of Life Sciences only, but with the implementation of the numerous changes within the CAPS. This research report will further assist other FET Life Sciences teachers at different schools on how to deal with different controversial topics in the classroom. According to the literature, other factors that contribute to the difficulties in teaching evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum include teachers' prior knowledge, which provides a context for understanding (Scharmann, 2018). This research will possibly also inform the DoE about the need for a curriculum implementation policy to guide teachers and help them to understand the origin of ideas on evolution specifically. It will also contribute by offering suggestions for policy and reform, which will enhance improved teaching and learning of evolution. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 29 1.7 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND A theoretical framework explains the main areas that need to be considered when conducting a study, i.e. the key reasons, variables, and the alleged relationship amongst them (Bell, 2005). A theoretical framework helps to draw and summarise results to make information meaningful to those who would wish to use the findings for further studies (Coburn, Hill & Spillane, 2016; Spillane et al., 2018). The study adopted the cognitive framework of curriculum implementation as explained by Spillane, Reiser, and Reimer (2002). Spillane et al. (2002) emphasize that the cognitive framework takes into consideration how information is processed, such as the problems and influences involved in the handling of information about academic ideas (Alkahtani, 2017; Blackman, 2016; Dao, 2018). In other words, the cognitive framework outlines the ways that social context and social interaction affect sense-making. According to Lefstein (2008), the cognitive perspective is an important dimension of the implementation practices and enables teachers to come to understand their practices during teaching and learning within the classroom. Spillane et al. (2002) and Coburn et al. (2016) suggest that the cognitive framework is characterized by sense-making within the execution process of the curriculum, and draws on basic intellectual processes, societal reasoning, and positioned awareness. This suggests that a teacher should understand the policy information; build an explanation of his/her practice; and form a conclusion about the potential changes in the everyday practice informed by how prior knowledge, beliefs, and involvements impact the building of new understandings. A study by Cotton (2006) supports this idea that teachers’ beliefs, values, and emotions influence the pedagogy during the lesson. Spillane et al. (2002) further illustrate that situated cognition complicates the human sense-making process by arguing that context is critical in understanding the implementing agent’s sense-making. This suggests that the teaching and learning community may influence teaching in the classroom because of a particular community's culture and beliefs. Coburn et al. (2016) show that individual cognition explores the local implementing agent considering how individuals notice and CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 30 understand the changes, and how prior knowledge, beliefs, and involvements impact the building of new understandings. Coburn et al. (2016) further indicate how conditions affect the application of understanding from and about the program because a situation is a constituent element in teaching and learning (Kirk & MacDonald, 2001). The cognitive perspective emphasizes developmental change, which has a fundamental cognitive component. As a result, teacher challenge involves representing the abstract and the concrete ideas about teaching in understandable ways (Spillane et al., 2018). The cognitive framework was the focal point through which I conducted and analysed the findings of the study for all the four subsidiary research questions of this study. I found this theoretical framework to be useful because it outlines the curriculum implementation process that was required to transform the subject content effectively and it helped me to analyse how teachers made sense of the curriculum. The cognitive framework tenets framing the study are individual cognition, situated cognition, and role of representation. These stages are important during teaching and learning in the classroom, because during individual cognition, the teacher pays special attention to how individuals receive information, understand change, and how opinions and capabilities impact the formation of new understanding. Situated cognition, on the other hand, is important in understanding how teachers create knowledge and understanding. Lastly, the role of representations places more emphasis on the role of policy implementation, focusing on the growth of illustrations of thoughts about varying practices in the classroom. In Chapter 2, more literature findings on curriculum implementation and on evolution as controversial topics in the curriculum will be discussed in greater detail. 1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The drive of this section clarifies the research design that this research report followed and substantiates the approaches that were applied to collect the information. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 31 1.8.1 Research paradigm According to Babbie (2011) and Creswell (2009), a research study should lead to a systemic description of reality. This section represents how I moved from a worldview and assumption into research methodology. The journey started with the paradigm that was the fundamental frame of reference or worldview that underlies social theories and inquiry, referred to as a method that underlines the significant nature of the public’s involvement in social and cultural life (Creswell, 2009). In this study, the paradigm is viewed as a worldview that provides ways of looking into the theories and provides a logical framework. For this study the Constructivist paradigm was selected from the four that are outlined by Creswell, namely: Positivist, Constructivist/Interpretive, Participatory, and Pragmatist. The reason for this selection is because this study seeks to explore how Life Sciences teachers in Gauteng teach controversial topics like evolution within the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. Therefore, it was expected that teachers in this study would have different reasons for their experiences in teaching evolution, and they use different techniques for different reasons in dealing with the challenges. 1.8.2 Research approach Creswell (2014) states that there are three recognised research approaches for the procedures to conduct research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Methods. This study used a qualitative research approach. According to Creswell (2014), during the qualitative approach, a researcher gathers data in a confrontational state of affairs and interact with nominated persons in their setting. In support of the explanation by Creswell (2014), according to Opie (2004), this approach strives to recognize incidences in particular settings. The qualitative research approach enabled me to observe a set of material and practices in the classroom. 1.8.3 Research design Creswell (2014) explains research design as a process of understanding what is developed during the study when analysing words, developing detailed reports about the views of participants, and recognizing incidences in particular settings. The qualitative CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 32 research design enabled me to observe a set of material and measurable practices. Qualitative research design is pertinent to my study, since it offered me the opportunity to understand the material conditions of teachers and the classroom realities. Ormrod and Leedy (2013) show that a design exposes an approach of how the researcher intends to do the research and bridges the gap between the research questions and the implementation process. This also leads to the procedure and techniques of circumstances for the collection and analysis of data. Yin (2014) and Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2011) concur with the aforementioned explanations and outline five traditions that could be practised in qualitative research. Considering the different traditions as outlined by Creswell (2014) and others, in qualitative research, i.e. case studies, ethnographies, grounded theories, and biographies, the study adopted a case study approach of teachers from different schools using semi-structured interviews and classroom observations. This study took a descriptive qualitative case study approach (Yin, 2018), and used three teachers teaching Grade 12 learners from different schools and districts in Johannesburg, South Africa. As study sites, the schools were selected through purposive sampling. The three teachers in three schools represented a bounded case of teaching evolution, from which thick and in-depth data were generated through semi-structured interviews and classroom observation (Creswell, 2014). Each case was unique in that professional and academic qualifications; the physical resources in their local environment; and backgrounds of the students they teach were different. Therefore, each school has its own context. 1.8.4 Sampling Sampling encompasses an action, process, and/or technique of selecting an appropriate sample from people to provide research material and stipulates how members are nominated in a study (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). A purposive sampling strategy was used to guide data collection. According to Creswell (2014), purposive sampling is a strategy that involves selecting information-rich cases and participants that assist the researcher to understand the problem as well as the research question. Three different CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 33 secondary school teachers teaching Life Sciences from Grade 10–12 were purposively sampled for the study, looking at their minimum qualification of Secondary Teacher’s Diplomas, who attended CAPS and NCS training and workshops, and used the same resources for the teaching and learning of evolution. These three cases of teaching evolution involved teachers from different schools, racial, cultural, and/or religious groups. 1.8.5 Data collection techniques Data in this study were gathered from the participants who had experience and knowledge of the subject. Data were gathered through observations, documents, and semi-structured interviews. The interviews were audio-recorded as part of the qualitative methods of assembling data (Creswell, 2014). Lesson observation involves a person observing other individuals from the outside, inspecting as a bystander without participating in the activities (Myers, 2010). An observation schedule was the main method to collect the data and was designed based on how teachers negotiate controversial topics like evolution during teaching and learning. A total of six lessons were observed and three lessons per teacher were audio recorded. This was followed by two semi-structured interviews per teacher, which helped me to document teachers’ vocal interactions in lessons, perceptive and societal processes (Denscombe, 2007). This further enabled the researcher (me) to look at teacher-learner interaction activities during the lessons. The observation was not a holistic approach, because teachers can change their normal practice; however, to overcome these limitations, during the lesson teachers were not aware of what I observed during the lesson. Some of the teachers and learners’ interactions, background information, and observation were documented and taken into account. 1.8.6 Qualitative data analysis A study by Hatch (2002) describes the process of analysing data and information as a way that entails a logical quest for implication and sense from the information. During this period, the researcher works with data, classifying and synthesising information into controllable components, finding patterns, and categorising what is significant so that the researcher can account for others in the research fields (Creswell, 2014). Cohen et al. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 34 (2011) explain data interpretation as a procedure of creating direction and developing implications for the collected information and data. According to Nieuwenhuis (2011) and Creswell (2014), the process assists in considerations about the data collected, requesting reasoned questions, and writing memorandums. In this study, analysis of data was based on a constructive model that seeks to find significant and meaningful content from qualitative data gathered (Nieuwenhuis, 2011). Information from the observation guide and in the transcripts of the audio recordings was coded under tentative headings, and these headings were adapted, as the weight of additional data helps to clarify the headings into more definite patterns and clusters of patterns (Myers, 2010). In this study, predetermined categories were used to save time, as suggested by Hatch (2002). Categories were teachers’ perspectives, religious views, and professional beliefs about evolution as a topic in the curriculum. A further discussion on the analysis and interpretation of the data will take place in Chapter 5. 1.8.7 Validity and reliability To safeguard the element of validity and reliability in this study, I prepared the observation guide, interview schedule, piloting sample, and selected the teachers that would represent the cases (Scaife, 2004). The transcripts of interviews were discussed with the participating teachers. This was done so that teachers could add to or subtract from what they had said previously. This was following Griffiths (1998), who indicates that respondent validity can be applied by relaying analysed data back to the participants in the study for them to acknowledge if the data were presented correctly and, if possible, they can discard or improve their understanding. This was done by discussing the data that were collected, analysed, and interpreted from three classroom observations with the three teachers as a way to improve the reliability of the results, 1.8.8 Trustworthiness and credibility Trustworthiness was attained through a course of thought-provoking evidence breakdown, results, and deductions (Nieuwenhuis, 2011). The trustworthiness of the findings of my research largely depends on the coherence of the four basic elements of research (Creswell, 2014), namely methods, methodologies, theoretical perspectives, CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 35 and epistemology, which have been discussed in the research design section of this proposal. It was when these four elements were in resonance with one another that the trustworthiness of research could be ascertained. In this research, therefore, I have, based on the research problem, selected methods, methodologies, theoretical perspectives, and epistemology that are known to be compatible. Hence the trustworthiness of the findings rested on the strength of these four elements. This was further guaranteed by doing participant checks, confirming findings, and avoiding generalization. This was done by searching for participants' perspectives, selecting quotations carefully, upholding disclosure and privacy, and affirming the boundaries of the study truthfully, as suggested by (Nieuwenhuis, 2011). 1.9 ETHICAL ISSUES Ethical considerations are viewed as the most significant part of the research, particularly when it involves human and social matters (Opie, 2004). As a result, Strydom (2011) indicates that the data collection process in a study should always protect human beings. The researcher agrees to that and complies with the ethical considerations by requesting participants to agree to informed consent, voluntary contribution, and confidentiality. Therefore, it was important for the researcher to request ethical clearance to conduct this study. The purpose of ethical clearing is to prevent harming others. The principles of conducting the research were well thought out by following the three features of piloting the research in schools, as outlined by Setati (2005). I sent research request letters to the University of the Free State, the Gauteng Department of Education, and to the principals of the schools that were involved in the research. Ethical approval and clearance from all the stakeholders in the study were received. A meeting was requested with the teachers to update them about the research report and to request them to become part of the study. Letters with subject information about the study were sent to the participating teachers, assuring through the consent form that the information collected in the study would be used for research purposes only and would be held safely for a period of three to five years. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 36 1.10 DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The research report only identified secondary schools in Gauteng, South Africa, and no primary schools. The research focused on three secondary Life Sciences teachers in Gauteng Province: one each in Soweto, Alexandra, and Ekurhuleni. Teachers from independent schools, the Tshwane region, and the Sedibeng region were excluded from this study. The group was small and manageable. These teachers teach at secondary schools that all have more than 1 500 learners from different backgrounds. Learners were not part of the research report, because the focus was on the teachers. Lastly, the study was limited to secondary schools in the province of Gauteng that offer Life Sciences as part of the school curriculum, considering that other secondary schools do not offer Life Sciences as a subject. As a case study, the findings were not generalized (Denscombe, 2007). 1.11 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The research study focused on how FET Life Sciences teachers teach the controversial topics in the Life Sciences curriculum and the perceptions and practices of teachers about evolution. To avoid a large-scale study that will take time to complete, the study was, however, limited to three competent and qualified Life Sciences teachers located in different areas of Gauteng. This was not a big sample to manage, but small and manageable. Learners were not part of the research report, because the focus was on teachers. During the data collection process, it was important to ensure the trustworthiness and sincerity of the participants. I realised that it is necessary to have a good working relation with all the participants so that it can be easier to collect data. This made the participants to talk easily about whatsoever requested from them, despite the ethos of the schools. It was expected that the contribution would promote ownership and transparency. It was important for me to ensure that no bias occurred during the data collection process due to my interest in the study as a former departmental official. However, this was analysed CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 37 carefully so that it did not influence the outcomes of the study. The process of collecting of data was thoroughly realised to limit any ambiguity in the interpretations. Lastly, the findings of the study generated were not generalised. This study was a qualitative case study investigation, since it only represents the selected participants and their working environment. 1.12 THESIS OUTLINE This research report comprises five chapters, references, and appendices containing all material relevant to the research. Chapter One Chapter 1 announced the background, rationale, purpose, research questions, methodology, and ethical issues of the study, and concludes with an overview of the chapters to follow. Chapter Two Chapter 2 contains a comprehensive overview of works related to the study, including the aspects of a cognitive framework on curriculum implementation as the hypothetical system for this study. Research conducted on teaching of evolution in South Africa and globally, are also analysed and form part of the literature. Chapter Three This chapter displays the methodology of the study, as well as a theoretical analysis of the research design. The whole process also involves data collection instruments used, analysis of information and the ways used to create meaning of data. Chapter Four This chapter covers evidence from the cases and an analysis of the outcome that was attained. A record of the information scrutiny of the data received is provided. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 38 Chapter Five In this chapter, I discuss a cross-case analysis, findings, discussion, and the conclusion. This chapter also provides the recommendations, implications, restrictions, and areas that can be considered for future study. 1.13 CONCLUSION In this chapter, an account of all the sections included in the study was briefly described, including the introduction, background, literature and theoretical review, and the limitations encountered during the study. This chapter also outlined the research questions and the objectives, as well as the research methodology used that guided the study. The limitations and delimitations of the research report were also highlighted. The next chapter provides the theoretical framework suitable for my research topic on controversial topics in the school science curriculum, and a review of the literature on teaching and learning of evolution, i.e. the teachers’ use of perceptions, skills, beliefs, understanding, challenges, and difficulties that Life Sciences teachers face when teaching evolution in South Africa. CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 39 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the literature reviewed and the theoretical framework that guided the study. The literature reviewed includes teachers’ use of knowledge, skills, beliefs, understanding, challenges, and difficulties that Life Sciences teachers face when teaching evolution in South Africa. According to Tsaparlis, (2001), what separates the writing of academic research from that of newspaper writing is the organization of information and the use of a theoretical framework when creating and supporting arguments. A study by Abd-El-Khalick (2006) points out that there is no precise explanation of a theoretical framework in the field of science education, but LeCompte and Preissle (1993) explain it as a way of gathering associated ideas that direct research to the purpose of the research. In educational research, the theoretical framework has several roles and functions that increase the value of research (Tsaparlis, 2001). According to Molefe (2013), and Abd-El Khalick and Akerson (2009), a theoretical framework serves to unite the researcher to current literature, offers conventions that direct the inquiry, helps the analyst to choose fitting questions, guarantees the reader of the appropriateness of the report, leads the selection of research design, leads the researcher towards proper data gathering methods, and supports the analyst to form likelihoods of the results and translate it based on the current literature. In this chapter, I firstly theorise about the controversial issues around the topic, then reflect on and adopt a cognitive framework of curriculum implementation as a basic hypothetical system to direct my study on controversial topics in the school science curriculum and review some literature related to the study so that I can answer the questions outlined next: • What are the Life Sciences teachers’ perspectives and beliefs about evolution as a topic in the curriculum? • How do selected teachers' perspectives and beliefs influence the approach to the teaching of evolution in their classrooms? CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 40 • What are the challenges and opportunities for teaching evolution in the Life Sciences curriculum? • How can the South African teachers’ perspectives and practices on evolution be understood and/or explained? 2.2 CONTROVERSY AND CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES AROUND TEACHING OF EVOLUTION 2.2 1 Meaning of the word ‘controversial’ Controversial issues refer to conflicts of value and interest, which are often coupled with disputed claims about underlying facts and tend to be complex, with no easy answers (Brookfield & Preskill, 2005; Cashin, 2010). According to Brookfield and Preskill (2005), controversial issues arouse strong feelings and tend to create divisions between people engendering suspicion and mistrust. During teaching and learning, controversial issues in the curriculum are thought to raise difficult pedagogical questions such as how to protect the sensitivities of learners from different backgrounds and cultures, how to prevent friction in the classroom, how to teach contentious material, and avoiding criticisms of bias (Brookfield & Preskill, 2005; Kustra & Potter, 2008). It also raises questions about academic freedom and the role of the teacher’s own beliefs and values. The study focused on the promotion of an open and collaborative approach to teaching and learning, with a special emphasis on self-reflection and thoughtful, and informed action. During the lesson, teachers may reflect on the way their personal beliefs and values affect their professional attitudes towards and handling contentious material. 2.2.2 Controversial issues challenging teaching According to Brookfield and Preskill (2005), controversial issues express major conflicts of value and interest, often coupled with disputed claims about underlying facts. They tend to be complex with no easy answers. This is supported by Cashin (2010) who states that controversial issues may provoke strong feelings and also have a tendency to create divisions between people, which may lead mistrust (Kustra & Potter, 2008). In this study, CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 41 evolution content is seen as challenging religion, on the basis that some teachers and learners have strong religious beliefs. The impact of controversial issues in the curriculum may raise difficult pedagogical questions (Cashin, 2010), such as how to protect the sensitivities of students from different backgrounds and cultures, how to prevent friction in the classroom, and how to teach contentious material even-handedly, avoiding criticisms of bias. Brookfield and Preskill (2005) indicate that it raises questions about academic freedom and the role of a teacher’s own beliefs and values, which may raise questions of policy, such as how to support classroom teachers in their teaching of controversial issues like evolution, how to provide additional opportunities for dialogue within the school community, how to promote a supportive school ethos, how to monitor the overall quality of provision, and how to address the anxieties of parents and others outside the school. Furthermore, I surveyed four bodies of writing that to form and conduct my thoughts about, to be specific: • Life Sciences teachers’ perspectives and beliefs about evolution • Teachers’ approach to the teaching of evolution in their classrooms • The challenges and opportunities for teaching about evolution • Understanding of evolution 2.3 THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY The section of the theoretical framework covers a description and explanation of the theoretical framework; the cognitive framework of implementation and the stages of the cognitive framework of implementation; how one can sketch a cognitive framework of implementation; and the core elements of the basic cognitive framework, as explained by Spillane et al. (2002). As explained above, that theoretical framework explains and clarifies the main aspects to be studied in the research, i.e. the key variables, constructs, factors, and the assumed CONTROVERSIAL TOPICS IN THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY ON THE TEACHING OF EVOLUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA 42 relationship between them (Bell, 2005; Wilcox & Lawson, 2018). It helps with drawing up and summarising findings of the study to make the information meaningful for those who would wish to use the findings for further studies (Spillane et al., 2002). Spillane et al. (2018) highlight that the cognitive framework takes into consideration basic information processing such as the difficulties, complications, and inspirations that are elaborated upon during the handling of data about intellectual ideas. This further includes the effect of inspiration and influences and how community background and interaction affect knowledge and understanding (Wilcox & Lawson, 2018). According to Lefstein (2008), the cognitive perspective covers the implementation process, and enables implementing mediators to come to know and understand their practice and potential to change agents’ beliefs and attitudes during teaching and learning in the classroom (Lefstein, 2008; Coburn et al., 2016). Spillane et al. (2002) suggest that the cognitive framework is characterized by sense-making in the implementation process of the curriculum, and draws on essential cognitive forms, social cognition, and arranged cognition. In his earlier paper, Spillane (1999) shows that individual cognition explores the teacher as an individual sense maker, looking at how indiv