The Journey of a Versatile Singer: 

An Autoethnographic Study of Preparing and Performing 
Five Different Vocal Genres and Styles 

 

Albertus Engelbrecht 

 

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the partial requirements for the degree of Doctor of 

Philosophy in Music at the Odeion School of Music in the Faculty of Humanities at the 

University of the Free State  

 

 

Submission date: 

November 2022 

 

 

 

 

Supervisor: 

Dr Matildie Wium 

 



   

 

ii 

 

Declaration 

I, Albertus Engelbrecht, declare that the thesis that I herewith submit for the Degree of 
Philosophy in Music at the University of the Free State, is my own independent work and 
I have not previously submitted it for a qualification at another institution of higher 
education. 
 
The ownership of all intellectual property pertaining to and/or flowing from the thesis 
(including, without limitation, all copyright in the thesis), shall vest in the University, unless 
an agreement to the contrary is reached between the University and the student in 
accordance with such procedures or intellectual property policy as the Council of the 
University may approve from time to time. 
 

 

_________________ 

Albertus Engelbrecht 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



   

 

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Acknowledgements 

Quite a number of people accompanied, inspired and motivated me on my journey 

towards the accomplishment of this Ph.D. project. It would be too substantial a list to 

name them all here, and I apologise to those not mentioned – you know who you are and 

that I value all of your efforts.  

I start by thanking my supervisor, Matildie Wium, for her continuous engagement of my 

undertaking and her expert guidance in writing this thesis. I am forever grateful to my 

practical supervisors, accompanists and the Head of Department of the Odeion School 

of Music, who walked the path of performing the five examination concerts with me – 

thank you, Jan Beukes, Anneke Lamont, Christine Crouse, Alex Fokkens and Magdalena 

Oosthuizen. A special word of gratitude must go to Kobie van Rensburg and the UMCULO 

incubator project for enabling me to be part of the production, Passion, in Soweto. Singing 

the Evangelist in this production was a wonderfully informative experience which also had 

an immense impact on my view of the performance of Western art music in South Africa. 

I am also indebted to Jacobus Kloppers and Hendrik Hofmeyr, who shared their 

knowledge of performing their music with me. Finally, I would like to thank members of 

my immediate family and my dear friends, without whom this journey would have been a 

desolate one – thank you Johannette Conradie, Annaria Engelbrecht, Cornie and Sarah 

Groenewald, Hermann Girlinger, Desmond Haman, Gé and Vanessa Voges, Erna and 

Willem van Deventer, Annie Senekal and Frelét de Villiers. 

 



   

 

iv 

 

Abstract 

This project is an autoethnographic study aimed at developing the vocal–technical 

versatility required to perform various Western art music styles and genres appropriately 

while maintaining a singer’s vocal health. Vocal quality is mainly dependent on glottal 

closure (also known as glottal adduction), which can be categorised into firm and loose 

glottal adduction. Vocal registration is strongly interrelated with glottal adduction: simply 

put, firm glottal adduction corresponds to heavy registration and loose glottal adduction 

to light registration. Furthermore, vocal registration influences the vertical laryngeal 

position and subglottal pressure and its varying degrees ideally relate directly to different 

approaches to styles and genres. I came to realise during my professional career that 

different vocal registrations are appropriate to different vocal styles of Western art music. 

These considerations led me to my research question: How might a singer develop the 

vocal–technical versatility needed to meet the demands of performing diverse vocal 

genres and styles? 

The existing scholarly literature does not provide singers with concrete advice regarding 

vocal–technical adjustment for singing across all the major vocal styles and genres of 

Western art music while at the same time maintaining vocal versatility. Consequently, my 

goal with this project was to generate these answers through praxis and making explicit 

the tacit knowledge embedded in my five examination performances, namely: (1) Bach 

oratorio; (2) verismo opera; (3) Viennese operetta; (4) 19th-century Lied; and (5) 20th- 

and 21st-century art song. This project resides in the field of artistic or practice-based 

research in which I, the performer, became the researcher and used my practical 



   

 

v 

 

experience as a research tool. In order to describe the personal sensory experiences of 

my singing, I decided to follow an autoethnographic approach within the paradigm of 

practice-based research. Central to this investigation was the documentation of the 

physical processes at play during the preparation period; in producing this documentation, 

I aimed at describing, in written form, the tacit knowledge of the ways I adapted vocal–

technically to the different styles and genres. The data were collected in three ways: (1) 

by keeping a journal and/or using annotations of my preparation process; (2) informal 

recordings of my rehearsal period; and (3) video recordings of the actual performances. 

Critical self-reflection constituted the basis of the data analysis, a process that was 

conducted as follows: close listening to the examination video recordings in which I 

analysed the outcomes of my preparation period and compared my findings of the 

examinations with those of the examiners by consulting their reports. My enquiry revealed 

that I was able to develop vocal–technical versatility across the five vocal styles and 

genres by focusing consciously on the appropriate configuration of heavy and light 

registration. The use of voix mixte played a significant role in the colouration of the voice, 

which necessitates using light registration (regardless of whether the relevant 

performance situation gravitates more towards mainstream or historically informed 

performance). I conclude that my findings suggest that it is possible for singers to adjust 

their vocal technique convincingly to interpret the different performance practices and 

styles applicable to the genres which are discussed in this thesis.  



   

 

vi 

 

Key terms: performance practice, vocal registration, vocal technique, HIP, 

autoethnography, practice-based research, modern singing technique, oratorio, art song, 

verismo opera, operetta 

  



   

 

vii 

 

 

Table of Contents 

Declaration .......................................................................................................................ii 

Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... iii 

Abstract ...........................................................................................................................iv 

Table of Contents ........................................................................................................... vii 

Chapter 1: Introduction .................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Rationale and background ..................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Research problem and objectives ......................................................................... 5 

1.3 Research methodology and design ....................................................................... 6 

1.4 Ethical considerations .......................................................................................... 10 

1.5 Value ................................................................................................................... 11 

Chapter 2: Literature review .......................................................................................... 12 

2.1 Performance practice and style: definitions and debates..................................... 15 

2.1.1 Definitions  ............................................................ 15 

2.1.2 HIP vs the ‘Mainstream’  ............................................................ 18 

2.1.3 HIP vs MSP: singers’ perspectives  ............................................................ 23 

2.2 Vocal–technical versatility .................................................................................... 32 

2.2.1 Professional singers’ perspectives  ............................................................ 32 

2.2.2 Implications for technique  ............................................................ 37 



   

 

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2.2.3 Practical implementation of a pragmatic and aesthetic choice: Contribution of 

the present project  ............................................................ 53 

Chapter 3: Methodology ................................................................................................ 56 

3.1 Artistic research and practice-based research ..................................................... 57 

3.2. Autoethnography ................................................................................................ 61 

3.3 Studies in autoethnography and practice-based research in music performance 65 

3.4 Data collection and methods ............................................................................... 70 

3.4.1 Studying the score and consulting secondary sources ................................. 71 

3.4.2 Physical process  ............................................................ 72 

3.4.3 Rehearsals with the accompanist or orchestra .............................................. 74 

3.4.4 Analysing examination recording and critical self-reflection on reports ......... 79 

3.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 82 

Chapter 4: Bach Oratorio: St. John Passion (J.S. Bach, 1685–1750); Soweto, 

Meadowlands Seventh-day Adventist Church, 27 May 2018 ........................................ 84 

4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 84 

4.2 Bach oratorio performance practice ..................................................................... 85 

4.3.1 Physical process (masterclass)  ............................................................ 92 

4.3.2 Stage and orchestra-stage rehearsals ........................................................ 101 

4.4 Analysing examination recording and critical self-reflection on reports.............. 117 

4.4.1 Examination recording  .......................................................... 117 



   

 

ix 

 

4.4.2 Examination reports  .......................................................... 123 

4.5 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 126 

Chapter 5: Verismo Opera: Cavalleria Rusticana (Pietro Mascagni, 1863–1945); 

Bloemfontein, Civic Theatre, 16 July 2017 .................................................................. 130 

5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 130 

5.2 Preparation process........................................................................................... 134 

5.2.1 Studying the score  .......................................................... 134 

5.2.2 Physical process  .......................................................... 136 

5.2.3 Rehearsals with the orchestra  .......................................................... 144 

5.3 Analysing examination recording and critical self-reflection on reports.............. 150 

5.3.1 Examination recording  .......................................................... 150 

5.3.2 Examination reports  .......................................................... 155 

5.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 157 

Chapter Six: Viennese Operetta: The Merry Widow (Franz Lehár, 1870–1948); 

Bloemfontein, Civic Theatre, 3 August 2018 ............................................................... 161 

6.1. Introduction ....................................................................................................... 161 

6.2 Preparation process........................................................................................... 167 

6.2.1 Studying the score  .......................................................... 167 

6.2.2 Physical process and stage rehearsals/orchestra-stage rehearsals ........... 170 

6.3 Analysing examination recording and critical self-reflection on reports.............. 182 



   

 

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6.3.1 Examination recording  .......................................................... 182 

6.3.2 Examination reports  .......................................................... 187 

6.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 190 

Chapter Seven: 19th-century Lied: Winterreise D911 (Franz Schubert, 1797–1828); 

Bloemfontein, Odeion Hall, 16 July 2019 .................................................................... 193 

7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 193 

7.2. Preparation process.......................................................................................... 199 

7.2.1 Studying the score  .......................................................... 199 

7.2.2 Physical process and early rehearsals with my accompanist ...................... 203 

7.2.3 Final rehearsals in the hall with accompanist .............................................. 214 

7.3 Analysing examination recording and critical self-reflection on reports.............. 221 

7.3.1 Examination recording  .......................................................... 221 

7.3.2 Examination reports  .......................................................... 227 

7.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 233 

Chapter Eight: 20th- and 21st-century Art Song: Five Invocations for Tenor and Piano 

Op.12 (Hubert du Plessis, 1922–2011), Alleenstryd (Hendrik Hofmeyr,  1957–), 

Celebration of Faith: A Hymn-based Song Cycle for Tenor and Organ (Jacobus Kloppers, 

1937–); Bloemfontein, Odeion Hall, 27 November 2021 ............................................. 237 

8.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 237 

8.2 Preparation process........................................................................................... 245 



   

 

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8.2.1 Studying the score  .......................................................... 245 

8.2.2 Physical process  .......................................................... 248 

8.2.3 Final rehearsals with accompanists  .......................................................... 273 

8.3 Analysing the examination recording and critical self-reflection on reports ........ 274 

8.3.1 Examination recording  .......................................................... 274 

8.3.2 Examination reports  .......................................................... 280 

8.4 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 283 

Chapter Nine: Conclusion ........................................................................................... 287 

9.1 Vocal registration ............................................................................................... 288 

9.2 Performance practice and vocal style ................................................................ 290 

9.2.1 Bach Oratorio: St. John Passion (J.S. Bach, 1685–1750); Soweto, 

Meadowlands Seventh-day Adventist Church, 27 May 2018 ............................... 290 

9.2.2 Verismo opera: Cavalleria Rusticana (Pietro Mascagni, 1863–1945); 

Bloemfontein, Civic Theatre, 16 July 2017  .......................................................... 293 

9.2.3 Viennese operetta: The Merry Widow (Franz Lehár, 1870–1948); Bloemfontein, 

Civic Theatre, 3 August 2018  .......................................................... 294 

9.2.4 19th-century Lied: Winterreise D911 (Franz Schubert, 1797–1828); 

Bloemfontein, Odeion Hall, 16 July 2019  .......................................................... 297 

9.2.5 20th- and 21st-century Art Song: Five Invocations for Tenor and Piano Op. 12 

(Hubert du Plessis, 1922–2011), Alleenstryd (Hendrik Hofmeyr, 1957–), Celebration 



   

 

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of Faith: A Hymn-based Song Cycle for Tenor and Organ (Jacobus Kloppers, 1937–

); Bloemfontein, Odeion Hall, 27 November 2021 ................................................ 300 

9.3 Meta-reflection ................................................................................................... 302 

9.4 Recommendations for further research and pedagogy ...................................... 306 

Bibliography ................................................................................................................ 310 

 



   

 

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Chapter 1: Introduction 

 

1.1 Rationale and background 

My journey as a professional classical singer began in Germany 22 years ago at the 

age of 25 as a young lyric tenor performing mostly oratorio, Baroque opera and Mozart 

roles. Furthermore, I had always had a passion for the romantic German Lied and I 

tried to sing as many Lieder concerts as possible. At first, I was engaged in an opera 

chorus with solo obligations. However, after a while the solo obligations and the 

additional oratorio and Lied concerts became overwhelming, in addition to the chorus 

workload of the opera house. I therefore decided to audition for a permanent solo 

engagement at an opera house. As a South African citizen, I needed a permanent 

working contract to qualify for residency and to earn a steady income.  

During my audition period and conversations with stage agents, it became apparent 

that I could not specialise only in Baroque music (opera or oratorio) or in Mozart tenor 

roles if I wanted to obtain a permanent solo contract: I was compelled to broaden my 

horizons of the vocal repertoire. The reason for this was that the opera landscape in 

Germany changed significantly during the first two decades of the 2000s, in the sense 

that theatres needed to save money as a result of reduced government funding. For 

this reason, singers who were to be appointed to the permanent ensemble of an opera 

company had preferably to cover a large spectrum of different repertoires, that is, be 

versatile performers. I observed that this was especially the case in middle- to small-

category opera houses, where most young singers would start their career singing 

Baroque to Romantic opera in addition to operetta and/or musical theatre roles. This 

implied that, first, I had to find Romantic opera roles to sing and, secondly, that I was 



   

 

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required by my managing agent also to sing operetta and musical theatre roles. Being 

a young singer at that time, I thought that this versatility – that is, singing different 

genres and Fächer – would ruin my voice.1 However, I needed the contract at an opera 

house and I commenced my first season with caution and maintained good vocal 

health. 

I managed to retain my solo contract, which was renewed annually. In the fourth 

season as permanent solo ensemble member, I found myself singing a Liederabend, 

a Monteverdi leading role (Ulisse in Il Ritorno d'UIlisse in Patria), a leading role in an 

operetta (Danilo in The Merry Widow) and a leading role in a Rossini opera (Ramiro 

in La Cenerentola). During that season, I came to reflect on the remarkable diversity 

of the repertoire that I had sung in a mere ten months and also on the immense vocal 

challenges one faces in shifting between these distinctive styles of singing. I will never 

forget what a quantum leap it was to sing Ramiro (with his constant high B4’s and 

C4’s) the one evening after having rehearsed Ulisse (with a tessitura almost an octave 

lower than that of Ramiro) for a whole week.2 Singing those first three tones that night 

was frightening in the sense of not knowing ‘where my voice was’. That performance 

of La Cenerentola taught me the lesson of a lifetime: I had to adjust my vocal technique 

to meet the demands of the musical style and genre I was singing at the moment. I 

simply could not sing Rossini the way I would sing Monteverdi, or even Schumann’s 

 
1 Fächer is the plural of the German word Fach, the term for ‘voice-category’. German-speaking opera 

houses in particular ‘have systematically distinguished between the various types of singing voice 
and have stipulated which opera roles are suitable for each of them. The main categories (soprano, 
contralto, tenor, baritone, bass) each have their own subdivisions’ (Steane 2002). Such subdivisions 
of the tenor voice, for example, are Spieltenor (lyric comic tenor) Lyrischer Tenor (lyric tenor), 
Jugendlicher Heldentenor/tenore spinto (lyric dramatic tenor) and Heldentenor (heroic tenor). 

2 The naming of octaves in this thesis is presented according to the Scientific Pitch Notation, where 
middle C is the beginning of the octave. In this system, C4 is middle C (C3 is an octave lower than 
middle C, for example). 



   

 

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Dichterliebe. These kinds of situation would repeat themselves only in the years to 

come – there were oratorio performances, the annual operetta production and opera 

productions that ranged from Baroque to Romantic opera. 

In addition, I was introduced to historically informed performance practice (hereafter 

HIP) of Baroque opera when I collaborated in several productions with conductor 

Wolfgang Katschner and director/singer Kobie van Rensburg. The style of singing in 

these productions differed from the ‘modern’ singing technique I was used to3 and 

contrasted with the historically informed style preferred by Katschner and Van 

Rensburg. The main difference for me resided in the kind of glottal adduction which 

affected subglottal pressure and the vertical position of the larynx. I felt that glottal 

adduction was looser and felt lighter when singing Baroque music according to HIP, 

especially the manner in which I approached the ascending scale in the upper range 

of the voice. This looser glottal adduction resulted in lower subglottal pressure levels 

and a relatively neutral position of the larynx. Conversely, glottal adduction felt firmer 

with higher subglottal pressure levels and a lower position of the larynx when I sang, 

for instance, Romantic opera with the ‘modern’ singing technique. I concluded that firm 

and loose glottal adduction correlate with what I would call heavy and light registration, 

respectively. I realised that, to maintain good vocal health, I had to adjust consciously 

the vocal registration for different styles and genres according to the performance 

practice of a production. 

I returned to South Africa in 2016, where I now hold a position as lecturer in vocal 

studies at the University of the Free State (UFS) and still maintain a performing career 

 
3 I shall elucidate on this term below in section 2.1.3. 



   

 

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as lyric tenor in all the vocal style periods and genres of Western art music. When I 

decided to enrol for this Ph.D. study, I was at a point where I could look back upon my 

career and I realised that the practical experience I had gained constituted valuable 

knowledge about the profession: I had acquired significant skills for coping with 

different styles or genres of singing, so that I am still in good vocal health today. The 

‘integrated Ph.D.’ at the UFS, designed for performing artists, requires a practical 

component of five examination performances, which should culminate in a thesis. I felt 

the need to refine and articulate in written form this practical knowledge and the vocal–

technical skills which lay hidden in my bodily experiences and physical processes 

when singing in different styles and genres.  

As I discuss more extensively in Chapter 2, the scholarly literature that describes vocal 

style and performance practice and which may serve as guidelines to the singer can 

be found in the volumes by Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau (1985), John Potter (1998, 2000), 

James Stark (1999), Martha Elliot (2006), René Jacobs and Silke Leopold (2015), and 

Thomas Seedorf (2019). Studies that situate the ‘modern’ singing technique against 

historically informed singing and underline the shift in vocal technique around the 

1830s are represented in Potter’s Vocal Authority: Singing Style and Ideology (1998), 

Stark’s Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy (1999), Richard Wistreich’s chapter in 

The Cambridge Companion to Singing (2000) and Jacobs and Leopold’s René Jacobs 

im Gespräch mit Silke Leopold: Ich Will Musik Neu Erzählen (2015). The literature that 

focuses more on vocal performance practice and simultaneously advocates vocal–

technical versatility includes Fischer-Dieskau’s Töne Sprechen, Wörter Klingen 

(1985), Elliot’s Singing in Style: A Guide to Vocal Performance Practices (2006) and 



   

 

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Seedorf’s more recent and comprehensive textbook, Handbuch Aufführungspraxis 

Sologesang (2019). 

Very few scholars have compared vocal genres and styles with each other in Western 

art music and simultaneously discussed vocal production, that is, the different vocal 

approaches that these genres and styles might demand. To my knowledge, this kind 

of research has been conducted only in the field of Contemporary Commercial Music 

(CCM), where the CCM styles are also compared to vocal production in classical 

singing to some extent.4 I therefore concluded that the existing scholarly literature 

does not provide singers with concrete advice regarding the vocal–technical 

adjustment needed to sing across all the major vocal styles and genres of Western art 

music and at the same time still to maintain vocal versatility. Consequently, in this 

project, my goal was to generate these answers through praxis and to make explicit 

the tacit knowledge embedded in my five examination performances. 

1.2 Research problem and objectives 

The considerations I have outlined in the previous section led me to formulate the 

research question of this thesis as follows: ‘How might a singer develop the vocal–

technical versatility to meet the demands of performing diverse vocal genres and 

styles?’ In my research project, I attempted to enquire about ways of developing 

vocal–technical skills so as to differentiate between different styles, periods and 

genres – avoiding the production of only one kind of sound production for all styles 

and genres, and simultaneously maintaining vocal longevity. Furthermore, the 

research question suggests that singers should acquire specific knowledge regarding 

 
4 The most comprehensive publication is Rachel L. Lebon’s The Versatile Vocalist: Singing 

Authentically in Contrasting Styles and Idioms (2006). 



   

 

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different vocal style periods and genres and therefore the discipline of performance 

practice was incorporated into my project. This study investigated exclusively the 

performance of different styles and genres of Western art music and did not include 

the so-called vernacular vocal styles of CCM. 

My main objective in this research was to describe the artistic process at play when 

preparing for five different performances: those of (1) Bach oratorio; (2) verismo opera; 

(3) Viennese operetta; (4) 19th-century Lied; and (5) 20th- and 21st-century art song.  

1.3 Research methodology and design 

As I shall describe at greater length in Chapter 3, this project resides in the field of 

artistic research. My preparation process leading to the five performances constituted 

my research, and in this thesis I documented the original knowledge (vocal–technical 

adjustment required to achieve versatility across different styles) which I have obtained 

in this process. I, the performer, also became the researcher in the sense that I used 

my practical experience as a ‘research tool’. This practical experience of performing 

music translates into knowledge of how to do something, which is also described as 

procedural knowledge that forms an important foundation of artistic research. This 

procedural knowledge is generated through artistic practice and can contribute 

significantly to research in the academic system (Borgdorff 2012:124; Stolp 2021:96). 

Artistic research is often referred to as practice-based research (Borgdorff 2012:39). 

When practice-based research is conducted in the discipline of music, ‘musical 

practice is an integral part of the research’ and the outcomes (performances or 

compositions) are subject to academic discourse for the purpose of contextualisation 

(Borgdorff & Schuijer 2015:16). I chose to use the term ‘practice-based research’ 

because, in my own study, practice formed part of the research project and results – 



   

 

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generating new vocal–technical knowledge through my practice, which was then 

documented in my thesis. 

In order to describe the personal, sensory experiences of my singing, I decided to 

follow an autoethnographic approach within the paradigm of practice-based research. 

Steven Pace (2012:2) describes autoethnography as ‘a qualitative research method 

that combines characteristics of ethnography and autobiography’. He states that an 

autoethnographic study ‘commonly takes on the form of an evocative narrative written 

in the first-person style such as a short story or novel’ and explains that it has become 

popular in the creative and performing arts because it allows writers, artists, 

performers and others ‘to critically reflect upon their personal creative experiences’ 

(Pace 2012:2). As an alternative to this often quite emotional style of autoethnography, 

Leon Anderson (2006:388) introduced analytical autoethnography; this is 

characterised by its ‘value-added quality of not only truthfully rendering the social world 

under investigation but also transcending that world through broader generalization’. 

Similarly, Mitch Allen (in Ellis et al. 2011) argues that autoethnographers need to be 

able to analyse their personal experiences and position them against existing 

knowledge so as to clarify the contribution of their research.  

My study as a performing artist rested upon the practical element of performing; the 

new knowledge was developed through my study and documentation of the process 

leading up to my own performances, my contextualisation of this new knowledge within 

existing research and, ultimately, my critical self-reflection on the process, so that my 

autoethnographic study draws on Anderson’s and Allen’s contributions.  



   

 

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Numerous publications of practice-based research in the arts and performing arts 

already exist, but only a few are written by singers with an autoethnographic approach. 

Conductors Brydie-Leigh Bartleet (2009) and Malcolm Brooks (2013) and singer 

Miroslav Manovski (2014) describe the process of becoming professional musicians 

and teachers over a long period of time and their studies are examples of evocative 

autoethnography. Singers Päivi Järviö (2006), Elizabeth Belgrano (2011), Kathleen 

Baughman (2014), Jessica Aszodi (2016) and Barbara Gentili (2018) use their 

performance experience to enquire more about vocal performance practice. Aszodi 

(2016) combines practice-based research and autoethnography, which allows her 

embodied experience, or physical processes at play (when preparing and performing 

modern vocal music), to be examined and measured against theoretical sources and 

existing secondary literature. Gentili (2019) describes her professional experience as 

singer and analyses and interprets early 20th-century recordings to illuminate changes 

in vocal technique and performance around the turn of the 20th century. However, 

none of these researchers touches on the versatility of a singer, singing different 

genres and styles, that is, the autoethnographic methodology that has been applied to 

my research question has not been applied in the existing literature.  

Like the above-mentioned authors, I collected data from my own experience as I 

prepared and performed my examination recitals. This implies that I investigated how 

to maintain vocal health on my journey to vocal versatility with a performance–practice 

approach, and how vocal registration played a vocal–technical role in this process. 

Cardinal to this investigation was the documentation of the physical processes at play 

during the preparation period, in which I aimed to describe in writing the tacit 



   

 

9 

 

knowledge of the ways in which I adapted vocal–technically to the different styles and 

genres.  

The data were collected in three ways, namely: (1) by keeping a journal and/or the use 

of annotations of my preparation process; (2) informal recordings of my rehearsal 

period; and (3) video recordings of the actual performances. Critical self-reflection 

constituted the data analysis, and this process was conducted as follows: close 

listening to the examination video recordings in which I analysed the outcomes of my 

preparation and then comparing my findings of the examination with those of the 

examiners by consulting their reports. The original knowledge I would gain and 

produce through this process was attained through practice. Because I put onto paper 

what I had learned and had written my personal story in the first person, my research 

was therefore distilled in the format of an autoethnographic study within the paradigm 

of practice-based research. 

The present introduction will be followed by a literature review (Chapter 2) and a 

chapter describing the methodology in greater detail (Chapter 3). Chapters 4–8 

describe the five recitals in turn. In each of these chapters, I attempt to articulate the 

vocal–technical adaptations necessary for me to perform according to the stylistic 

demands of the given genre, and to reflect critically on the artistic outcomes of my 

efforts in order to evaluate the success of those vocal–technical adaptations (that is, 

to evaluate whether the vocal–technical adaptations enabled an aesthetically 

convincing interpretation of the music at hand). Chapter 9 offers a conclusion in the 

form of a summary of the insights derived from the five recitals, a meta-reflection on 

vocal versatility and recommendations for further research. 



   

 

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1.4 Ethical considerations 

In this autoethnographic study I was the only research participant and therefore my 

enquiry did not imply the same ethical considerations as in traditional ethnographic 

research, which typically focuses on writing about a group of other people. Writing 

about the self and personal experiences is a subjective process which potentially puts 

the researcher in a vulnerable position and opens the door to outside criticism. This 

vulnerability is exactly what I experienced when I had to write about my own vocal–

technical adjustments and how my text might have been perceived by others in my 

field. The biggest challenge was to apply a critical self-reflexion authentically to the 

outcomes of my examination performances, which were not always as positive as one 

would have hoped for. I often felt that my writing was too subjective in nature and that 

I risked exposing myself – as both artist and researcher – to criticism from experts in 

my profession and members of the academic sphere. However, I reached a point in 

the writing process where I became at peace with my findings, because I was able to 

contextualise them with existing scholarly literature in my field and with the 

perspectives of the practical examiners of my performances. This point I reached was 

crucial to ‘unveiling the vulnerable self that can free the mind of self-deception without 

self-deprecation’ (Hughes & Pennington 2018:22). Contextualising the knowledge I 

gathered from my personal experiences allowed me to draw generalised conclusions 

(about the possibilities of how to differentiate vocal–technically between the styles and 

genres discussed in this thesis). I found that the risks and psychological tensions that 

arose within myself while conducting this autoethnographic study were mitigated by 

the potential advantages this project could hold. These advantages are seated within 

the notion of sharing that tacit knowledge of vocal performance which singers do not 

always verbalise. 



   

 

11 

 

1.5 Value 

Through the process of critical self-reflection on the data gathered from my preparation 

and its implementation in the performances I was able to distil the vocal–technical 

knowledge I had developed through practice. The outcome of my enquiry would 

hopefully contribute new knowledge to singers, vocal teachers and coaches about how 

to approach vocal–technically different styles and genres and, furthermore, to inform 

singers about becoming versatile performers. 

 

  



   

 

12 

 

Chapter 2: Literature review 

 

My research question as formulated in Chapter 1 implies an enquiry into the 

development of different vocal–technical approaches on the part of a singer in order 

to meet the demands of performing diverse genres and styles. The crux of my project 

is, first, how to develop the vocal–technical means to differentiate between different 

genres and periods stylistically (i.e., the goal is to avoid an identical sound for all 

genres and period styles) and, second, simultaneously to maintain vocal health and 

longevity as a singer in the midst of pursuing these different vocal approaches. The 

research question also implies that a singer should possess specific knowledge of 

diverse vocal genres and styles; therefore, the discipline of historically informed 

performance practice (HIP) also has a bearing on my project. In this chapter I discuss 

the existing literature relevant to my study. In section 2.1 the focus is on performance 

practice in general, its definitions and its historical background. In section 2.1.2, my 

discussion covers the so-called authenticity debate and the importance of the 

performer’s choice between HIP and ‘mainstream’ performance (hereafter MSP). 

Section 2.1.3 considers HIP vs MSP performance from singer-scholars’ perspectives, 

with reference to their respective publications. In section 2.2, I focus on vocal–

technical versatility with reference to the perspectives of professional singers. Section 

2.2.2 highlights the technical implications of the differential approach to styles and 

genres. Section 2.2.3 deals with my own contribution to this study and the practical 

implementation of a pragmatic and aesthetic choice. 

The interest in performing and recording early music had already emerged in the mid-

20th century and was identified as the Early Music Movement in the 1970s. This 



   

 

13 

 

interest elicited a great amount of secondary literature on HIP. At first, scholars 

focused on music before 1750, but during the 1980s scholars extended their research 

to the Classical, Romantic and even 20th-century performance practice. General 

overviews of HIP are those of Howard Mayer Brown and Stanley Sadie (1989), 

probably the most extensive publication covering all historical periods (including the 

20th century), and Dieter Gutknecht (1994). To this list should be added the basic yet 

practical introduction to HIP by Colin Lawson and Robin Stowell (1999), and Clive 

Brown (1999) covering the Classical and Romantic periods. The ethos behind HIP and 

the early music debate during the last quarter of the 20th century is best represented 

by Richard Taruskin (1995), Peter Kivy (1995) and John Butt (2002). The performance 

style differences between HIP and MSP during the 20th and 21st centuries are 

represented by Dorottya Fabian (2003, 2015), who investigated the performance 

practice of J.S. Bach’s music.  

According to Fabian (2003), fewer studies of HIP in vocal music exist because vocal 

production was considered only later within the Early Music Movement. This becomes 

evident in the limited outputs devoted to voice in the general overviews mentioned 

above. A number of secondary sources include sections on vocal style elements and 

articulation and on the musical structure of a specific genre or period, including those 

by authorities such as Butt (1990, 1994, 2010) and Fabian (2003) on J.S. Bach. Will 

Crutchfield’s essays in Brown and Sadie (1989) contain some valuable insights into 

Classical and Romantic vocal performance practice and the development of a 

‘modern’ vocal technique. More detailed outputs on vocal style and the different 

perspectives of singers on HIP and MSP with reference to certain aspects of vocal 

technique are represented in Fischer-Dieskau (1985), Potter (1998, 2000), Wistreich 



   

 

14 

 

(2000), Elliot (2006), Jacobs and Leopold (2015), and Seedorf (2019). Among these 

sources, Fischer-Dieskau (1985) focuses more on style elements in the word–tone 

relationship rather than HIP. Potter, Wistreich, Jacobs and Leopold place their main 

emphasis on historically informed singing of Baroque music, whereas Elliot and 

Seedorf provide a more general discussion of both performance practice from a variety 

of periods and genres and the various possibilities of vocal performance. Unlike Elliot, 

Seedorf’s textbook incorporates the genre of opera performance, which makes his 

volume the most complete and up-to-date textbook on vocal performance practice. 

On the topic of the implications of HIP for vocal technique, Stark (1995; 1999) poses 

the notion of a word–note–tone relationship which should play an integral part in the 

analysis and assessment of vocal music and performance. Potter (1998) and Wistreich 

(2000) explored the vocal production of earlier style periods in what they call ‘pre-

Romantic’ vocal technique and applied their findings mainly to Medieval, Renaissance 

and Baroque vocal music. The dissertations of singers Sarah Potter (2014) and Gentili 

(2018) underline changes in vocal technique in conjunction with style changes during 

the 19th century and point out the differences between ‘modern’ singing technique and 

that which predates the mid-1800s. 

Very few scholars have compared vocal genres and styles with each other in Western 

art music and simultaneously discussed vocal production, that is, the different vocal 

approaches that these genres and styles might demand. To my knowledge, this kind 

of research has been conducted only in the field of Contemporary Commercial Music 

(CCM) and to an extent compared to the vocal production of classical singing.5 I could 

 
5 The most comprehensive publication being that of Rachel L Lebon (2006). 



   

 

15 

 

therefore identify a gap in the scholarly research according to an area of my enquiry, 

as stated earlier, namely, the maintenance of versatility across all major vocal styles 

and genres in Western art music. Moreover, I aim to provide a roadmap for singers to 

enable them to manoeuvre across different styles and genres and to investigate how 

this could be achieved vocal-technically. 

2.1 Performance practice and style: definitions and debates 

All professional performers of Western art music make certain informed choices when 

preparing a performance of a specific work, which choices then result in the musician’s 

personal interpretation of the work. Moreover, a performer ideally familiarises themself 

with the style of the music and how that style should be executed or performed. Here 

we are immediately dealing with two terms which are related to each other, but also 

signify matters of discourse, namely, style and performance practice. 

2.1.1 Definitions 

According to Grove Music Online,  

Style manifests itself in characteristic usages of form, texture, harmony, melody, 

rhythm and ethos; and it is presented by creative personalities, conditioned by 

historical, social and geographical factors, performing resources and conventions 

(Pascall 2001).  

Familiarisation with style goes beyond the musical text and language of the composer 

and it includes historical considerations. Since style is also related to the performance 

of music, it includes a knowledge of the performance practice and conventions of the 

past and present. Moreover, the versatile artist must be able to differentiate between 

the stylistic characteristics of various genres and style periods. An enquiry into 

performance practice can be complicated because it points to different concepts and 



   

 

16 

 

terminology that might be confusing with regard to what performance practice 

represents. According to Brown et al. (2001), performing practice entails ‘all aspects 

of the way in which music is and has been performed, and its study is of particular 

importance to the modern performer concerned with historically informed 

performance’. 

Gutknecht (1997) also reiterates the involvement of all aspects but adds that 

performance practice also aspires to achieve a reproduction of the musical text that 

conforms as closely as possible to the intentions of the composer, including external 

aspects such as instruments, events and space.6 

What transpires from the respective definitions is the link between early music and 

HIP. However, such definitions may lead to the misconception and presumption that 

performance practice equals early music and HIP. It is therefore important to 

understand how the terminology originated and the possible shifts in meaning. 

The concept of ‘early music’, Alte Musik or musique ancienne has its origins in the 

early 18th century in England, Prussia and France and continued into the 19th century. 

The main incentive was to revive and preserve music from the past (Haskell 2001). It 

is noteworthy that the prerogatives behind these endeavours were to perform early 

repertoires not according to their contemporary period style but ‘as a repository of 

living art that each generation could – indeed should – reinterpret in its own stylistic 

idiom’ (Haskell 2001). However, this concept began to change gradually at the end of 

 
6 The emphasis on the composer’s intentions today is arguably an outdated perspective and 

succinctly questioned by Taruskin (1995:98) who maintains that ‘composers do not usually have 
intentions such as we would like to ascertain’ and the ‘appeal to intentions is an evasion of the 
performer’s obligation to understand what he is performing’. 



   

 

17 

 

the 19th century with a growing interest in reconstructing the original instruments for 

performing the early repertoires according to the conventions of the style period. 

This change in concept was mainly initiated by instrument-builder and performer 

Arnold Dolmetsch, who is seen as one of the pioneers of the Early Music Movement 

(Haskell, 2001). At the same time, academics at universities, the so-called Collegia 

Musica, also concentrated on the study and performance of early repertoires.7 These 

initiatives resulted in the first surveys on Aufführungspraxis (performing practice) by 

Dolmetsch (1915), Robert Haas (1931) and Arnold Schering (1931). Gutknecht 

(1997:10) remarks that the title of Schering’s volume, Aufführungspraxis alter Musik 

(1931), clearly indicates the link and interrelation of the terms ‘performance practice’ 

and ‘early music’, and the ‘problematic nature’ of defining its chronological borders 

which Schering set between the medieval period and mid-18th century. The idea that 

music from different style periods could sound different if performed according to the 

conventions of their time gained new momentum immediately after World War II. 

However, Fabian (2003:2) elucidates that ‘the study of performance style still often 

remained restricted to research communities and written communications’ and even 

in the mid-1960s ‘it was not regarded as an indispensable and integral part of practical 

training’. Furthermore, the focus generally was on reviving early music repertoire 

(especially research regarding new notational editions and also forgotten 

compositions) and ‘only to a lesser extent was it concerned with historical performance 

styles or the details of historical information’ (Fabian 2003:3, 4).  

 
7 In the 1900s, Collegia Musica was the name given to groups of musicology students in Germany 

(Leipzig, Freiburg, Halle, Heidelberg, Jena and Marburg) who focused on ‘historical awareness’ with 
the intention of performing ‘Baroque instrumental music’ and ‘publishing that music’ (Platen & 
Fenlon 2001).  



   

 

18 

 

The shift in importance from repertoire towards performance practice became 

noticeable during the 1970s and simultaneously the term Early Music Movement came 

into general use to describe the group of performers and scholars supporting similar 

ideas. In England especially, this cultural phenomenon could be observed during 

period from the late-1960s until the 1980s. Musicologists and performers were seeking 

‘historical correctness’ (authenticity) based upon the Werktreue concept in the 

performance of music. The motif was to break with ‘tradition’, returning to the score 

and historical sources to close the gap between composition and performance. Almost 

a decade later, critical discussions on the theory of authenticity began to dominate the 

field of performance practice in the British-American literature (Fabian 2003:4, 5). 

Significant proponents of this critique included Laurence Dreyfus, Taruskin, Kivy and  

Butt, as is discussed in the following section. 

2.1.2 HIP vs the ‘Mainstream’ 

Although an in-depth discussion of the HIP debate would extend beyond the scope of 

this thesis, a number of key issues that emerged from the critique of ‘authenticity’ in 

HIP during the 1980s and 1990s are relevant to my argument. As I show below, these 

criticisms centred on the puritanical, prescriptive ethos of the Early Music Movement, 

encapsulated in the term ‘authenticity’ and the exploitation of this term for commercial 

purposes.  

Both Taruskin (1995:34) and Butt (2002:148) explain that the success of historically 

‘authentic performance’ of the 1970s and 1980s was made possible to a great extent 

by public broadcasting and recording companies that harnessed the label ‘authentic’ 

as a lucrative money machine. This machine was further supported by commercial 

press propaganda and music critics who ‘educated’ their readers and audiences about 



   

 

19 

 

what constituted so-called ‘correct’ historical performance. Fabian (2003:13, 25) points 

out that the popular press and its ‘haphazard’ use of the term ‘authenticity’ contributed 

to the misconception of and critique against HIP during the 1980s and 1990s without 

taking stock of the ‘different status of artistic activities and goals represented by the 

various performances’.  

Dreyfus (1983) was one of the first to elucidate the divide and conflict between 

scholars and performers of the Early Music Movement and MSP. He states that ‘as a 

regulative ideal, authenticity expresses a supposed opposition to the self-aggrandizing 

individualism prevalent in Mainstream praxis’ (Dreyfus 1983:299). For Dreyfus this 

stems from a generalisation that ‘mainstream’ performers are not true to the music 

because of their self-expression, that is, their subjective, personal interpretation of the 

score; therefore, they do not prioritise the intentions of the composer. The authentic 

performer ‘willingly’ serves the composer and commits to ‘truth’ (ibid.). Dreyfus (ibid.) 

further identifies a social practice of people and things resembling what he calls 

‘objectivism’ in early music, which had lost its experimental phase of re-imagining the 

past and was now ‘following the textbook rules’ of HIP to achieve authenticity.  

Dreyfus’s statements resonate with the recurring main objections by Taruskin 

(1995:70), who argues that the limits of authenticity rest within ‘the attitudes of textual 

critics’ who fail to see the difference ‘between music as tones-in-motion and music as 

notes-on-page’ and therefore reducing the ‘act’, the performance, to ‘text’. Taruskin 

(1995:62, 70, 71) maintains that although scholarship can inform and stimulate 

performers and vice versa, the emphasis on ‘musicological realization’ inhibits the 

performer from implementing their personal ‘choice and taste’ in interpreting a work 

and ultimately robs a performance of personal expression. Furthermore, Taruskin 



   

 

20 

 

(1995:90) considers the reason for the debate and authentic performance’s superior 

attitude when he poses the question whether ‘we really want to talk about “authenticity” 

any more? [sic]’ and stated that authenticity ‘simply cannot be rid of its moral and 

ethical overtones […], being used to privilege one philosophy of performance over all 

others’. This implies that authentic performance leaves no room for other performance 

practices and ‘threatens the status of artists not trained in “historically appropriate 

instruments or styles of playing”’ (Taruskin 1995:92). This is the reason why ‘the 

“classical music scene” […] has taken on the appearance of a “battlefield”, and why 

we are fighting it out, in this book and elsewhere’ (ibid.). 

Kivy (1995:272) shares Taruskin’s and Dreyfus’s sentiments regarding the loss of the 

performer’s freedom of expressivity and the collapse of performance into text when he 

asserts that for the ‘historically authentic’ performer, the ultimate goal is ‘a matter of 

“textual authority”, not artistic choice’. Furthermore, he argues that the ‘gap between 

“text” and performance’ is a legitimate one that allows more freedom for interpretation, 

a gap the MSP performer fills and for which they are admired by the audience. 

Opposed to this, historical performance wants to close that gap as much as possible 

with knowledge from the composer’s intentions, original sound and/or practice (ibid.). 

For the sake of ‘artistic choice’, Kivy (1995:6–7) introduces four different ‘authenticities’ 

which translate into different approaches to performance in which performers can be 

true (authentic) to different ideals. These four ‘authenticities’ are  

(1) faithfulness to the composer’s performance intentions; (2) faithfulness to the 

performance practice of the composer’s lifetime; (3) faithfulness to the sound of a 

performance during the composer’s lifetime; and (4) faithfulness to the performer’s 

own self. 



   

 

21 

 

Subsequently, Kivy arrives at his pivotal argument and advocacy of a pluralistic 

approach to music performance. Moreover, Kivy (1995:285) defends MSP against 

what he identifies as the Early Music Movement’s ‘musical puritanism’ and asserts that 

personal interpretation (personal authenticity) can and should exist in combination with 

or parallel to other aspects of historical performance.  

Butt (2002:xi) points out that Dreyfus and Taruskin acknowledged the more innovative 

and liberal scholar-performers of the movement and the possible benefits of HIP. A 

central argument of Butt’s is to show that the debate, especially the ‘sheer force’ of 

Taruskin’s outputs, paved the way to new insights ‘and has reformulated the issues 

concerned with the discussion of HIP’ (ibid.). This ‘reformulation’ of issues could be 

observed already in the early 1990s as the term ‘authenticity’ was discredited and 

replaced with period performance or HIP (with the latter probably the most prominent 

since Butt began using it as an acronym). For this reason, Butt (2002:31) objects to 

Kivy’s diagnosis of HIP, which appears to be ‘a total ignorance of the actual practice 

of HIP during the 1980s and 1990s’ and the overall assumption that the HIP performer 

does not ‘deviate from the notation […] while the MSP performer may creatively depart 

from it’. Butt (2002:32) points out that the most prominent scholar-performers, such as 

Gustav Leonhardt and Nikolaus Harnoncourt, who were, among others, singled out by 

Taruskin and Dreyfus as ‘good’ HIP performers, never associated with the ideology of 

authenticity, which to them was unattainable. He also reminds us of Harnoncourt’s 

statements that performers should, in the first place, be musicians and not scientists, 

that we should prioritise what constitutes successful interpretation and that period 

instruments alone do not guarantee good interpretation. Furthermore, he asserts that 

‘there is now [in 2002] more freedom and latitude in interpretation within HIP than there 



   

 

22 

 

has been in virtually all “mainstream” performances’ (ibid.). The HIP style Butt refers 

to has been studied and articulated further by Fabian (2003, 2015).  

Fabian (2003:5) succinctly observes that the ethos and performance style of the Early 

Music Movement on the European continent during the 1970s and 1980s differed from 

the ethos and style of the Early Music Movement in Britain, because the public debate 

between scholars and performers (especially in German-speaking countries) had 

already occurred during the 1950s. She also refers to Leonhardt and Harnoncourt, 

who both went through a phase of literalistic performance style, but rejected the notion 

of authenticity, and by the 1980s, displayed a much different and more expressive 

style than their English counterparts in the performance of Baroque music. Fabian 

(2015:29) also states that this different and novel style has become known as ‘the 

historically informed way of performing music’. Fabian (2015:122) concludes that there 

are two main trends of Baroque performance practice, namely, HIP, which influenced 

MSP, and ‘a gradual shift towards a more flexible way of playing’.  

With regard to performance style, Michelle Dulak (1993:50) had already observed ‘a 

pluralism of [performance] styles’ in the early 1990s, stating that ‘so many players now 

cultivate the ability to switch into and out of “period” style at will’ with the result that 

style becomes ‘less a historical “given” than a large set of sonic resources, from which 

the musician selects whatever he (or she) feels to be appropriate to the situation at 

hand’.  

In summary, we see that the Early Music Movement and authentic performance came 

under scrutiny because of the limitations it placed on performers through its insistence 

on following historical ‘textbook rules’ (Dreyfus 1982:299), reducing the act of 

performance to the realisation of a text. The Early Music debate gave rise to the term 



   

 

23 

 

HIP that represents a more flexible and expressive approach to performance. 

Furthermore, the writing of Taruskin and Kivy in particular paved the way for a 

pluralism of performance styles. As I show in the next section, present-day singers 

may alternate freely between, and even combine aspects of, HIP and MSP in their 

vocal delivery. 

2.1.3 HIP vs MSP: singers’ perspectives 

When we consider vocal performance, beginning with music before 1800, it is 

impossible not to be confronted with the concepts of HIP vs MSP. Since the 

development of the Early Music Movement in England and its influence on the 

European and American scene, singers too have been influenced by the idea of 

thinking ‘historically’.  

We have established that since the beginning of the Early Music Movement, a great 

deal of research and experimentation has led to a more relaxed view of HIP. More 

recently, musicologists have observed that HIP and MSP have influenced each other 

when it comes to music, especially before 1800.  

As early as 1985, German baritone and pedagogue Fischer-Dieskau asserted in his 

monograph Töne Sprechen, Wörter Klingen that singers should have a certain 

‘Wissen’ (knowledge) about the interpretation of any composition, which should ideally 

not be copied from other artists but gathered through ‘analysis and experience, a 

renewal in itself’ (Fischer-Dieskau 1985:462, 463).8 This Wissen could be ‘forgotten in 

the moment of the performance’ but is of the utmost importance in the preparation 

process (Fischer-Dieskau 1985:465). Although Fischer-Dieskau did not see himself as 

 
8 All the translations from Fischer-Dieskau’s monograph are my own. 



   

 

24 

 

an HIP singer, he did value HIP in so far as the historical information was evidence-

based.9 Moreover, Fischer-Dieskau believed in vocal versatility (as his creative output 

certainly proves) and in his writing he advised singer-specialists to learn from other 

styles.  

The influence of the Early Music Movement in England on vocal performance during 

the 1970s and 1980s can be observed in the various publications of Potter (1998, 

2000) and Wistreich (2000, 2002; Wistreich & Potter 2013), who started their careers 

as singers (mostly early music and Avant Garde) and have become respected 

researchers and academic scholars in the past two decades. Their respective 

collaborations with groups such as David Munrow’s Early Music Consort or Michael 

Morrow’s Musica Reservata, and also their own ensemble established in 1989 (Red 

Byrd), inspired these two singers to enquire more about historically informed singing 

and to extend the enquiry beyond the area of style. Subsequently, their years of 

experimentation and studies of historical vocal style resulted in their careful 

descriptions of the way singers may and/or should differentiate between period styles, 

which in turn implies vocal–technical adjustments. 

Both Potter (1998) and Wistreich (2000, 2002) argued around the turn of the 21st 

century that, historically, vocal sound production for music of the 17th and 18th 

centuries was different from the norm of ‘modern’ classical singing. This ‘modern’ 

classical singing technique is based on developments in vocal pedagogy that 

 
9 Dieskau in an interview with KlassikAkzente.de: ‘Ja, wenn man denn “informed” ist, dann ist ja alles 

gut! Wenn allerdings die Informationen aus ganz neuen Quellen stammen oder gar selbst erfunden 
sind, dann zögere ich, ihnen zu folgen. Und bis auf einige frühe Erfahrungen mit Harnoncourt und 
dessen Mozart-Interpretation fallen mir keine weiteren ein’ (Fischer-Dieskau 2000). ‘Yes, if you are 
“informed”, then everything is fine! However, when the information comes from entirely new sources 
or is even one’s own invention, I hesitate to follow it. And apart from a few early experiences with 
Harnoncourt and his interpretation of Mozart, I cannot think of any more’ (own translation of Fischer-
Dieskau 2000). 



   

 

25 

 

crystallised during the 19th century (especially thanks to the contribution of Manuel 

Garcia II, 1805–1906), as is set out by Stark (1999:189) in his history of bel canto, 

which he defines as follows: 

Bel canto is […] a highly refined method of using the singing voice in which 

the glottal source, the vocal tract, and the respiratory system interact in such 

a way as to create the qualities of chiaroscuro, appoggio, register 

equalization, malleability of pitch and intensity, and a pleasing vibrato. 

Potter (1998:53) provides an insightful description of vocal production in this present-

day norm of singing when he writes: 

When a modern classical singer sings, [the sound] is enhanced in several 

ways […], the principal one being the lowering of the larynx [...] which 

significantly increases the length of the vocal tract. The effect of this is to 

shift downwards all the formant frequencies with a marked effect on the first 

formant, which is associated with the larynx and the initial production of the 

vowel sounds. This phenomenon, known as the singers’ formant [sic], 

produces additional resonance at the cost of no extra physical effort, to the 

extent that a solo singer can easily project his or her voice over a large 

orchestra. 

Conversely, the main characteristic of what Wistreich (2002) calls ‘pre-Romantic’ 

singing technique is the use of a free-floating, relatively higher larynx position, which 

in turn allows clearer enunciation of the words, a more precise and fast articulation of 

passaggi and differentiation of the registers with their ‘proper’ blending, that is, fuller 

modal (chest) voice, which becomes lighter in the higher register. The ideology of 

reconstructing the authentic sound and playing techniques of period instruments 

therefore had found its way into vocal sound production and the application of stylistic 



   

 

26 

 

elements. In his entry on ‘voices’ (‘The Classical Era: Voices’) in Performance 

Practice: Music After 1600, Crutchfield (1989b:295) maintains that (in the Classical 

era) ‘many features of performance practice arise directly from the technical disciplines 

that were pursued’ and that  

any account of Classical performance style must begin with the acknowledgment that 

many Classical practices are impossible to achieve […] except by vocal discipline 

resembling that of the period.  

Crutchfield (ibid.) further asserts that modern singers ‘vary markedly in their ability to 

follow these practices’ and maintains that singers should decide which aspects of the 

performance practice they can achieve vocal–technically. In reference to the Romantic 

period, Crutchfield (1989a:424) shows that the trend towards greater vocal power had 

an ‘increasing, multifaceted influence on technique and style’. Furthermore, the 

‘breakdown of conventional forms’ led to a decline in ‘quasi-improvisatory skills’, which 

were still practised during the Classical period. Crutchfield (1989a:425) further 

maintains that due to the many stylistic changes of the 19th century, ‘it is far more 

necessary for the Romantic period than for the Classical to distinguish performance 

practices chronologically, almost decade by decade.’  

More recently, Wistreich and Potter engaged in a conversation published in Early 

Music (Wistreich & Potter 2013), in which questions are raised about the status quo of 

HIP in singing regarding its validity and teaching. Reflecting upon almost 40 years of 

experience as singers, musicologists and pedagogues, they revealed remarkable new 

insights. Wistreich (Wistreich & Potter 2013:23) remarks that for him there was no 

point in performing music ‘just in order to reveal and demonstrate “historical 

correctness” […] or simply make a new case for the existing canon’ and that their 



   

 

27 

 

research was underpinned by a ‘genuine experimental process’ instead of claims of 

authenticity. Wistreich (Wistreich & Potter 2013:26) adds to the argument by asserting 

that there should not be a ‘professional definable specialism called “early music 

singer”’. Moreover, he calls for a broader approach to pedagogy in which young 

singers should rather collaborate and work with HIP musicians instead of specialising 

as ‘Early Music singer[s]’, advocating greater versatility among singers and the 

approach to teaching vocal students (ibid.). In this regard, Wistreich (Wistreich & 

Potter 2013:26) opines that the ‘concepts of “opera singer” or “musical theatre singer” 

are […] other anachronisms that need to be prised out of the curriculum of 

conservatories’.  

From Wistreich and Potter’s 2013 conversation we clearly notice a more relaxed view 

of HIP which tends to discard the use of the term HIP, or ‘Early Music’ singer, 

advocating instead versatility among singers who are inspired by research and history 

and therefore make informed choices. Elliot’s volume, Singing in Style: A Guide to 

Vocal Performance Practices (2006:3), deals with exactly this matter and aims to 

provide present-day singers with ‘tools for a wide variety of situations in which singers 

might find themselves’; therefore, she does not direct her book specifically at the ‘early 

music singer’. Her views are not ‘meant to transform modern singers into authentic 

recreations of historical personalities’ (ibid.). Elliot, a singer herself, observes that in 

the years predating 2006, tastes in choice of singers and voice types changed a great 

deal. Moreover, the opportunities for a performance approach to certain genres or 

periods had proliferated, ranging from a so-called HIP approach with smaller vocal 

ensembles and period instruments to a more operatic approach with opera singers 



   

 

28 

 

and full modern orchestra and chorus, or ‘with any kind of combination of elements in 

between’ (ibid.).  

In line with the latest advocacies and the views of Wistreich and Potter are also the 

two latest publications on vocal performance practice from Jacobs and Leopold (2015) 

and Seedorf (2019). Both these publications elucidate the problem with the concepts 

of ‘early music’ or HIP in discussions of vocal performance. Jacobs, a renowned HIP 

conductor and singer, also points out that the tension between MSP and HIP has 

gradually been resolved over recent years and holds that ‘the performance practices 

have approached each other with mutual respect’ (own translation from Jacobs & 

Leopold 2015:57). In this sense ‘traditional symphony orchestras have incorporated 

playing and interpretation methods of HIP and, on the other hand, ‘HIP has developed 

its own traditions within a few decades’ (ibid.). Furthermore, Jacobs asserts that 

because of HIP’s own tradition, it is now confronted (similarly to MSP) with the ‘danger 

of confusing tradition with interpretive sovereignty (Deutungshoheit)’ (ibid.). This 

notion of Jacobs implies a similar sentiment to that expressed earlier by Taruskin 

(1995) and Kivy (1995), namely, an appreciation of singers’ and musicians’ agency to 

make informed interpretive choices of their own rather than being expected to follow 

tradition or dogma strictly. 

Although Jacobs (Jacobs & Leopold 2015:65) does not approach vocal versatility as 

directly as Wistreich and Potter, he does caution young singers who want to specialise 

in early music because they assume that their voices are suitable for the repertoire. In 

addition, he rightly argues that ‘the repertoire suitable for a specific voice cannot be 

confined to a specific musical time period’ but depends on whether the voice is lyric or 

dramatic (ibid.). Within such standardised categorisations of voice types, however, 



   

 

29 

 

Jacobs advocates that singers have the freedom to implement a greater variety of 

vocal colour than was the norm among singers during his career – a topic which I 

return to in section 2.2.2 on the vocal–technical implications.  

In the introduction to his textbook, Handbuch Aufführungspraxis Sologesang (2019), 

Seedorf deliberately uses the term ‘performance practice’ (Aufführungspraxis) and not 

‘historical performance’ or ‘historically informed performance’ in approaching concepts 

of vocal performance practice. Seedorf argues that all music, even the recent 

compositions, require some knowledge that goes beyond the notion of how to realise 

the score. In this sense, the term ‘performance practice’ should not be confined to 

historically distant periods but should describe ‘a certain knowledge of sonic realisation 

which complements the notation of music over all epochs’ (Seedorf 2019:13).10 

Seedorf therefore dismisses the idea that performance practice points towards a 

specific time period or a movement’s ideologies and aims to provide information not 

specified in the score, by composers of all style periods and genres. His notion 

resonates well with the consensus expressed by Potter, Wistreich, Elliot and Jacobs. 

Seedorf (2019:18) remarks that HIP has ‘once more created an awareness that a lot 

of information is not written in the notes’. However, for Seedorf (2019:1820), while 

singers may carefully emulate such aspects of performance practice as have solidified 

into an established HIP singing style (including embellished melodic lines, the use of 

appoggiaturas, weight or accent on strong syllables of the text, and quasi-

improvisatory cadenzas at fermata signs), ‘far from everything [i.e., up-to-date 

knowledge of historical singing technique and style] has been incorporated in vocal 

performances of the present’. In fact, Seedorf’s opinion is that singers seldom deviate 

 
10 All the translations from Seedorf’s Handbuch Aufführungspraxis Sologesang (2019) are my own. 



   

 

30 

 

from the ‘modern singing technique and aesthetics’ in order to try new ways of singing 

based on historical evidence (ibid.).  

Also in the past decade, studies by Potter (2014) and Gentili (2018) elucidate the 

changes in vocal performance style during the 19th century, such as portamento, 

vibrato and rubato and their vocal–technical implications. Like Potter (1998) before 

them, they date the development of the ‘modern’ singing technique to the 19th century 

but assert on the basis of analyses of recordings of 19th-century singers that the 

transition was finally accomplished in the 20th century. Again, in accordance with John 

Potter, they identify the characteristics of ‘modern’ technique as consistent larynx 

lowering, which influences chiaroscuro and singer’s formant (I elucidate this term 

below in section 2.2.2). Sarah Potter has raised the question whether modern singers 

would be able to deviate from the ‘modern’ technique to meet the requirements of HIP 

productions of 19th-century works. Her findings propose a ‘neutral’ position of the 

larynx which ‘presents an instrument of much more delicate capabilities [defined as 

stylistic aspects such as portamento, messa di voce and selective vibrato use] than 

currently imagined’ (Potter 2014:164). However, the question remains open (including 

for Potter herself) as to what extent this ‘neutral approach of the larynx’ theory can 

withstand the test of audibility in the performance of 19th-century opera. Gentili 

(2018:205) links the shift to the ‘modern’ singing technique to the rise of verismo opera 

and how singers at the turn of the 20th century adapted to ‘heavier systems of vocal 

registration’. She argues that this heavier vocal registration hinders ‘a supple phrasing 

style’ and makes it difficult – for male voices especially – to execute clean portamento 

and embellishments. This insight had also been shared by John Potter (1998:53) and 

by Sarah Potter as quoted above (2014:164). Gentili (2018:205) further observes that 



   

 

31 

 

‘heavily registered voices cannot play with dynamics with the exceptional degree of 

freedom enjoyed by voices with lighter registration’.  

The perspectives regarding vocal performance practice articulated by the above-

mentioned authors therefore all point away from singing all vocal repertoire with the 

same generic, ‘modern’ singing technique. ‘Modern’ singing technique remains an 

inescapable requirement for a present-day professional singer; however, the research 

findings recounted in this section imply that ‘modern’ technique should be one 

approach among several in the professional ‘classical’ singer’s arsenal: specifically, 

the skillset of ‘modern’ technique should be complemented by approaches that de-

emphasise the constantly lowered larynx and elongated vocal tract, in keeping with 

HIP ideals. To achieve such versatility, singers need to be informed so as to make 

intelligent performative choices. As Elliot remarks, the possibilities of performing 

practice styles are many, and knowledge of style and performance practice helps the 

present-day professional singer to adjust to different circumstances. These 

circumstances can vary from HIP to MSP or various combinations of them. The above-

mentioned authors argue that singers should be able to adjust their vocal technique 

according to a given performance practice, especially when singing in a concert or 

production following an HIP approach. This correlates with my personal argument 

regarding vocal versatility, which holds that the singer should be able to differentiate 

vocal–technically between different period styles and genres, avoiding the uncritical or 

unquestioned application of generic ‘received classical vocal production’ to all 

repertoire (Wistreich 2002:25–26).  



   

 

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2.2 Vocal–technical versatility 

2.2.1 Professional singers’ perspectives 

Professional singers hold a range of views regarding my notion of vocal–technical 

adjustment for different styles and genres. While some singers find, as I do, that vocal–

technical adjustments are called for, depending on style and genre, there are also well-

established singers who assert that the same technique is applicable to all 

professional singing. In their book Master Singers: Advice from the Stage (2015), 

singer Donald George and pianist Lucy Mauro interviewed renowned opera singers 

on different topics of stage performance and artistry. On the question of the demands 

of recital singing compared to opera, and the possible vocal–technical and interpretive 

differences, tenor Jonas Kaufmann firmly asserts that when he sings recitals, he uses 

‘the exact same instrument and technique’ as when singing opera (George & Mauro 

2015:73). Kaufmann (ibid.) also admits, however, that he ‘may change slightly 

depending on the style’ and furthermore states that ‘[y]ou can’t do a Bach cantata as 

you would do Wagner or an art song. I mean all the smorzando and the portamenti – 

you shouldn’t use that, as they are inappropriate.’ 

Tenor Joseph Calleja, on the other hand, argues that when singing Lied as opposed 

to opera, there is a difference of style, but ‘not a difference in technique or approach’ 

(George & Mauro 2015: 75). Furthermore, he explains that, whether one sings in 

Mozart style or Verdi style, ‘you sing with your voice but change the style, inflections 

and nuances’ (ibid.). 

Baritone Simon Keenlyside indicates a change in vocal approach and remarks that he 

uses less of ‘the iron’ (or ‘squillo’) in song recitals and applies a greater ‘palette’ of 

sounds and mezza voce than in opera (George & Mauro 2015:73). Mezzo-soprano 



   

 

33 

 

Denyce Graves answers the question as follows: ‘[…] healthy fundamental technique 

is always required no matter the genre and style, operatic singing tends to be “bigger” 

and can employ a certain vibratory pattern’ (George & Mauro 2015:71). Both 

Keenlyside and Graves refer to changing or adjusting vocal–technically between opera 

and Lied/oratorio. These vocal–technical adjustments refer to vocal idioms such as, 

the presence or intensity of the singer’s formant, different kinds of glottal adduction 

and varying degrees of subglottal pressure, to which I return later.  

Elsewhere, a similar observation on the importance of differentiation in vocal approach 

within the fundamental technique,11 and the ability to handle a variety of repertoire is 

made by lyric tenor, Christoph Prégardien. From a pedagogical point of view, he states 

(in an interview for the Bärenreiter website) that young singers should be: 

technically able to sing everything from chamber music to grand opera. 

With the same vocal technique, of course, but with a different approach. 

If you sing in a chamber music hall of 200 or 300 seats, you obviously 

use your voice differently to how you would in a large opera house. 

Moreover, young singers should have a wide repertoire these days to be 

able to earn a living, given that the competitive situation is very difficult 

(Prégardien nd). 

The pedagogical perspective of teaching singers to ‘learn’ from different genres was 

argued earlier by Fischer-Dieskau in Töne Sprechen, Wörter Klingen (1985). Fischer-

Dieskau (1985:462), probably one of the most versatile singers of the 20th century 

(although generally renowned for his Lied performance), argues that the study of opera 

 
11 It is difficult to speculate on exactly what Kaufman, Graves and Prégardien mean when they refer 

to a basic and unchanging technique within which vocal approach may vary. Presumably, they 
mean that certain aspects of what Potter (1998) calls ‘modern’ singing technique and what Stark 
(1999) calls ‘bel canto’ remain useful, no matter what adjustments are mandated by a specific style. 



   

 

34 

 

roles can enhance the scope of expression and vocal power for the Lied singer; and, 

vice versa, that the opera singer can learn from ‘vocal–technical challenges which he 

will never have had experienced’, and that genres should be pedagogically treated 

with equal importance.  

In addition, Fischer-Dieskau (1985:467) remarks that the Lied genre offers ‘an 

abundance of possibilities in dynamic range; however, as opposed to opera, the Lied 

is based on finer nuances’. To achieve these fine dynamic nuances, Fischer-Dieskau 

(1985:444) hints at the vocal technique of the bel canto school12 in which all tones 

should originate from a piano vocal onset; in Fischer-Dieskau’s explanation, a forte 

tone must begin from the placement of the piano tone in the mixed register of head 

and chest. He maintains that the softer nuances and different colourations could be 

achieved through the head voice (register) (Kopfregister) which should ‘always be 

mixed with the natural middle voice’ (ibid.). Furthermore, the voix mixte13 is ‘most 

important for vocal beauty, development and longevity, and of course also for the vocal 

colouration in expressive singing’ (Fischer-Dieskau 1985:445).  

Although Fischer-Dieskau does not elaborate on vocal–technical differences, he does 

cover some aspects of vocal performance practice which do indicate a differentiation 

of style in connection with vocal approach. With reference to oratorio, Fischer-Dieskau 

(1985:186) asserts that as with Lied, ‘it too requires a high level of vocal versatility 

because the genre demands all the different aspects of vocalisation [such as 

declamation, cantabile lines and coloratura].’ Concerning the Passions of J.S. Bach, 

 
12 See my brief citation of Stark’s definition of bel canto vocal technique above in section 2.1.3. 
13 I discuss this term and its technical implications in section 2.2.2 below. 



   

 

35 

 

Fischer-Dieskau (1985:200) maintains that ‘the use of idiosyncratic opera voices 

would be inappropriate because of the stylistic demands of the composer’.  

Daniel Behle (2019) is a German tenor who represents the singer ideal described by 

Prégardien and Fischer-Dieskau above, and who advocates vocal versatility (and 

whose list of recordings and performances ranges from Bach to Wagner) when he 

alludes to the fact that ‘as an artist one is more enthralling if one can juggle between 

different genres’ (own translation from Behle 2019). Earlier in his career, Behle (2011) 

also raised the matter of vocal versatility, stating that ‘the parallelism [in performance] 

of Lied, oratorio and opera’ is important to ‘train lightness, long lines and powerful 

sound production’ (own translation from Behle 2011). Behle also shares the vocal–

technical stance of Fisher-Dieskau. His advice on singing various style periods and 

genres, and from lyric to more heroic music, is to cultivate the head voice ‘which you 

gradually connect with the chest register’ (own translation from Behle 2020). Behle 

maintains that Wagner’s music needs an almost continuous build-up of pressure which 

poses the danger of applying too much chest voice (register). On the other hand, he 

finds Bach’s vocal music an ideal way to ‘come from above’ with the head register, 

since ‘singing Bach with only chest will cause problems’; he therefore indicates that 

singers should strive for a high degree of blending head register with the chest register 

(ibid.). 

Tenor, vocal pedagogue and scholar Richard Miller (1996:106) states in On the Art of 

Singing (1996) that ‘stylistic considerations determine performance practice’ and that 

‘a skilful singer does not use identical degrees of vibrancy and vocal intensity in the B 

Minor Mass [Bach] and the Verdi Requiem’.  



   

 

36 

 

He further maintains that ‘even in the nineteenth-century operatic literature […] one 

does not sing Donizetti like Verdi […] or von Weber like late Wagner’ and ‘to apply a 

single singing style to the lieder of Schubert, Brahms and Wolf is to misunderstand the 

musical and romantic progression of a century’ (Miller 1996:106). Miller (ibid.) warns 

against implementing the voce finta14 and nonvibrant [sic] singing, as well as ‘dynamic 

altering of each note and syllable’ when the text is stressed in performance of Lieder. 

The latter hinders the flow of the music and subsequently the legato line and is a 

‘misconception of the messa di voce principle so essential to phrase shaping and 

dynamic control’ (ibid.). It should be mentioned here that as one of the most renowned 

vocal pedagogues, Miller (1996:130, 131) outspokenly criticises what he – writing in 

the 1990s – calls ‘authenticity’, which he associates with straight tone singing, 

asserting that ‘it is impossible to conceive of nonvibrant singing of bravura tenor arias’. 

He welcomes the ‘new professionalism [which] has modified the practices of the past 

few decades regarding authentic Baroque vocal style’, noting that ‘the emasculated 

treatment of Handelian vocal literature in recent decades was perhaps one of the more 

painful developments of mistaken “authenticity” in performance of vocal music from 

the past’ (ibid.).  

In summarising the different perspectives of the above-mentioned singers, most of 

them acknowledge the need to differentiate vocal–technically between styles and 

genres, although some of them, such as Kaufman and Calleja, do not believe in 

adapting vocal technique to any meaningful extent. On the other hand, those such as 

Keenlyside, Graves and Behle, indicate certain vocal–technical adjustments or 

 
14 Miller (1993:160) defines this term as follows: ‘feigned voice; a timbre in the upper-middle range of 

the male voice that reduces the voce piena quality of the fully “supported” voice; at times confused 
with falsetto.’ 



   

 

37 

 

differences applicable to various genres and style periods, although they do not 

describe what the differentiation in approach consists of in detail. This might be 

because of the brevity of the interviews and lack of time and space, or because singers 

generally do not indulge in describing finer details of singing technique, which is 

normally reserved for the vocal pedagogues and scientifically orientated authors. 

However, from the perspectives of singers such as Keenlyside, Graves and Behle, we 

can conclude that less ‘iron’ (or squillo) refers to utilising less singer’s formant for 

Lieder and oratorio as opposed to opera singing (Keenlyside). For Graves, opera 

singing bears higher vocal intensity with a change in vibratory pattern, which for me 

points towards higher subglottal pressure, firm glottal adduction and intense singer’s 

formant. For Lied and Baroque music, Keenlyside and Behle both refer to 

implementing voix mixte which is ultimately important for the colouration of the voice 

and longevity (also mentioned by Fischer-Dieskau). The notion of cultivating the head 

voice and mixing it with the chest voice (Behle & Fischer-Dieskau) most probably 

refers to the implementation and cultivation of a light vocal registration as a 

complement to the practices of heavy vocal registration to achieve vocal versatility. 

The following section explains the concepts of heavy vs light vocal registration from 

relevant vocal-pedagogical sources. 

2.2.2 Implications for technique 

A major conceptual contribution to more precise vocal–technical terminology 

regarding registration is Stark’s notion of ‘vocal idioms’ or ‘the specific vocal 

techniques used in the performance of particular styles of music’, ‘characteristic 

combinations of vocal technique’ (1995:70). Stark (ibid.) points out that the ‘historical 

treatises’ such as those of Giulio Caccini (1551–1618), Pier Francesco Tosi (1654–



   

 

38 

 

1732) and Garcia had already ‘linked vocal techniques with the musical styles of the 

day’. Stark suggests that the assessment of successful performance of vocal music 

should take the shape of a ‘word–note–tone’ relation in which sound production (and 

therefore the use of vocal idioms) plays an integral part in expressive singing. The two 

main categories of technique or vocal idiom are vocal quality and vocal articulation. 

According to Stark (1995:72), vocal quality is ‘determined by different glottal settings, 

subglottal breath pressures, breath flow rates, vertical laryngeal positions, acoustical 

formants, registers, vibrato and dynamic gradations’, whereas vocal articulation 

comprises pitch onset, legato singing, portamento, floridity, embellishments and 

tempo rubato. 

Stark holds voice quality as the most important vocal idiom; it mainly depends on 

glottal settings, that is, the type and strength of vocal fold closure. He identifies two 

types of glottal adduction, as described also by Garcia: ‘loose closure’ and ‘firm 

closure’ (Stark 1995:73). The latter ‘generally requires higher subglottal breath 

pressures than loose closure’ (ibid.). Stark (1995:74) defines the difference between 

firm and loose glottal closure as follows: 

The former [firm glottal closure] is characterized by complete glottal closure 

during each cycle of vibration; the rate of closure of the vocal folds is faster 

than in loose phonation, and the vocal folds remain closed a larger 

percentage of the time during each vibratory cycle. This creates a source 

spectrum which is rich in high-energy partials, thus providing a better signal 

for the vocal tract to work upon. A bright edge to the voice has been 

recognized by many names over the centuries. […] In contrast, a loose 

glottal setting results in a higher rate of breath flow, lower subglottal 

pressure, and weaker energy to the upper partials. 



   

 

39 

 

In line with Stark’s observation above and the coherency of glottal adduction and vocal 

registration, voice scientists Christian Herbst and Jan Švec (2014:302) point out that 

the main registers, such as chest and falsetto register, are ‘mainly controlled via the 

thyroid arytenoid (TA, vocalis) muscle’ and that a ‘contraction of the TA [thyroid 

arytenoid muscle] increases the vertical phase delay in vocal fold vibration and results 

in a longer closed phase (and thus a larger closed quotient)’. The acoustical result is 

an enhancement of ‘the output of high-frequency energy, thus creating a “brighter” or 

more “resonant” timbre’ which is ‘perceived as a “heavier” registration by both singers 

and listeners’ (ibid.). Stark (1995:74) notes that firm closure ensures the ‘vocal power 

necessary to be heard over full orchestra in a large hall without amplification’. Loose 

closure, on the contrary, is characterised by a less intense sound and is ‘probably also 

the setting for early singing styles associated with medieval song as well as most 

choral singing’ and also vernacular vocal styles (ibid.). Moreover, vertical laryngeal 

position is closely related to glottal settings. Firm glottal adduction results in higher 

subglottal pressure, which in turn requires more muscle effort. Lowering the larynx 

helps to compensate this muscle effort and avoid strenuous sound production (Stark 

1995:75). Another result of lowering the larynx is that it darkens the sound by 

diminishing the lower formants; on the other hand, it enhances the higher formants, 

which contributes to the ‘ring’ of the voice, also called the singer’s formant. This quality 

of dark and bright vocal colour is what most opera singers strive for and refer to as 

chiaroscuro. Stark (1999:49–50) explains the acoustic origins of the singer’s formant 

as follows: 

The so-called singer’s formant […] is a band of high-frequency 

resonance that occurs at about 2 500–3 500 Hz. It can occur on most 

notes in the singer’s range, although it is generally more apparent in male 



   

 

40 

 

voices than in female and is often stronger on loud notes than on 

soft. […] It can be explained acoustically as a clustering F3 and F4, or F4 

and F5, or in some cases F3, F4, and F5, in which the distance separating 

these formants is narrowed. The intensity of the singer’s formant is 

dependent upon the presence in the source spectrum of high-energy 

partials that are created by abrupt and complete glottal closure in each 

glottal cycle. 

Although his comparison of the two glottal settings is arguably over-simplified (i.e., firm 

glottal closure as the technique for opera singing vs loose closure for early music, 

choral singing or vernacular styles), Stark (1999:29) does mention the ability which 

singers should possess to vary the degree of glottal adduction according to the stylistic 

demands of the music, stating: 

A well-trained singer can control the adduction, closed quotient, and airflow 

rates to create a variety of tone qualities to meet the stylistic requirements 

of different musical styles. Depending on the musical circumstances, firm 

adduction and a brilliant tone quality may not always be desirable. 

In the foregoing discussion, I have included passing references to breath pressure and 

airflow rates in connection with glottal adduction. It will be useful to explain the 

relationship between these concepts and singers’ practice of breath management in 

more detail. While I do not intend to make these relationships explicit at every turn in 

my autoethnographic observation of my vocal–technical practice, it should be taken 

as read that adjustments to subglottal pressure depend profoundly on breath 

management. Miller (1993:15) asserts that the techniques  

of breath coordination should be uniform among singers, yet registration and vowel 

modification requirements of specific vocal categories determine changing levels of 



   

 

41 

 

airflow and subglottic [subglottal] pressure during the mounting scale. Learning to 

manage airflow and subglottic pressure demands a subtle coordination of 

aerodynamic-myoelastic factors (airflow and muscle responses) that is the foundation 

of cultivated singing.  

Relatedly, Johan Sundberg proposed a useful typology of phonation types where ‘flow 

phonation’ represents the optimal functioning of breath flow and adduction. Reflecting 

on his earlier research with Jan Gauffin, Sundberg (2003:17) writes: 

[A]long the phonatory dimension that ranges from hypofunctional/breathy to 

hyperfunctional/pressed, there was a special mode, where glottal adduction 

seemed reduced to the minimum that still produces a complete glottal 

closure. For this mode, seemingly used as a kind of baseline in classical 

singing, we proposed the term flow phonation, since it was characterised by 

particularly generous airflow. 

The approach to breath management which I prefer to use, and was taught, is the 

appoggio technique, as described by vocal pedagogues such as Stark (1999) and 

Miller (1993, 1996). The term appoggio ‘derives from the Italian verb appoggiare, 

which means to lean against, to support, and to sustain’ (Miller 1993:25). The 

appoggio technique constitutes a delicate balance between the muscles of the torso 

and the abdomen or, as Stark (1999:92) puts it more precisely, ‘between the 

inspiratory and expiratory breathing muscles.’ However, the functionality of this 

technique is not ‘solely a breath coordination device’; it also entails the use of ‘muscles 

and organs not directly associated with breathing’ (Miller 1993:25). Stark (1999:93) 

states that the term ‘to lean’ also refers to  



   

 

42 

 

the role of the larynx in ‘holding back’ or ‘damming’ the breath by means of glottal 

resistance, and by intentional lowering of the larynx against the upward-bearing 

pressure of the breath.  

The appoggio technique ‘depends on axial alignment’ of the body in which the ‘head, 

neck and torso are in line with the pelvic and hip regions’, a postural condition which 

may also be described as ‘the noble posture’ (Miller 1993:25). Once these postural 

conditions are set up, inhalation can take place (which is quicker and deeper than in 

normal breathing) in which the diaphragm travels downward ‘and presses the 

abdominal viscera forward, causing the abdominal wall to expand slightly outward’ 

(Miller 1993:17). Miller (ibid.) states further that  

[w]hen this action is complete, the abdominal viscera form a steady base so that the 

muscle fibers of the central tendon of the diaphragm can assist in elevating the ribs  

so that ‘lung volume increases’.  

In the (controlled) exhalation phase, and therefore when phonation takes place,  

the abdominal muscles must retain their antagonistic relationships (counteracting, not 

tensing), remaining as long as is comfortable near the inspiratory position’ and 

therefore ‘the expiratory gesture of the breath cycle is delayed (Miller 1993:16).  

Stark (1999:92) remarks that ‘[t]he critical parameters of breath management are 

subglottal pressure and airflow rates which are affected both by the respiratory 

muscles and glottal resistance to the breath’. Stark (1999:120) elucidates this notion 

of ‘glottal resistance to the breath’ by advising that ‘at the end of inhalation, the glottis 

should be quickly and firmly closed and the larynx should be at the same low position 

it assumed during inhalation’. Subsequently, ‘the expiratory muscles contract to 

elevate the subglottal pressure to a level commensurate with the intensity desired’ 



   

 

43 

 

(ibid.). The singer physically experiences subglottal pressure ‘as “pent-up” breath 

energy, and sometimes described as held-back breath, compressed breath, or breath 

damming’ (ibid.). Subglottal pressure levels can vary significantly between different 

singers, but also within one singer, and it ‘can be generated with a variety of abdominal 

and intercostal configurations’ (Stark 1999:115). Airflow rates (or the flow of air through 

the glottis) are closely related to subglottal pressure and, according to Stark (ibid.), 

they are ‘equally variable’. He points out that ‘falsetto singing often uses higher airflow 

rates than chest voice, and that airflow rates decrease with strong glottal closure and 

a large closed quotient’ (Stark 1999:116). I concur with Stark (1999:119) that the 

appoggio technique is a complete system of ‘coordinated physical adjustments’ and 

that this ‘form of vocal coordination