University community partnerships for climate change adaptation in Malawi: a human development perspective Chimwemwe Phiri Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the doctoral degree Doctor of Philosophy with Specialisation in Development Studies in the Centre for Development Support, Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences, at the University of the Free State, Bloemfontein Supervisor: Prof Mikateko Mathebula Co-supervisor: Dr Bertha Kibona Co-supervisor: Prof Melanie Walker University of the Free State 8 February 2024 i Declaration I, Chimwemwe Phiri, declare that the thesis that I herewith submit for the degree Doctor of Philosophy with specialisation in Development Studies at the University of the Free State, is my independent work, and that I have not previously submitted it for a qualification at another institution of higher education.  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 February 2024 Signature Date ii Abstract Although higher education can play a catalytic role in the attainment of Sustainable Development Goal 13 (climate action), there is less attention given to the role of universities in achieving climate adaptation through partnerships with local communities. In the Malawian context, universities have been credited for partnering with local communities as a pathway towards designing context- specific climate adaptation strategies. For instance, five of the six universities in Malawi are recognised by the government as actively engaged in climate change mitigation and adaptation initiatives. However, despite these partnerships, there is a lack of evidence on what they look like in practice, what they can achieve, and whether they create an enabling environment for advancing strategies that are driven by local communities and that advance community well- being. Community well-being is conceptualised from the human development approach as the ultimate goal of development, where communities can be or do what they value in order to flourish. Drawing from the human development paradigm, this study investigates how universities contribute to improving vulnerable communities' adaptation to climate change in Malawi through university-community partnerships. Data from this qualitatively-designed case study of Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources in Malawi was collected through semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. University lecturers (10), support staff (2), third-year students (10), community members (18), policymakers (4) and climate change experts (2) participated in this study. The findings show that university-community partnerships in Malawi, and in Africa more broadly, have the potential to positively influence how global development challenges such as climate change are defined, understood, and addressed in ways that are contextually sensitive. The findings also offer contrasting and critical views, suggesting that while partnerships can enhance sustainable community well-being, they seldom achieve this. This is because partnerships can stimulate innovative ideas for adaptation strategies and capacitate university and community members to broaden opportunities for generating income and to widen their skill set for addressing climate change, but they do not offer adequate space for bottom-up initiatives or allow for inclusive decision-making. These partnerships also tend to advance university interests at the expense of creating more equitable outcomes for local communities. Thus, the study considers what university-community partnerships might look like if they were to be more inclusive and equitable. It identifies four key dimensions of a human development-centred framework: 1) equitable relationships; 2) inclusive decision-making; 3) streamlining resource efficiency; and 4) sustainable community well-being. The study further makes a case for harnessing the role of iii bounded agency across the four dimensions, as structural and institutional arrangements can affect the interplay of individual motivations for undertaking interventions. Drawing from this framework, implications for the initiation and implementation of future university-community partnerships in sub-Saharan Africa are considered. Keywords: climate change adaptation; university-community partnerships; human development; Malawi; Africa. Dedication This thesis is dedicated to my late father, Paul Sam “Mnzwanya” Phiri, who made countless sacrifices to ensure I received an education. He believed that education was the key to unlocking opportunities and creating a better life for oneself and one’s community. His unwavering belief in the transformative power of education has been a constant source of inspiration for me, and I am grateful for his guidance and support. My life has been full of struggles, although many may not know this. Despite my father struggling financially for most part of his life and never having had the chance to pursue higher education, he instilled in me a deep appreciation for learning and a determination to succeed. When I faced challenges along the way, including financial struggles that forced me to withdraw from the seminary, my father never lost faith in me. He reminded me that hard work and perseverance were the key to success, and his unwavering support gave me the strength to keep going. Although my father may not have had the financial resources to fully realise his vision for my education, his wisdom and values continue to inspire me. I am deeply indebted to him for his sacrifices and his unwavering belief in my potential. May his soul rest in peace. Thank you for reminding me that “being a son of a driver doesn’t mean I should end up being a conductor” When I had completely given up hope and made the choice to pursue a career in football, a glimmer of hope suddenly appeared. And this is to you, my uncle Jacob Jimu, a true beacon of selflessness and generosity who stepped in when I needed it most. At a time when my educational path seemed uncertain due to financial constraints, you stepped in, providing me not only with shelter, food, and financial support, but also with boundless encouragement and belief in my potential. From helping me complete my secondary education to sustaining me through my college years, you have been my steadfast guardian and mentor. Even as you pursued your own master’s degree, you selflessly dedicated your meagre stipend to support my well-being. Few would undertake such a noble act, and for this, I am forever indebted. Your actions laid the foundation of what it truly means to be human and the depth of compassion that defines humankind. This thesis is not only a tribute to your role in my life but also a testament to your profound i impact on my journey. I dedicate it to you with deep gratitude, pride, and hope that it serves as a small token of recognition for the immense contributions you’ve made. Your belief in me has shaped my destiny, and I can only aspire to continue living up to the values and principles you’ve instilled in me. ii Acknowledgements I am immensely indebted to my main supervisor, Prof Mikateko Mathebula, and my co- supervisor, Dr Bertha Kibona, for their exceptional contributions to my academic journey. Their wise counsel and steadfast belief in the importance of my research were pivotal to the successful completion of this thesis. Prof Mathebula and Dr Kibona not only provided me with scholarly guidance but also extended their friendship, fostering a nurturing and collaborative environment that enriched my learning experience. Their dedication to my development as a researcher and their consistent encouragement propelled me forward, even during challenging moments, too numerous to mention. Most importantly, their constructive feedback and critical insights pushed me to reach new heights in my work. Expressing my gratitude to Prof Mathebula and Dr Kibona feels inadequate, as the debt of gratitude I owe them is immeasurable and can never be fully repaid. Their support and belief in my potential have been a guiding light throughout this academic journey, and I consider myself exceptionally fortunate to have had them as my supervisors. Second, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Prof Melanie Walker for her invaluable support throughout my PhD journey. Her generous funding in her capacity as the SARCHi Chair in Higher Education and Human Development made it possible for me to embark on this doctoral endeavour, and I am profoundly thankful for the opportunity it provided. Prof Walker's leadership, expertise, and insightful comments have been instrumental in shaping the direction and quality of my thesis. Her mentorship has been a beacon of light, illuminating the path towards academic excellence. Further, I extend my heartfelt appreciation to Prof Walker for her continued support in enabling me to attend international conferences, including the Joint PhD conference in Cape Town (2021) and the HDCA conference (2022). These experiences were transformative, as the critical input and knowledge I gained at these events greatly influenced the development of my research. A special highlight of my academic journey was the incredible opportunity Prof Walker extended to me for a three-month Erasmus exchange programme at the University Politecnica de Valencia. This immersive experience provided me with a unique opportunity to engage with scholars from various parts of the world, including those from the Global North. It not only allowed me to broaden my horizons but also exposed my work to a diverse and influential academic platform. In particular, the insights shared by iii Prof Sandra Boni and Prof Álvaro Fernandez Baldor Martinez greatly contributed to the improvement of my work. Their expertise and guidance helped me refine my ideas and enhance the overall quality of my research. Moreover, my time spent at the University Politecnica de Valencia was extraordinarily enriching. The knowledge and cultural exchange that took place during my stay, especially with the wonderful individuals I met, such as the benevolent Adrián Arias Díaz-Faes and Carlos Delgado Caro, played a significant role in shaping my academic journey. I would also like to acknowledge all members of our research group, HEHD, for their ongoing support throughout my doctoral programme. Their insights, both formal and informal, have been instrumental in shaping the writing of this thesis. In particular, I would like to thank Drs Fenella, Tiffany, and Ntimi for their guidance, encouragement, and feedback. Their expertise and willingness to share their knowledge have been truly invaluable. I am also grateful to my fellow researchers in HEHD, who have provided me with a stimulating and collaborative environment in which to work. Without their support, this thesis would not have been possible. To my cohort mate Moffat Machiwenyika and all PhD colleagues Suzyika, Judith, Cris, and Tsholofelo, it’s been an honour sharing 115 with you. Special thanks to Flames and Zambian colleagues Drs Andrew Nkhoma, Edward Mboyonga and Kalusha Chama and my “mishapu” colleague Daizy Shoma Nalwamba for their support during my time in Bloemfontein. Those who have stayed in Bloemfontein would understand that it can be a lonely and isolated place. Still, these individuals went above and beyond to provide me with the emotional encouragement I needed to persevere. Despite already having to deal with their submissions, they took the time to proofread my draft submissions and engage in informal conversations. Zikomo kwambiri. I am deeply grateful for the invaluable support and mentorship I have received from my dear friend-turned-brother, Dr Martino Kamwano Mazinga. Martino has played an instrumental role in shaping my personal and professional growth, taking a chance on me immediately after my first degree and guiding me through the intricacies of our field. Our friendship transcended the boundaries of social interaction as he evolved into a remarkable role model in various aspects of my life. It was Martino who introduced me to iv the world of doctoral studies, and his untiring encouragement and motivation inspired me to apply and enrol in the PhD programme. Throughout this rigorous academic pursuit, Martino remained a constant source of inspiration, engaging in countless lengthy conversations about my research, providing invaluable insights, and bolstering my determination. Aside from academia, I am proud to say he thought he would imagine recreating his prototype in me to live after him; he sees me in him just as I do in him. His guidance and friendship in all my aspects of life have been nothing short of transformative, and I am profoundly thankful for his presence in my life. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my friends-turned-brothers, Dr Hangwelani Magau and Dr Abraham Matamanda, for their unwavering support throughout my academic journey. I first met them in 2018 when I arrived for my master’s programme, connected through a mutual friend. They have been a constant source of support during my time in Bloemfontein, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic when we were isolated and the campus was under lockdown. To my cherished friends and family, who have illuminated my life with their constant support and camaraderie, I extend my heartfelt gratitude to Mr and Mrs Chibwana, Father Sebastian Malambo and my extended Zambian family members, Mr Brighton Mkakato, Mr and Mrs Chilobwe, all members of Bunda nkhuku family, all the Lingalawe families from Mulanje, Dedza, and Blantyre and the Mokowas. I would also like to pay tribute to the memory of Mr Simeon Mario Thodi (Zomba) and Kondwani Mdukamayere Chipeta, whose support and kindness will forever be remembered. To Dr and Mrs Chiziwa, all the Thodis, Mr Amos Sikwese, Mr and Mrs Nkhoma, Mr and Mrs Mafelano and Mr and Mrs Silo, thank you from the bottom of my heart. Acknowledging the untiring support of my incredible family during the demanding journey of my PhD is a heartfelt duty I hold close to my heart. To my mother, a beacon of strength and resilience, your love and encouragement sustained me through every challenge. To my siblings Joseph, Vero, Edwin, Martha, and Virginia, your endless belief in me and the countless moments of shared struggles at Chonde, laughter and wisdom kept me grounded and focused on my path. I can only imagine the countless sacrifices you all made during my time away. Your presence in my life is immeasurable, and I am forever v grateful for the bonds that hold us together. This PhD journey would have been unimaginable without each of you by my side. Finally, most importantly, my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude goes to my loving wife Gloria Desire Lingalawe and two incredible daughters, Nova and Nia. Despite the unexpected shifts and demands on my time, you never wavered in your belief in me. Your resilience, calmness, and understanding during the countless sleepless nights and moments spent away from you have been truly remarkable. This achievement would not have been possible without your love and encouragement. vi Contents Chapter 1 : Introduction, an overview and a prolegomenon ............................................ 1 1.1 The status and stance of the author ....................................................................... 1 1.2 Setting the scene ................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Contextualising the study ....................................................................................... 7 1.3.1 The situation in Malawi .................................................................................... 7 1.3.2 Climate vulnerability in Malawi ......................................................................... 9 1.3.3 A background on universities in Malawi ......................................................... 11 1.3.4 Universities and Climate Change in Malawi ................................................... 13 1.4 Statement of the research problem ...................................................................... 15 1.5. Aim of the study and research questions ............................................................ 16 1.6 Conceptualisation of the study ............................................................................. 17 1.7 Methodological approach ..................................................................................... 18 1.8 Brief structure of the thesis .................................................................................. 18 1.9 Summary .............................................................................................................. 21 1.10 Defining key terms and concepts ....................................................................... 22 Chapter 2 : Literature review ......................................................................................... 24 2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 24 2.2 Overview of climate change discourses ............................................................... 24 2.2.1 Understanding climate change ...................................................................... 24 2.2.2 The current state of climate change ............................................................... 26 2.2.3 Why developing countries must care about climate change .......................... 26 2.2.4 General responses to climate change ........................................................... 28 2.2.4.1 Mitigation .................................................................................................... 28 2.2.4.2 Adaptation ................................................................................................... 29 2.2.5. Climate adaptation efforts in Africa ............................................................... 29 vii 2.3 Climate change and the role of universities ......................................................... 30 2.3.1 Role of universities regarding climate change adaptation .............................. 31 2.3.2 Barriers to the role of universities in climate adaptation ................................. 34 2.4 Climate change, universities and sustainable development ................................. 36 2.4.1 Situating the university’s role in development ................................................ 36 2.4.2 Understanding sustainable development ....................................................... 38 2.4.3 Climate change and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development .................. 39 2.4.4 Universities’ role in the implementation of sustainable development ............. 41 2.5 University-community partnerships ...................................................................... 45 2.5.1 Unpacking university-community partnerships ............................................... 45 2.5.2 Brief history and purpose of university-community partnerships .................... 45 2.5.3 University-community partnership models ..................................................... 47 2.5.4 Aligning the infusion model to the human development approach ................. 50 2.5.5 Practical guidelines for universities in engaging communities ....................... 51 2.5.6 Challenges confronting universities’ partnership with communities ............... 53 2.5.7 A new approach to university-community partnerships .................................. 54 2.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 56 Chapter 3 : Theorising university-community partnerships for climate adaptation: A human development approach .................................................................................................. 58 3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 58 3.2 Potential frameworks and approaches for conceptualising university community- partnerships ............................................................................................................... 58 3.2.1 The sustainable livelihoods framework .......................................................... 58 3.2.2 Basic needs approach ................................................................................... 60 3.2.3 Human capital approach ................................................................................ 61 3.2.4 The capability approach ................................................................................. 63 viii 3.3 Introducing the human development approach .................................................... 68 3.3.1 Criticisms of the human development approach ............................................ 69 3.3.2 Applying the human development approach to higher education ................... 70 3.3.3 Key human development principles used in exploring the partnership functionality ............................................................................................................. 73 3.3.3.1 Equity .......................................................................................................... 73 3.3.3.2 Participation and empowerment ................................................................. 74 3.3.3.3 Efficiency .................................................................................................... 75 3.3.3.4 Sustainability ............................................................................................... 76 3.3.3.5 Well-being ................................................................................................... 76 3.4 Bounded agency’s relevance to the study............................................................ 76 3.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 77 Chapter 4 : Research Methodology ............................................................................... 78 4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 78 4.2 Research paradigm .............................................................................................. 78 4.2.1 Qualitative research approach ....................................................................... 80 4.2.2 Case study research design .......................................................................... 82 4.3 Description of study setting .................................................................................. 83 4.4 Participant selection ............................................................................................. 85 4.4.1 LUANAR university lecturers ......................................................................... 86 4.4.2 LUANAR support staff .................................................................................... 87 4.4.3 LUANAR students (third-year students) ......................................................... 87 4.4.4 Experts on climate change adaptation ........................................................... 89 4.4.5 Higher education and climate change policymakers ...................................... 89 4.4.6 Local community stakeholders ....................................................................... 90 ix 4.5 Data collection methods ....................................................................................... 92 4.5.1 Document Analysis ........................................................................................ 92 4.5.2 Semi-structured in-depth interviews ............................................................... 93 4.5.3 Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) ................................................................. 95 4.5.4 Observation ................................................................................................... 98 4.6 Managing data ..................................................................................................... 99 4.6.1 Data transcription ........................................................................................... 99 4.6.2 Data analysis ................................................................................................. 99 Phase one: Familiarisation with the data .............................................................. 100 Phase two: Generating initial codes ...................................................................... 101 Phase three: Searching for the themes ................................................................ 101 Phase four: Reviewing themes ............................................................................. 102 Phase five: Defining and naming themes ............................................................. 102 4.6.3 Dealing with research rigour ........................................................................ 102 4.7 Ethical considerations ..................................................................................... 104 4.8 Study limitations .............................................................................................. 104 4.9 Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 106 Chapter 5 : Motivations for and successes of existing climate adaptation partnerships .................................................................................................................................... 107 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 107 5.2 Motivations for partnerships on climate adaptation ............................................ 107 5.2.1 Fulfilling civic responsibility in addressing emerging societal challenges ..... 108 5.2.2 Enriching student preparation for adaptation work ....................................... 112 5.2.3 Knowledge creation, exchange, and scholarly recognition .......................... 116 5.2.4 Opportunities for financial rewards .............................................................. 119 x 5.3 What existing current climate adaptation partnerships can enable .................... 122 5.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 134 Chapter 6 : Policymakers' and experts' views on key issues to prioritise in climate change adaptation partnerships ............................................................................................... 136 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 136 6.2 Issues to be prioritised in university community partnerships ............................ 136 6.2.1 Establishing and sustaining relationships .................................................... 136 6.2.2 Improving organisational processes and competencies .............................. 141 6.2.3 Strengthening community engagement for knowledge co-creation ............. 151 6.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 160 Chapter 7 : The contribution of partnerships to community well-being: Insights from the university and communities ......................................................................................... 161 7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 161 7.2 Participants’ views on partnership contribution to community well-being ........... 162 7.2.1 Providing multiple adaptation options .......................................................... 162 7.2.2 Strengthening established local government structures .............................. 168 7.2.3 Establishing alternative pathways for accessing agricultural extension services .............................................................................................................................. 171 7.2.4 Enhancing social cohesion .......................................................................... 174 7.2.5 Reigniting community interest in university partnerships ............................. 177 7.2.6 Offering economic livelihood opportunities .................................................. 180 7.2.7 Fostering coordination and collaboration ..................................................... 182 7.3 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 186 Chapter 8 : Centring human development in university-community partnerships for climate adaptation in Malawi ....................................................................................... 188 8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 188 xi 8.2 Towards a human development centred university-community partnership ....... 189 8.2.1 Equitable relationships ................................................................................. 190 8.2.2 Inclusive decision making ............................................................................ 194 8.2.3 Optimal resource use ................................................................................... 197 8.2.4 Sustainable community well-being ............................................................... 200 8.3 Bounded agency as an enabler for human development centred partnership ... 204 8.4 Proposed framework for human-development centred adaptation partnership .. 206 8.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 209 Chapter 9 : Summary, Reflections, and Conclusion .................................................... 211 9.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 211 9.2 Reflections on addressing the research questions ............................................. 211 9.2.1 Research question 1: 1. What are the motivations for and successes of existing climate adaptation partnerships in Malawi?? ........................................... 211 9.2.2 Research question 2: What key issues should be prioritised in these university- community partnerships for climate change adaptation in Malawi? ...................... 214 9.2.3 Research question 3: How do university-community partnerships for climate change in Malawi contribute to human development for people in vulnerable rural communities?........................................................................................................ 217 9.2.4 Research question 4: How can the human development paradigm inform the design of sustainable university-community partnership models for climate change adaptation in Malawi? ........................................................................................... 218 9.3 Contribution of the Study.................................................................................... 220 9.3.1 Theoretical contribution ................................................................................ 220 9.3.2 Contribution to literature on universities in Malawi ....................................... 221 9.3.3 Information for policy building and practice .................................................. 221 9.4 Study limitations and areas for future research .................................................. 222 xii 9.5 Recommendations ............................................................................................. 223 9.5.1 Recommendations for universities ............................................................... 223 9.5.2 Recommendations for communities ............................................................. 225 9.5.3 Recommendations for government .............................................................. 225 9.6 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 225 9.7 Thoughts on the research process ..................................................................... 228 9.8 References ......................................................................................................... 229 9.9 Appendices ........................................................................................................ 256 xiii List of figures Figure 2-1 Timelines showing the main events of sustainable development and climate change (source: based on Peng et al. (2018) and Swart et al. (2003)) ......................... 40 Figure 2-2 The Silo model university community partnerships (adapted from Bender, 2008) ............................................................................................................................. 48 Figure 2-3 The Intersecting model of university-community partnerships ..................... 49 Figure 2-4 The Infusion (cross-cutting) model of university-community partnerships (adapted from Bender, 2008) ........................................................................................ 50 Figure 4-1 Steps on conducting the FGDs .................................................................... 96 Figure 8-1 Human development-centred partnerships for climate change adaptation 208 xiv List of tables Table 4-1 List of LUANAR lecturers staff interviewed .................................................... 86 Table 4-2 Description of third-year students interviewed ............................................... 88 Table 4-3 Summary of policymakers interviewed. ......................................................... 90 Table 4-4 Profile of community participants. .................................................................. 91 Table 4-5 Summary of all participants interviewed. ……………………………………….92 Table 4-6 Summary of the data collection process ........................................................ 99 Table 4-7 Linking the points of interest to the research question ................................. 100 Table 4-8 Summary of data extracts and codes .......................................................... 101 Table 7-1 Summary of partnership contribution to community well-being.................... 185 List of acronyms CA – Capability Approach CSA – Climate-smart agriculture CUNIMA – Catholic University of Malawi EMS – Economic and Management Sciences EPA – Extension Planning Area FAO – Food and Agriculture Organisation FGD – Focus group discussion GHG – Greenhouse gas GoM – Government of Malawi GUNI – Global University Network for Innovation HD(A) – Human development (approach) HDI – Human Development Index HDR – Human Development Report HoD – Head of Department IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LUANAR – Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources Malawi-University of Business and Applied Sciences (MUBAS) MGDS – Malawi Growth and Development Strategy MW2063 - Malawi 2063 First 10-Year Implementation Plan MPRS – Malawi Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper MUST – Malawi University of Science and Technology MZUNI – Mzuzu University NAP – National Agriculture Policy NCHE – National Council for Higher Education NEP – National Education Policy NESP – National Education Sector Plan NGO – Non-Governmental Organisation SD – Sustainable development SDG – Sustainable Development Goal i UFS – University of the Free State UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1 Chapter 1 : Introduction, an overview and a prolegomenon This thesis examines the partnership efforts between universities and communities to address climate adaptation challenges that disproportionately affect vulnerable communities in Malawi. The study primarily focuses on the university's role through university-community partnerships in creating opportunities for communities to pursue climate adaptation efforts that align with their interests. I analysed Malawi’s university- community partnerships for climate change, specifically focusing on the Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR) and its surrounding communities. This analysis critically examines the operationalisation of the university- community partnership in terms of scope, structure, functionality, and community perspectives. Drawing from the human development approach (HDA), the study argues for a human-development-centred adaptation framework that considers what university- community partnerships might look like if they were more inclusive and equitable. 1.1 The status and stance of the author My decision to undertake this study was motivated by a combination of my professional background and personal experience as an undergraduate student, which both reinforced my dedication to this area of investigation. My academic journey has played a vital role in shaping my passion and commitment to pursue this PhD. While at LUANAR, I gained a solid foundation in understanding climate impacts on communities, especially during frequent interactions and practical engagements conducted with communities. After graduating, I worked for the Catholic Development Organisation in Malawi (CADECOM)/Caritas Malawi from 2014 to 2021, designing, implementing, and monitoring climate resilience programmes across the eight Catholic dioceses in Malawi. I also worked as a Local Coordinator for the Scottish Catholic International Aid Fund (SCIAF), supporting SCIAF and Malawian partners in managing the UK Aid Match project on environmental conservation and climate-smart agriculture for climate change adaptation and food security. During my time at LUANAR, I noticed that despite the presence of numerous non- governmental organisations (NGOs), communities' vulnerability to climate threats 2 continued to worsen. This observation led me to question the effectiveness of current development approaches and interventions in addressing climate change. I realised there was a knowledge gap in understanding how to design and implement effective climate change adaptation strategies that are contextually sensitive and responsive to local communities’ needs. As someone passionate about sustainable development (SD) and community empowerment, I felt compelled to deepen my knowledge and skills in this area, so I enrolled in a structured distance learning master’s programme in development studies at the University of the Free State in 2018. I was confident that this would equip me with the theoretical and practical tools to generate knowledge on climate change adaptation and develop evidence-based strategies that would help vulnerable communities. My research focused on assessing the effectiveness of NGOs in enhancing climate resilience in rural communities. While writing my master's thesis on the work of NGOs in supporting climate adaptation strategies in rural communities, I realised that there was a need for further research to examine the role of universities through university-community partnerships in addressing emerging societal challenges such as climate change. Therefore, as a former student of LUANAR, I reflected on my positionality and personal experiences in contributing to climate adaptation efforts for local communities. This raised several critical questions that I felt needed to be explored further. For instance, I questioned whether my involvement in community partnerships was genuinely aimed at supporting communities or whether my primary goal was to complete my training programme and then graduate. I also wondered about the initiatives undertaken by university staff in the community and whose interests they prioritised. The key reflection point was to unpack why communities around the universities remain vulnerable to climate threats despite their proximity to abundant resources and expertise. I was also interested in exploring the role of communities in these partnerships and whether their voices were genuinely heard or subjected to a top- down narrative. This reflection led me to develop a concept to examine these dynamics critically. I was interested in viewing the partnership from the community perspective and interrogating how universities support them, given that climate change has a major impact on their well- being. I felt that a PhD was necessary to answer these questions and contribute to the 3 development of more effective climate change adaptation strategies. I saw the PhD as the perfect chance to build upon my master’s thesis, aiming to present a comprehensive narrative on how communities can be supported in building resilience from the perspectives of both NGOs and university stakeholders. The desire to build from my experience as a former student and to contribute to academic literature motivated me to explore how universities, through university-community partnerships, contribute to improving vulnerable communities' adaptation to climate change in Malawi. I realised a PhD would provide me with the necessary tools, knowledge, and platform to make a meaningful and lasting impact in university-community partnerships, given that it is an under-researched discourse in Malawi. Researching these areas can help identify gaps in knowledge, resources, and actions that universities, communities, and individuals need to take, to advance partnerships that foreground human development. 1.2 Setting the scene Universities’ potential to address emerging societal challenges such as climate change is widely acknowledged (McCowan, 2020; Yanda et al., 2010; Oreskes, 2004). Aside from being the hub of knowledge creation and teaching, universities have been challenged to integrate societal challenges as a means of building stronger and more resilient societies through different levels of community partnerships (McCowan, 2020; Leah Filho, 201) (Henderson & Bieler, 2017; Knuth, 2007; Cortese, 2003). Henderson and Bieler (2017) argue that through research and community partnerships, universities are crucial in providing a wide range of solutions to the challenge of climate change. It is therefore not surprising that universities’ unique and critical role in addressing emerging transnational threats such as climate change is highly reinforced in the sustainable development goals (SDGs) (Kivaa & Maluki, 2021; Mc Cowan, 2020; Lok Sabha, 2017). Specifically, SDG 13 (climate action) calls for action to combat climate change and its impacts. The crisis of Covid-19 further reinforced the global call for universities to prioritise climate adaptation. This is because the crisis deepened poverty and undermined existing climate change adaptation efforts (Filho et al., 2023). Within the SDGs, universities are seen as a medium for understanding the key SD issues relevant across disciplines, understanding the SDG framework and how it can be applied, translating knowledge and skills in particular matters relating to SDGs and creating networks for collaboration in addressing the 4 complex challenges relating to SDGs (Tikly, 2020; Walker, 2022; Sachs, 2020). Such an understanding resonates with the Global University Network for Innovation (GUNi) Report (2019), which emphasises the importance of universities in fulfilling social responsibilities and addressing the needs of society. It advocates for a proactive approach by universities towards integrating the SDGs into local agendas, suggesting modifications to education, research, and engaging with local and global communities to foster SD. From an African perspective, the SDGs are aligned with the African Union (AU) Agenda 2063, which focuses on specific development challenges affecting African countries. For instance, 15 of the 20 goals are directly linked to the SDGs. This implies that the targets set by the SDGs are not distant problems but tangible issues that exist in most African countries, including Malawi. In both the SDGs and AU Agenda for 2063, universities can provide leadership in the search for sustainable solutions to society’s multidimensional challenges, of which climate change is a major one. Aside from teaching and research, there is a growing recognition of university-community partnerships as creative approaches to fostering community climate change adaptation (Rieckmann et al., 2021; Leah Filho, 2019). The idea of communities partnering with universities in the higher education discourse represents a shift from the traditional one-way top-down to a two- way model, where the latter emphasises interactive knowledge exchange between universities and communities (Bowers, 2017; Dempsey, 2010; Mtawa et al., 2015; Arabena, 2006). At the core of reinforcing university-community partnerships lies the enhancement of collaborations between the university campus and the local community (Kellogg Commission, 1999). Nevertheless, there has been less limited scholarly enquiry than one might expect into the characteristics and dynamics of these partnerships between universities and communities (Sathorar and Geduld 2021), albeit with some notable exceptions in Sub Saharan Africa. For instance, Mtawa and Fongwa (2022) explored the experiences and perspectives of community members in service-learning partnerships using the human development approach and highlighted the marginalisation of community voices and their lack of agency in these partnerships, focusing primarily on the benefits for universities. They proposed that service-learning partnerships can be made more equitable and inclusive for community members by focusing on the principles of reciprocity, mutuality, accessible communication, and sustainability. Sathorar and 5 Geduld (2021) explored the challenges and disjuncture that exist between the objectives of universities and communities regarding community engagement in post-apartheid South Africa and proposed a critical approach to community engagement by drawing on the three educational aims of critical pedagogy, which are humanisation, conscientisation, and problem posing. Preece (2013) introduces the concept of "adaptive engagement", which utilises theories of community development and organisation management to examine power dynamics between students and their community. However, several authors have raised concerns about the practicality and effectiveness of short-term projects compared to the long-term goals of community engagement. For instance, Fongwa, et al. (2022) have questioned both the feasibility and quality of such projects. Another issue is the lack of representation of community voices in research analysis, as highlighted by Sathorar and Geduld (2021), Mtawa (2019) and O’Brien (2012). The power dynamics between the community and the university in the context of community engagement have also been insufficiently analysed, as discussed by Preece (2013) and Parker et al. (2009). The widespread and drastic changes to climate worldwide have led to higher education institutions, particularly universities, embracing climate change as a key emerging issue in the 21st century (McCowan, 2020; Feinstein & Mach, 2019; Filho, 2010). Climate change remains a threat to human development because it affects many issues, including livelihood support systems, which ultimately jeopardise efforts to achieve the envisaged SDGs (McCowan, 2020; Leah Filho, 2019). For instance, between 2000 and 2019, more than 475 000 people lost their lives worldwide, and losses of US$ 2.56 trillion were incurred as a direct result of more than 11 000 extreme weather events (Eckstein et al., 2021). To demonstrate the global effects of climate change at the global level, certain regions in Southern Asia have been identified as particularly vulnerable and have experienced significant impacts such as decreased agricultural productivity, reduced availability and quality of water, adverse effects on aquaculture and fisheries, harm to ecological systems, and an increased prevalence of diseases like cholera (IPCC, 2007). As a whole, Southern Asia is grappling with the consequences of climate change and natural disasters, resulting 6 in heightened vulnerability to risks and hazards that ultimately diminish the socio- economic status of affected populations. In Africa climate change has had a significant impact on a number of countries, exacerbated by high poverty levels and a reliance on agriculture for economic development. Despite efforts to promote agricultural development, climate change and natural disasters reduce yields, leading to declining national income and food insecurity (FAO & ILRI, 2008). Southern Africa is particularly vulnerable to floods, droughts, strong winds, hailstorms, earthquakes, pest infestations, and disease epidemics (Mkwambisi & Martin, 2014). Sub-Saharan Africa faces an overarching challenge of climate change, disproportionately affecting the most vulnerable segments of society (Serdeczny et al., 2016). This issue has compounded existing challenges, resulting in different stakeholders grappling with increasing complexity and uncertainty in decision-making (Cartwright et al., 2013). Moreover, inequality and poverty are deeply entrenched in Africa, and it is crucial to recognise that climate change perpetuates these social inequalities, often as significant barriers to meaningful participation and collaboration (Amin et al., 2015). Vulnerability to climate change in Southern Africa is shown, for example, by Tropical Cyclone Freddy, which struck Southern Africa and the Indian Ocean in February and March 2023, resulting in extensive damage to infrastructure, loss of life, injuries, and displacement. In Madagascar, at least 17 people lost their lives, while in Mozambique, approximately 1.1 million people were affected. However, it was Malawi that suffered the most severe consequences from Cyclone Freddy, with more than 1 000 fatalities and more than 659 000 people displaced, while many individuals lost their homes and belongings as a result of the disaster (OCHA, 2023). Given the scale and urgency of the threats posed by climate change, many universities recognise this threat explicitly and have taken a leading role in preparing communities to adapt to climate disruptions (McCowan, 2020; Ramaley, 2014; Dyer & Andrews, 2011). An example of a stakeholder conference addressing climate challenges in Africa is the Tenth Conference on Climate Change and Development in Africa, titled Just Transitions in Africa: Transforming Dialogue into Action, which took place from 24-28 October, 2022, in Windhoek, Namibia. The conference aimed to address the urgent challenge of climate change and discuss 7 actions required for a just transition in Africa, focusing on just energy transitions, nature- based solutions and carbon markets, adaptation and building climate change resilience, climate financing, green growth opportunities and job creation, food systems and value chains, and youth engagement. Further, The African Federation for Emergency Medicine (AFEM) held its first-ever workshop on climate change and human health as part of the African Conference on Emergency Medicine in 2020. The workshop aimed to introduce the topic of climate change and its effects on emergency care in Africa and to discuss ideas for the way forward. It proposed developing curricula at all levels of health professional education and continuing medical education to enhance training quality and build leadership skills and address workforce shortages by better preparing providers for disasters and climate-sensitive conditions. Another example is The Africa Climate VI Conference 2013 (ACC2013), held in Arusha, Tanzania, from 15-18 October 2013. The conference convened different stakeholders, including academic community members, to deliberate on strategies to tackle climate challenges in Africa. A significant recommendation from the conference was the necessity for collaborative development of climate information and services between producers and users to ensure that the generated knowledge is practical, owned, and utilised efficiently and promptly for rural communities. As a result, partnerships between universities and communities were reinforced as a foundation for generating such local context knowledge. 1.3 Contextualising the study 1.3.1 The situation in Malawi Malawi is a landlocked country situated between 9° and 17° south of the equator and 33° and 35° east of the Greenwich meridian in Sub-Saharan Africa. The country's economy heavily relies on climate-sensitive rain-fed agriculture, which contributes to both the national gross domestic product and foreign exchange earnings (Arndt et al., 2014). Additionally, more than 80% of Malawians depend on primary and secondary agricultural activities for their livelihoods (UNDP, 2019). The country has made notable progress in various areas, such as reducing maternal and child mortality rates, increasing school enrolment, and combatting HIV/AIDS (Government of Malawi (GoM), 2023; Mataya et al., 2019; IMF, 2017). However, climate change has had a significant impact on the country, 8 which has a subtropical climate characterised by dry and seasonal conditions (Fujisawa et al., 2020). Malawi is bordered by Zambia, Mozambique, and Tanzania, as depicted in Figure 1.1: Figure 1.1: Geographical location of Malawi (GoM, 2015d, p. 11) Malawi has a population of around 19. 2 million (Government of Malawi, 2019), with 66 percent living below the poverty line (UNDP, 2019). Malawi is in the low human development category on the Human Development Index (HDI), recording an HDI of 0.483 and a National Poverty level of 58.8 as of 2023 (UNDP, 2023). Inequality has also remained high, with a Gini Coefficient of 0.6 (UNDP, 2023). Malawi records a planetary pressure-adjusted Human Development Index (PHDI) of 0.481, accounting for the level of human development when planetary pressures are considered (UNDP, 2019). The country is ranked 170 out of 188 countries on the global United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Human Development Index (HDI), and the annual real GDP growth rate at an average of 4.1 percent in the past decade has been slow (GoM, 2023). Malawi's economy is mainly agro-based, characterised primarily by the production of maize as a staple food crop and tobacco as a main export for foreign currency. As such, the economy has struggled to maintain high growth rates that exceed the population growth rate. For instance, in 2018, the fertility rate was 4.2 births per woman, and the age dependency ratio, which measures the proportion of non-working individuals in the working-age 9 population, was reported at 85.6 percent in 2019. As a result, the per capita income has remained low, with an average of US$502 over the past 10 years (GoM, 2023). As reported in the country’s Vision 2063 national development blueprint, to attain middle- income status, the country requires annual growth of the economy at an average of seven percent. However, with a heavy reliance on an agrarian economy, climate change presents a threat and risk multiplier, hitting the most vulnerable people living in rural areas (GoM, 2023; Fujisawa et al., 2020). In light of this, the following section will delve into the specific challenges faced by Malawi in addressing climate change and its impact on vulnerable populations, particularly those living in rural areas. 1.3.2 Climate vulnerability in Malawi Malawi's vulnerability1 to climate change's effects is complex and dependent on various factors. Firstly, Malawi is among the world’s poorest countries, with a significant proportion of the population relying on low-output rain-fed agriculture (GoM, 2023; Zulu, 2017). Climate-induced shocks, such as the 2019 Cyclone IDAI, disrupt production, leading to increased hunger and poverty among poor communities. Secondly, Malawi's productive sectors rely heavily on natural resources, with agriculture ranking first (Bie et al. 2008). As 80% of the population lives in rural areas and depends on natural resources (GoM, 2018), the depletion of natural resources threatens the achievement of several SDGs, including no poverty, zero hunger, responsible consumption and production, and climate action. Thirdly, Malawi's population continues to rise at an unprecedented rate, with a 2.7 percent increase from 2019, putting pressure on natural resources as more land is used for agriculture and forests are harvested for fuel supply (GoM, 2021). The 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change emphasised supporting university- community partnerships in developing nations to generate context-specific solutions (Ssekamatte, 2020). However, universities, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, face challenges implementing partnership interventions with rural communities due to inadequate research funding (Teferra & Albach, 2004). Additionally, African universities 1 Climate vulnerability refers to the degree to which a particular community, region, or ecosystem is susceptible to harm from climate change impacts 10 have limited engagement with climate change, and across African universities, there is scant discussion on university-community partnerships as a means of climate change adaptation. In Malawi, university-community partnerships are only recognised as crucial for accessing traditional knowledge and context-specific solutions for community adaptation efforts (Chisale et al., 2020; Saiti et al., 2014). As noted earlier, climate change is a huge development challenge for Malawi because it affects key sectors that drive the economy and livelihoods among its population (GoM, 2019; IMF, 2017; Kalanda Joshua et al., 2016). With an agrarian economy, climate change threatens rural communities' economies and general livelihoods. The country has already experienced major climate-induced disasters such as Cyclone Idai and El Niño, threatening further livelihoods, as well as Cyclone Freddy, which claimed more than half a million lives, disrupted many people's lives and destroyed crops and property, rendering most households helpless (GoM, 2023). Growing awareness of climate change impacts on Malawi's economy is arguably the main reason for including and prioritising climate change in the national development strategies. The country's new developmental framework, Vision 2063, and the subsequent implementation strategies, recognise climate change as a critical priority area for the country (GoM, 2021). Nevertheless, the government has acknowledged research gaps in the universities in supporting communities to adapt to climate shocks (GoM, 2019). Moreover, communities tend to be the recipients of already-designed interventions by government and climate change stakeholders, with little room for their input (Phiri, 2020). Equally important is Nkomwa et al.'s (2013) proposal for establishing a platform for dialogue between mainstream scientific research and indigenous knowledge holders in Malawi. Similarly, Mwase et al. (2007) noted that documentation of rural communities' perspectives is limited. These examples demonstrate the untapped potential for collaboration between different forms of knowledge between universities and communities, that could contribute to addressing the complex challenges posed by climate change. Other policy frameworks, including the National Resilience Strategy (2017), the National Climate Change Policy (2016), the National Disaster Risk Reduction Policy (2015), the 11 Revised 2006 Malawi National Adaptation of Plan of Action (NAPA), the updated Nationally Determined Contributions (2021), and the Malawi Growth Development Strategies (MGDS I, II, and III), prioritise climate adaptation as a critical priority to increase the resilience of vulnerable populations and ecosystems. However, much work must be done to effectively implement these frameworks and policies. Speaking during the 10th RUFORUM Webinar (2020) on ‘Engaging African universities in agriculture and food and nutrition security process in Africa: a policy perspective’, the then Minister of Agriculture and Food Security, Hon. Lobin Lowe, reiterated the need for more research partnerships to address challenges confronting food and nutrition security issues including climate change. However, there appears to be limited emphasis on utilising the expertise and resources of universities to collaborate with local communities in designing local adaptation solutions. For instance, Ntupanyama et al (2008) suggested for the need to support communities with superior plant material that could survive in a different soil from their natural habitats. Similarly, the lack of skills and information on appropriate strategies among communities to adapt to the impact of climate change was viewed as a major barrier for community adaptation efforts (Mwase et al., 2014) 1.3.3 A background on universities in Malawi The context of university establishment in Malawi is similar to most post-colonial African countries, where universities were established to educate professionals, enable access, and generate knowledge for socioeconomic advancement and political transformation (Kadzamira & Kunje, 2002; Lwanda, 2002). The country’s first university, considered as the largest tertiary institution, the University of Malawi (UNIMA), opened its doors in 1964 and was later expanded to comprise five constituent colleges, namely Chancellor College, the Polytechnic, Bunda College of Agriculture, Kamuzu College of Nursing and the Malawi College of Medicine. In unpacking the vision of the university, the founding president, Dr H.K Banda, while opening the university, stated that: The university should be a part of the life of the people ... We have to teach [outside things to give students a world context and appreciate how others live]. Still, we have to make the university meet the needs of this country. After all, this is Malawi, Britain, Germany, France ... Our university has to be part and parcel of the people. (as cited in Lwanda, 2002. p.111) 12 The vision spells out the commitment of the government to ensure that the university is part of the local community and responsive to addressing the needs of local people. Given the growing population and the need for access to higher education, Mzuzu University was also formed in 1997 and the Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST) in 2014. In 2011, an Act of Parliament No 22 delinked Bunda College as a constituent college of the University of Malawi and merged it with Natural Resources College to form Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR). In 2019, the parliament approved the delinking of UNIMA into three distinct universities: the Malawi University of Business and Applied Sciences (MUBAS), the Kamuzu University of Health Sciences, and the University of Malawi. This means Malawi now has six public universities. However, despite the country's expansion of higher education provision, Mambo et al. (2016) argue that the higher education system in Malawi is still in its early stages, with up to 60 percent of deserving students failing to get in. Further, the authors argue that the national development needs and priorities are not adequately reflected in the higher education system despite each university being established with a particular ideological or developmental agenda. Masache Nkhoma (2019) noted a mismatch between the university's vision and addressing the needs of communities due to the curriculum grounded on a Western2 ideology conceptualisation of human development. Mazinga (2021) further argued for a contextual university oriented towards promoting rural human development in its preparation of graduates. Chamdimba (2021) argued that the potential for universities in Malawi to contribute to national development is deterred by inadequate funding, thus limiting their ability to make meaningful contributions. Despite this, higher education is considered a vital catalyst and resource for the country's economic growth and overall development, as recognised by the Government of Malawi in 1998, 2002, 2008, and 2016. The government acknowledges the potential of higher education in addressing societal challenges, including a climate adaptation response. However, the precise roles of universities in this regard have yet to be fully explored. Given the 2 Mostly relates to human growth and progress that is rooted in Western cultural and philosophical traditions 13 considerable impact of climate uncertainties on the country's economic advancement, the role of universities in addressing climate change becomes pivotal in aligning with the broader commitment to transition the nation into a prosperous and self-sufficient industrialised upper middle-income country, as outlined in the Vision 2063 developmental blueprint (GoM, 2021). 1.3.4 Universities and Climate Change in Malawi The Malawi 2063 (MW2063) vision provides a roadmap for achieving this objective, emphasising economic growth, development, and social and environmental sustainability. Although the first 10-year Implementation Plan (MIP-1) of Malawi 2063 does not explicitly detail the role of universities in climate change adaptation, it does acknowledge the significance of universities in conducting research that informs climate response actions but does not specify the specific roles in regard to partnerships with communities for climate change adaptation. However, university roles in climate adaptation are recognised in climate-resilient policies. For instance, according to the Malawi Strategy on National Climate Learning Strategy (2021), the principal public universities engaged in climate change learning in Malawi include: a) The University of Malawi (UNIMA), b) Malawi University of Business and Applied Sciences (MUBAS). c) Mzuzu University (MZUNI). d) Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources (LUANAR). e) Malawi University of Science and Technology (MUST). f) The Catholic University of Malawi (CUNIMA) is the sole private university presently involved in climate change learning programmes. Although undergraduate courses related to climate change are offered in the universities above, only the recently established MUST provides a complete BSc programme in climate change (GoM, 2021). However, postgraduate programmes that offer a research option in climate change have been introduced at the MSc level at UNIMA, LUANAR, and MZUNI. However, findings from capacity needs assessment studies conducted in Malawi regarding climate change learning in universities and higher education institutions indicate significant deficiencies in the coordination and alignment of programmes and courses offered by these institutions (GoM, 2021). The lack of a systematic approach to 14 climate change learning programmes has led to insufficient coverage and a limited depth of climate change education in Malawi. While previous studies have primarily concentrated on the roles of universities in teaching and research, there has been comparatively less attention given to their potential partnerships with local communities. For example, GUNi (2019) has reported on the collaborations between academics, civil society, and the private sector. Another significant sector has been training professionals for newly created positions as district environmental officers under the Malawi Environmental Management Act (GoM 2017). Chiotha (2015) has extensively written on the role of universities in climate change education and curriculum development, while Bell and Payne (2021) have explored how universities can equip students with the skills, knowledge, and ethical frameworks to address localised climate challenges. Therefore, while universities have the potential to take collective action against climate change threats, their response has been insufficient, limited to just a few measures. To address the scale and gravity of the climate threat, universities must go beyond merely greening their research, curricula, and campuses and instead focus on partnering with communities to develop context-specific adaptation solutions. As several scholars argue, universities' most effective contribution to society has been through their third mission of community engagement (see Benneworth & Jongbloed, 2010; Nowotny et al., 2002; Gibbons et al., 1994). Through partnerships, university and communities can spearhead climate change adaptation responses3 that align with community needs. I follow Gruber et al. (2015), Broto and Bulkeley (2013), Adger, (2009) and Few et al. (2007) arguments that university- community partnerships offer a range of requisite technical expertise for local adaptation efforts. In undertaking this mandate, universities complement existing efforts by other stakeholders such as the government, NGOs, the private sector, and communities to strengthen community adaptive systems. However, calls for university-community partnerships signal a paradigm shift in viewing universities as institutions that traditionally only focus on teaching, research and innovation to extend their functions to engaging and 3 Climate adaptation refers to adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changing environment that exploits beneficial opportunities or moderates negative effects 15 working meaningfully with communities (Bhagwan, 2018). This shift would allow communities in countries most affected4 by climate change to develop realistic adaptation strategies and implement climate change adaptation strategies that are context-specific and community-driven. 1.4 Statement of the research problem Globally, partnerships between universities and communities (referred to in this thesis as university-community partnerships) have emerged as a crucial means of addressing the effects of the increasingly prevalent anthropogenic climate change. Given the intricate, interconnected, and unpredictable nature of the challenges associated with climate change, or “wicked problems” (McCowan, 2020; Leah Filho, 2021), it is difficult for governments, organisations, and institutions like universities, to reach consensus around a single approach to response (Stein, 2023). Existing literature on university responses to climate change has primarily focused on initiatives like greening the campus, university research on the impacts of climate change and measures to mitigate against it, or incorporating climate change issues into the curriculum (McCowan, 2021). While some argue that a new education and restructuring the curriculum are crucial to reorienting the roles of universities in climate change responses (Leah Filho, 2021 and Lotz-Sisitka (2014), expanding the discussion to include a broader range of functions for universities is becoming a dominant academic discourse (Rickemann et al., 2021). University- community partnerships are therefore gaining prominence because they promote knowledge sharing, mutual learning, and reciprocity. While acknowledging such prominence, Rickemann et al. (2021) caution that most partnerships are not structured to ensure all stakeholders are equally involved. Other scholars contend that given the traditional bias towards the academic side of the partnership, the initiatives are not well- balanced and portray what is called unbalanced problem ownership (Knapp et al., 2019; Lang et al., 2012). Nevertheless, the potential for university-community partnerships for addressing climate adaptation remains relevant. University-community partnerships could help in focusing on adaptation efforts at the local level, which is a logical response to the often site-specific nature of climate impacts and vulnerabilities (Few et al., 2007). 4 Most of these are Global South countries such as those in the sub-Saharan region 16 This approach also allows for experimentation with innovative approaches at the local level (Broto & Bulkeley, 2013). By tapping into local knowledge, values, and attitudes, local-level adaptation planning can provide a tailored response that better understands the vulnerability of fundamental human and environmental systems, the communities’ primary concerns, and potentially effective and acceptable responses for addressing those concerns (Adger, 2009; Collins & Ison, 2009; Winsvold et al., 2009). Despite universities partnering with local communities to address climate challenges, very little is known about the operationalisation of these university-community partnerships in terms of scope, structure, and functionality in Malawi (GoM, 2019). To date, limited studies have explicitly addressed the question of community perspectives in these partnerships. However, community partners often express concerns about being seen as mere subjects, who are irrelevant for driving change, but are important as a means to an end. This raises the question of whether university-community partnerships genuinely provide opportunities for meaningful involvement of local individuals in adaptation efforts. Besides, if communities’ views are considered, to what extent and how can knowledge be co-produced and made more relevant and valuable to communities? This study addresses this research gap by exploring whether and how university-community partnerships in Malawi can enhance vulnerable people’s opportunities and choices to learn about and engage in climate change adaptation strategies to improve their well- being. 1.5. Aim of the study and research questions The study’s main aim was to explore how universities, through university-community partnerships, contribute to improving vulnerable communities' adaptation to climate change in Malawi. The following research questions guided the study: 1. What are the motivations for and successes of existing climate adaptation partnerships in Malawi? 2. What key issues should be prioritised in these university-community partnerships for climate change adaptation in Malawi? 17 3. How do university-community partnerships for climate change in Malawi contribute to human development for people in vulnerable rural communities? 4. How can the human development paradigm foster the design of a university- community adaptation partnership that enhances community well-being in Malawi? The ultimate goal of this research is to explore how current adaptation partnerships are put into action. It seeks to demonstrate if these partnerships create opportunities for local community participation and show that communities have resources that can lead to positive adaptation outcomes. The research also aims to unpack the potential opportunities for partnership adaptation, outline what should be prioritized in these partnerships, take into account the deeply entrenched social and political dynamics at the community level, and assess how the partnership interventions contribute to community well-being. This, hopefully, will contribute to thinking differently about how partnerships for climate adaptation should be framed to foreground human community well-being. Therefore, to address the problem of the study, I adopted a human development approach as the main framework for the study. Regarding the methodological approach, the study adopted a qualitative approach to respond to the research questions. Below is a brief outline of the conceptual lens and methodology adopted. 1.6 Conceptualisation of the study This study employs the human development approach as a normative framework to examine how university-community partnerships can enhance vulnerable communities' adaptation to climate change in Malawi. This approach, developed by Ul Haq (2003), advocates for a “people-centred” approach to development that prioritises the expansion of human well-being beyond economic growth (Stewart, 2019; Ul Haq, 2003). The first Human Development Report 1990 defined human development as “the process of widening people’s choices and the level of their achieved well-being” (UNDP, 1990, p. 9). The human development approach is well-suited to this study because it emphasises enhancing people’s capabilities and expanding their choices to lead a life they value. Additionally, the approach recognises the significance of empowering people to take control of their lives and participate in decision-making processes that affect them. The 18 human development approach was chosen to emphasise community needs at the centre of the adaptation partnership by creating opportunities for community involvement in decision-making processes. University-community partnerships are seen as a means of providing communities with access to knowledge, resources, and skills that can help them develop appropriate adaptation strategies for their context. 1.7 Methodological approach Chapter 4 provides a detailed description of the research methodology, this section gives a brief overview of the methodology employed to address the study's problem. The study’s primary objective was to understand the perceptions and experiences of participants interviewed on how the partnership provides opportunities for community involvement and whether it addresses the climate adaptation challenges facing communities. The study employed a qualitative case study of a Malawian university to achieve this objective. As Taylor and Bogdan (1998) noted, the qualitative approach allows researchers to understand participants' realities from their perspective. To comprehend how the university-community partnership for climate change adaptation offers opportunities for community involvement in the adaptation process, purposive sampling was utilised to select LUANAR as the case study site. The study sought views from LUANAR lecturers, support staff, third-year students, policymakers, experts on climate change adaptation, and community members. Data was collected using focus group discussions (community members) and semi-structured in-depth interviews (lecturers, support staff, experts, and policymakers). Additionally, the study reviewed documents related to the study's focus on gathering information on climate adaptation partnerships between universities and communities. Data transcripts were audio recorded, transcribed, and analysed thematically, from which the empirical findings are presented in Chapters 5, 6, and 7 and then theorised in Chapter 8. 1.8 Brief structure of the thesis Chapter 1: Introduction: An overview and prolegomenon Chapter 1 provides a general overview of the study by providing the stance and positionality of the author, setting the scene for the thesis and a section devoted to providing a brief description of the research problem statement, research questions, 19 methodology, and conceptual framework guiding the study. The section further provides an outline of the research and the definition of key terms used in the study. Chapter 2: Literature review The purpose of this chapter is to situate university-community partnerships for climate change within scholarly discussions by presenting literature on the roles of universities in university-community partnerships, climate change adaptation, and sustainable development. The chapter examines the origins and development of the roles of universities in climate change adaptation, tracing the historical trajectory both globally and specifically in Africa and Malawi. The chapter identifies gaps in the literature, which reinforces the importance of university-community partnerships in providing opportunities for local communities involved in climate adaptation initiatives. Chapter 3: Conceptual framework In the third chapter, I further delve into applying the human development approach as the conceptual framework for this study. The chapter begins by exploring alternative frameworks that could be applied to analyse the research and highlights their limitations, ultimately positioning human development as the most suitable choice. In this chapter, I present arguments in favour of the human development approach as an ideal method for comprehensively examining university-community partnerships for climate change adaptation in Malawi. Additionally, the chapter delves into a discussion of the fundamental principles of human development and their application within the study. Chapter 4: Research design and methodology Chapter 4 thoroughly explains the research design and methodology employed in this qualitative study, offering justification for my choices. This includes defining the study area, outlining participant selection criteria, describing data collection methods, specifying data analysis procedures, and discussing ethical considerations. The chapter also delineates how data was collected and analysed in detail. 20 Chapter 5: Motivations for and successes of existing climate adaptation partnerships in Malawi This empirical chapter serves as a basis for comprehending the motivations of universities and communities for their engagement in adaptation partnerships. It provides insights into the potential opportunities in these partnerships to enhance adaptation initiatives. The chapter presents four themes derived from data analysis: a sense of fulfilling civic responsibility to address emerging societal challenges, enhancing students' preparedness, knowledge creation and scholarly recognition, and financial rewards. Additionally, the chapter discusses four themes related to potential opportunities: enabling environment, valuable resources, funding opportunities, and social capital and networks. The empirical data presented in this chapter is primarily drawn from interviews with lecturers and support staff, policymakers, third-year students, and community participants. Chapter 6: Key issues to be prioritised in the university-community partnerships Chapter 6 presents the perspectives of policymakers, experts, and community members on the critical concerns that should be given priority in university-community partnerships for climate change adaptation. The data analysis revealed three key themes. Firstly, establishing and sustaining relationships was emphasised as crucial, attributed to its role in clarifying and managing expectations and fostering mutual respect. Secondly, organisational processes and competencies were identified as priority issues, with participants highlighting the need to formalise structures at all levels, conduct ongoing capacity analysis, map assets, and develop a clear exit plan. Thirdly, community engagement and education emerged as another key priority. Participants stressed the importance of active community participation, climate awareness, skills enhancement, prioritising community-based adaptation interests, and recognising traditional knowledge as the foundation of adaptation interventions. Chapter 7: The contribution of partnerships to community well-being: Insights from the university and communities Chapter 7 answers the thesis on how current university-community partnerships contribute to community well-being. The chapter groups the contributions into two broad categories: (1) Structural support, which includes strengthening established local 21 government structures, enhancing social cohesion, and reigniting community interest; and (2) service provision contributions, which involve providing multiple adaptation options, establishing alternative pathways to agricultural extension services, offering economic livelihood opportunities, fostering coordination, and reigniting community interest in climate adaptation initiatives. Chapter 8: Centring human development in university-community partnerships for climate adaptation in Malawi Chapter 8 presents a framework for what a university-community partnership modelled on human development principles would look like. It serves as the theorisation chapter of the thesis, consolidating the findings from the three empirical chapters (Chapters 5, 6, and 7) and the theoretical framework (Chapter 3). The chapter proposes a human development-centred framework consisting of four components: equitable relationships, inclusive decision-making, optimal resource utilisation, and sustainable community well- being. Chapter 9: Summary, reflections and conclusions The concluding chapter provides a comprehensive summary of the various elements within the thesis and encapsulates the primary research findings about the research queries. Additionally, this chapter delves into the thesis's contribution to existing knowledge, acknowledges its constraints, and identifies potential directions for future research. Furthermore, it outlines policy and practical suggestions to enhance university- community partnerships’ impact on community well-being in Malawi. 1.9 Summary This introductory chapter has established the groundwork for this investigation by delineating the specific research problem, providing an overview of the research context, introducing the chosen research methodology, and offering a glimpse of the forthcoming chapters. This chapter has elucidated that the study examines university-community partnerships for climate change adaptation in Malawi, framed within the human development framework. The next chapter (Chapter 2) contains a comprehensive review of the pertinent literature, encompassing the roles of universities in addressing climate change, their contributions to SDGs, and their involvement in university-community 22 partnerships. Nevertheless, before delving into these chapters, it is imperative to provide precise definitions of key terms and concepts that will recurrently surface throughout this thesis. 1.10 Defining key terms and concepts 1.10.1 University-community partnerships Refers to a collaborative relationship established between universities and surrounding communities to conduct joint research to generate knowledge that can be utilised for community development and empowerment (Drahota et al., 2016). While several approaches and strategies for implementing university-community engagement partnerships exist, university-community partnerships in this study are conceptualised in terms of internships, academic service projects, applied research, organisation and community capacity building, and collaborations through grants. 1.10.2 Climate change adaptation This means that individuals and systems can adapt their actions in response to climate changes. When they make these adjustments to align with the current climate conditions, there are various changes in behavior, practices, structures, and processes (IPCC, 2007) 1.10.3 Well-being Well-being is the ultimate end of development. It is about how an individual can function – or what they can achieve in being and doing (Boni & Walker, 2016). It is reaching the desired standard of living, an achieved outcome of development. 1.10.4 Bounded agency Bounded agency refers to the intricate relationship between an individual’s motivation and the social and territorial structures surrounding them when participating in learning activities (Evans, 2007). 1.10.5 Human development The human development paradigm was developed to counter traditional economic-based approaches that mainly view wellbeing in terms of economic progression. In developing this paradigm, ul Haq (2003) championed the view that development must be "people- 23 centred" and focus on expanding the richness of human life aside from the richness of the economy (Stewart, 2019; Ul Haq, 2003). The first Human Development Report in 1990 defines human development as ‘both the process of widening people’s choices and the level of their achieved wellbeing’ (United Nations Development Program, 1990: 9). 24 Chapter 2 : Literature review 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents a comprehensive review of the literature relevant to the thesis, organised into four main sections. The first section provides a general overview of climate change and emphasises the importance of developing countries’ engagement with this issue. The second section focuses on the role of universities in climate change adaptation, while the third section explores the relationship between universities, climate change, and sustainable development. Specifically, this section highlights the interconnection between climate change and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and discusses universities' role in achieving the SDGs. The fourth section examines the role of universities in university-community partnerships, emphasising the need to explore such partnerships in Malawi from a human development perspective. Finally, the chapter concludes by summarising the key findings. 2.2 Overview of climate change discourses 2.2.1 Understanding climate change Amid a number of definitions of climate change, three main ones have been identified. The first defines climate change as an increase in temperatures linked to industrial activities and the greenhouse effect (Henderson et al., 2017); Anderson (2012) and Dyer and Andrews (2011). This definition implies that Industrial activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, release greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat from the sun, leading to a warming of the Earth's surface and changes in climate patterns. The second body of literature defines climate change in terms of statistical properties of the climate system observed over a long period, regardless of the cause (Houghton, 2001). Houghton’s definition aligns climate change with long-term scientific observation of the physical nature of the earth's system. However, it does not focus on the specific causes of the changes observed but rather on the changes themselves. The statistical properties of the climate system that are analysed may include temperature, precipitation, sea level, and other variables that are indicative of climate patterns. By analysing these 25 statistical properties, scientists can identify trends and patterns in the climate system that may indicate a changing climate. This definition is important because it allows scientists to track and understand changes in the climate system over time, which can inform policy decisions and help mitigate the impacts of climate change. The third body of literature defines climate change as changes in the earth’s climate attributable to human beings in the contemporary era, involving an overall increase in temperatures and other environmental effects (McCowan 2020; Berners-Lee (2019). This definition, specifically of humanity being the driving agent of changes in the earth’s climate system, is in line with the official definition by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC’s) conceptualisation of climate change. Both IPCC and UNFCCC bring to the fold humanity as the main driver of climate change aside from natural forces. The IPCC defines climate change as a change in the state of the climate that can be identified by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties that persist for an extended period, typically decades or longer, and this can be any change, whether natural change or as a result of human activity. The UNFCCC defines climate change as the change in the climate system which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activities that alter the composition of the global atmosphere and which are in addition to natural climate variability observed over the comparable period. One of the gaps in understanding climate change is that it has always been understood from a natural science perspective. This shows that previously, climate change was often perceived as a natural uncontrollable phenomenon. However, the science-centred understanding of climate change fails to embrace the thinking that humanity is at the centre of changes in our climate system. According to Murshed et al. (2022), human activities are currently considered the primary cause of climate change. This thinking explains why some (Leal Filho et al., 2021; Leichenko and O’Brien, 2020; Hindley and Wall, 2018) point out critically that climate understanding is largely viewed from a narrow perspective, with scientific literacy focusing mostly on the physical processes, rising emissions, and scientific evidence of global natural changes. The authors further argue that it is not surprising that climate education is less people-centred and follows the 26 business-as-usual pattern where interventions such as reducing emissions are prioritised (Hindley & Wall, 2018). As a result, people are denied space to recognise and acknowledge the issue's social, psychological, and emotional dimensions and often fail to see openings, capabilities, and entry points for active engagement on the subject (Leichenko & O’Brien, 2020). It is for this reason that this study adopts a human development perspective of climate change because of its expansive view of recognising that humans are at the centre of the changes in our climate system. Thus, by understanding the social, psychological, and emotional dimensions of climate change, people can better recognise the need for action and identify opportunities for engagement. 2.2.2 The current state of climate change The IPCC Assessment Report 6 (AR6) Synthesis Report, released in March 2023, confirms that human activities, particularly causing GHG emissions, have caused global warming, resulting in a rise of the global surface temperature to 1.1°C above 1850–1900 during 2011–2020. The report warns that if GHG emissions continue, global warming will increase, with the best estimate being a rise of 1.5°C in the near term, according to considered scenarios and modelled pathways. This highlights the urgent need for climate adaptation and mitigation measures, particularly in countries with weaker adaptation systems. UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres emphasised that the then upcoming United Nations Climate Change Conference in Glasgow (COP26) provided an opportunity for member countries to commit to achieving net zero emissions by 2050. He also stressed the importance of reinforcing climate financing to developing countries to support local communities, build resilience, and adapt to climate threats. While progress has been made in adaptation planning and implementation across all sectors and regions, the report notes that adaptation gaps still exist and will continue to grow if current rates of implementation are maintained. Given the urgency of the situation, universities have potentially a vital role to play in supporting climate response through their functions of teaching, research and community engagement. 2.2.3 Why developing countries must care about climate change Developing countries report greater economic vulnerability due to heavy reliance on natural resources for economic gains and a weak capacity to adapt to the impacts of 27 climate change (IPCC, 2014). For most developing countries, climate variations in temperature and rainfall patterns, water supply and quality present dire consequences for food production, which accounts for the main livelihood source for developing countries (IPCC, 2021). South Asia for instance, is highly vulnerable to climate shocks due to high levels of poverty, weak governance systems and susceptibility to weather extremes (Leah Filho et al., 2019). Equally, Davis et al. (2019) reported that India has had a fair share of climate shocks due to rising temperatures, affecting agricultural yields. Beyond the direct impacts of climate change on the economy, climate change impacts also lead to unemployment, food insecurity and the skyrocketing prices of commodities (IPCC, 2014). The African continent is regarded as one most vulnerable to the impact of climate change (Anderson, 2012; Bie et al., 2008). According to the latest decadal predictions covering 2020 to 2024, Africa is expected to experience ongoing warming and a decrease in rainfall, particularly in North and Southern Africa, while the Sahel region may see an increase in rainfall (IPCC, 2021). Furthermore, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report indicates that areas of Africa are projected to exceed a 2°C warming above pre-industrial levels by the last two decades of this century under medium scenarios. Additionally, the report suggests a likely reduction in precipitation over North Africa and the southwestern parts of South Africa by the end of the century. The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Risk Reduction (2018) (ISDR) further reports that drought will continue to be a primary concern for many African populations. The frequency of weather-