INTEGRATING INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES INTO THE TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SCIENCE IN LESOTHO By BONNQE ‘MAMOLIBELI TAOLANE Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy with Specialisation in Subject Education in Science & Technology Faculty of Education at the UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE (UFS) Supervisor: Prof T. Jita Co-supervisor: Prof L. Jita DATE: April 2023 i DECLARATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I sincerely express my gratitude to Professor Thuthukile Jita, my supervisor and coordinator of the ILCIS research group and Professor Loyiso Jita, my co-supervisor, SANRAL chair and Dean of the Faculty of Education for their unwavering guidance, encouragement and support throughout the journey of this study. I was honoured to learn a lot from the experts in this field. I would not have reached this far without your patience, coaching and mentoring. Special appreciation is extended to the financial support of the office of the SANRAL chair and staff, for granting me the study bursary as SADC part time student in the ILCIS research cohort of 2018 at UFS, which formed the foundation to the conduction of this study. Special thanks to Christa and her colleagues in the Department of Education, Moitheri, Boitumelo and Mohau in the Prof’s office, for their dedicated support and patience throughout this journey. To the ILCIS research group and 2018 Cohort, I thank you all for the hard work, supporting and encouraging me to shape the study to what it is today. My sincere thanks to Doctors, Post-doctoral researchers in the ILCIS group and all Doctors from other research groups who were often invited to the ILCIS academic writing workshops, for guiding me refine the study. Special honour goes to Dr Letloenyane, Dr Mweli, Dr Muresherwi and Dr Nichols. who reviewed and provided feedback for specific chapters to complete the journey. Special mention also goes to Dr Tsakeni and Professor Mokhele-Makgalwa who were steadily present in most of the ILCIS academic writing workshops to enrich the study. My heartfelt thanks are extended to Cornelia Geldenhuys for her unwavering support, navigating with me throughout the journey of this thesis, editing and encouraging me to push through. Special mention also goes to my colleagues at ECoL who also reviewed some areas of the thesis. Special appreciation also goes to the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) Lesotho for allowing me to conduct this study in Primary Schools. Above all, I thank the almighty God for carrying and guiding me through this journey, and for directing me to interact with all the individuals met to make the study a success. iii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to: My loving husband Tsoloane Taolane. Thank you my love, for your unconditional love, support and belief in me even when I started to doubt the feasibility of completing this study. My loving sons: Molibeli, Sehlabaka and Mahlomola. Thank you for your love, patience and understanding even when I could not be what a mother should be to her sons. All my friends with special mention of Mabafokeng Mahahabisa, colleagues (former and current) and ECoL management. Honour to you, my dream could not have come true without your motivation, sacrifices and unwavering support. My dear father Mohlaoli Mahamo (MHSRP), mother, Mamafankane Mahamo, granny, Malebohang Jaase, aunty Mamonyane Ranoha, all my brothers and sisters (siblings and in-laws), my dear Kamohelo Lethoko, the Leoaneka, Taolane, Hlabana and related families. It was through your encouragement, sacrifices, belief in me and prayers the thesis sailed through. Kea Leboha Matebele le Bakoena. Molimo a mpolokele lona. iv ABSTRACT Information and communication technology (ICT) integration in Basic education has been regarded a struggle in some countries, even though the value of technology in education is globally appreciated. Scholars recognised the underutilisation of ICT and many schools in developing countries either have no ICT infrastructure or conditions do not match those where training on ICT integration was held, Lesotho included. This qualitative multiple case study investigated how teachers use ICT in science, currently referred to as Science and Technology at Basic Education in Lesotho, from the interpretive perspective. Three purposively selected Grade 6 - 7 teachers were studied through the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) theory, supported with the High Possibility Classroom (HPC) model with their principals engaged in exit interviews. The study reveals the discourses that inform teachers’ ICT integration practices in Lesotho and document classroom practices of ICT integration into the teaching of science and technology in the reviewed curriculum. Lastly, it accounts for the way teachers integrate ICT into teaching of science in Lesotho. Findings from content analysis of interviews, classroom observations and policy framework revealed some interesting factors that contribute to the way teachers integrate ICT in Lesotho. Specifically, the study highlights the status of teachers’ exposure to productive discourses motivating ICT integration. It further reveals the selected teachers’ patterns of classroom practices of ICT integration, incorporating assessment of learners’ 21st-century skills and how contextual constraints to ICT integration were confronted. The study highlights pointers of ICT integration in the Policy frameworks and gaps in Curriculum and Assessment Policy, 2009 and the Science and Technology curriculum for Grade 7. The study recommends Continuous Professional Development for teachers to strengthen their ICT competences and pedagogy; teachers taking responsibility for improving their careers to fit into the global world; support for experienced ICT-integrating teachers to become model teachers for ICT pedagogy and developing Communities of Practice on ICT integration. The study proposed the model for effective ICT integration in primary schools that could inform the education system, curriculum developers, teachers and policy makers especially, of ICT policy for education in Lesotho currently at draft stage. The study further suggests direction for future studies. v Keywords: Information and Communication Technology (ICT); ICT integration; Discourse; Science instruction; Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework; The High Possibility Classroom (HPC) model; Classroom practices; Basic Education; In-service teachers; Teaching and Learning. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... II DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................... III ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... IV LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. XI LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ XII LIST OF LESSON SEGMENTS ......................................................................................... XIII ACRONYMS ..................................................................................................................... XIV CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY .................................. 1 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background to the Study ......................................................................................... 3 1.2 Research Problem ................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Literature Review and Theoretical Framework ........................................................ 7 1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................ 9 1.5 Research Aim and Objectives ............................................................................... 10 1.6 Research Design AND Methodology ..................................................................... 10 1.7 Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 11 1.8 Sampling ............................................................................................................... 12 1.9 Data Analysis, Interpretation, Reporting and Quality Assurance ............................ 12 1.10 Value of the Proposed Research ........................................................................... 13 1.11 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................... 13 1.12 Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................................................... 14 1.13 Layout of Chapters ................................................................................................ 15 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................. 17 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 17 2.2 The Setting for the Study ....................................................................................... 18 2.2.1 Background – the country ............................................................................... 18 2.2.2 The Lesotho education system ....................................................................... 18 2.2.3 The new Lesotho Curriculum .......................................................................... 19 2.2.3.1 The Lesotho Science and Technology Curriculum ....................................... 20 2.2.3 Clarification of key concepts ........................................................................... 21 2.3 Teaching and Learning of Science in the 21st Century ........................................... 24 2.4 Philosophy of ICT Integration into Teaching and Learning ..................................... 25 2.5 What Informs ICT Integration in Classroom Practices ........................................... 27 vii 2.6 Discourses about ICT Integration in Education ...................................................... 29 2.7 Studies on ICT-Integrated Classroom Practices .................................................... 35 2.7.1 ICT in international schools ............................................................................ 35 2.7.2 Integration of ICT in science & technology in sub-Saharan Africa ..................... 38 2.7.3 Integration of ICT in schools in South Africa ...................................................... 39 2.7.4 Integration of ICT in schools in Lesotho .......................................................... 43 2.8 Studies on Exemplary ICT Integration Practices .................................................... 46 2.9 Theoretical Background ......................................................................................... 47 2.9.1 Using the TPACK framework in ICT-integrated instruction .............................. 48 2.9.2 Trends in the evolution of the TPACK framework ........................................... 50 2.9.3 The HPC model .............................................................................................. 52 2.9.4 Justification for the TPACK framework and HPC model for the study ............. 53 2.10 Gap in Literature about ICT Integration ................................................................. 58 2.11 The conceptual Framework guiding the Study ....................................................... 59 2.12 Summary ............................................................................................................... 61 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN .............................................. 62 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 62 3.2 Research Paradigm and Philosophical Assumptions ............................................. 63 3.3 Research Design and Approach ............................................................................ 65 3.4 Research sample and Sampling Technique .......................................................... 66 3.5 Data Collection ...................................................................................................... 68 3.5.1 ICT integration assessment tools .................................................................... 69 3.5.2 Document analysis ............................................................................................ 70 3.5.3 Classroom observations .................................................................................... 71 3.5.4 In-depth interviews ............................................................................................ 73 3.5.5 Gaining access to primary schools ................................................................. 74 3.6 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 75 3.7 Trustworthiness of the Results .............................................................................. 78 3.7.1 Triangulation of Instruments ........................................................................... 79 3.7.2 Member checking ........................................................................................... 79 3.7.3 Thick description............................................................................................. 80 3.7.4 Prolonged time in the field .............................................................................. 80 3.8 External auditor ..................................................................................................... 80 3.8.1 Clarity on bias ................................................................................................. 80 3.8.2 Crystallisation ................................................................................................. 81 3.9 Delimitations and Limitations ................................................................................. 81 viii 3.10 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................... 82 3.11 Summary ............................................................................................................... 82 CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION..................... 83 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 83 4.2 Data Presentation .................................................................................................. 83 4.2.1 The case of Thupa, the ICT-savvy teacher ........................................................ 84 4.2.1.1 Introducing Thupa and the Sentleng Primary School classroom profile ........ 84 4.2.1.2 The teacher’s ICT integration initial preparations ......................................... 87 Incorporating ICT into lesson planning ............................................................... 90 Initial Introduction phase ...................................................................................... 92 4.2.1.3 Using ICT in instructional practices .............................................................. 97 Groups’ presentations ........................................................................................ 101 Teaching approaches Thupa is comfortable with ............................................. 104 Going beyond the usual teaching practices ...................................................... 108 4..2.1.4 The teacher’s ICT integration collaboration practices ................................ 109 4.2.1.5 Experienced challenges and mitigations in the classroom context ............. 115 4.2.1.6 Synthesis of Thupa’s practices of ICT integration at Sentleng PS .............. 118 4.2.1.7 Case conclusion ........................................................................................ 119 4.2.2 The case of Lethu, the lucky-bird teacher in an ICT-enriched primary school .. 120 4.2.2.1 Introducing Lethu and the Leratong Primary School (PS) .......................... 120 4.2.2.2 Lethu’s ICT integration initial preparations ................................................. 125 4.2.2.3 Using ICTs in Instructional practices .......................................................... 132 4.2.2.4 Lethu’s ICT integration collaboration practices ........................................... 147 4.2.2.5 The dilemma of the classroom context challenges ..................................... 148 4.2.2.6 Synthesis of Lethu’s classroom practices of ICT integration ...................... 148 4.2.2.7 Case conclusion ........................................................................................ 150 4.2.3 The case of Nasi, the ICT on-the-job-trained teacher ................................... 150 4.2.3.1 Introducing Nasi and the Lebisang Primary School classroom profile ........ 150 4.2.3.2 Nasi’s Initial preparations for using the Computers in instruction ............... 152 4.2.3.3 Using ICT in instructional practices incorporating formative assessment ... 162 4.2.3.4 The school’s adaptation to the current curriculum ...................................... 171 4.2.3.5 Experienced challenges and mitigation strategies in classroom practices .. 177 4.2.3.6 Synthesis of Nasi’s practices of ICT integration at Lebisang PS ................ 179 4.2.3.7 Case conclusion ........................................................................................ 181 4.2.4 The National Policy Framework informing ICT integration ............................... 181 4.2.4.1 Introducing the Policy Documents .............................................................. 181 ix 4.2.4.2 Interpreting Policy expectations on use of ICTs in classroom practices ..... 190 4.4 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................... 194 CHAPTER 5: CROSS-CASE ANALYSIS, SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................... 196 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 196 5.1.1 Summary of the study ..................................................................................... 196 5.2 Cross-Case Data Analysis and Discussions of Key findings ................................ 197 5.2.1 ICT integration discourses for primary schools ................................................ 198 5.2.1.1 Explaining discourses of ICT integration within the context of the selected schools ......................................................................................................... 201 5.2.2 Teachers’ exposure to productive discourses of ICT integration ...................... 203 5.2.2.1 Explaining teachers’ uneven exposure to productive discourses of ICT Integration .................................................................................................... 204 5.2.3 Teachers’ Classroom Practices of ICT Integration in the Science and Technology Curriculum .................................................................................................... 206 5.2.3.1 Explaining teachers’ practices of integration of ICTs .................................. 208 5.2.4 Teachers’ patterns of assessing learners in ICT integrated lessons ................ 212 5.2.4.1 Explaining teachers’ espoused ICT Integration proficiency vis-à-vis observed ICT integration practices ............................................................................... 213 5.3 Key Findings ....................................................................................................... 215 5.4 The Proposed Basic ICT Integration Model (BIIM) for Primary Schools ............... 224 5.5 Conclusions ......................................................................................................... 228 5.6 Recommendations for policy, practice and future research ................................. 231 5.7 Significance of the Study ..................................................................................... 232 5.8 Limitations of the Study ....................................................................................... 234 5.9 The Researcher’s Final reflections ...................................................................... 234 5.10 Summary of the Chapter ..................................................................................... 236 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 238 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... 251 A. Ethical Clearance ................................................................................................ 251 B. Interview Protocol for Teachers ........................................................................... 252 C. Interview Protocol for Principals .......................................................................... 255 D. Observation Protocol/Schedule ........................................................................... 257 E. Content Analysis Protocol ................................................................................... 258 F: Ministry of Education & Training Permission letter to Primary schools ................. 259 G. Letter from the editor ................................................................................................ 260 x H. Plagiarism report ....................................................................................................... 261 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2. 1: The Adopted contextualised TPACK framework (Rosenberg and Koehler, 2015: page 187) .................................................................................................................... 51 Figure 2.2: The High-Possibility Classrooms (HPC) framework (Adapted from Hunters, 2017:page 561 ) ........................................................................................................... 53 Figure 2.3: Merged TPACK & HPC ..................................................................................... 54 Figure 2.4: Integration of teachers’ tpack knowledge and other concepts in the study......... 60 Figure 4.1: Teacher joining Thupa’s lesson for support ....................................................... 88 Figure 4.2: Mobile Phones Brought to School by Learners .................................................. 89 Figure 4.3: Thupa’s lesson plans Comparison..................................................................... 91 Figure 4.4: Snapshot of Thupa’s lesson plan activities ........................................................ 92 Figure 4.5: Projecting Pictures on Improvised Whiteboard ................................................ 106 Figure 4.6: Learners Browsing Using Mobile Phones ........................................................ 107 Figure 4.7: Improvising for whiteboard for projecting pictures ............................................ 112 Figure 4.8: Teachers’ collaboration workshop on ICT integration ...................................... 113 Figure 4.9: (Thupa) The Skype lesson with an international primary school ...................... 114 Figure 4.10: Teacher & learner attempting to resolve technical problem ........................... 117 Figure 4.11: Drawing Pictures Accessed on Mobile Phones.............................................. 118 Figure 4.12: Lethu’s Lesson plans extract ......................................................................... 126 Figure 4.13: Lethu & Learners searching different types of rocks ...................................... 136 Figure 4.14: Real-time assessment in Lethu’s lesson........................................................ 139 Figure 4.15: Lethu demonstrating the earth and magnetic compass ................................. 140 Figure 4.16: Search Results Displaying the Cell Information ............................................. 142 Figure 4.17: computer education syllabus vs Technology domain syllabus ....................... 157 Figure 4.18: Snapshot of Nasi’s lesson plans .................................................................... 158 Figure 4.19: Nasi’s Learners engaged in an activity in the computer laboratory ................ 162 Figure 4.20: Nasi attending learners challenges in the instruction ..................................... 163 Figure 4.21: Summary of key points noted on the board for reference .............................. 172 Figure 5.1: The Proposed Basic ICT Integration Model (BIIM) for Primary Schools ........... 225 xii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Summary of demographic information of participants ......................................... 67 Table 4.1: Content Analysis of Policy Framework Documents ........................................... 184 xiii LIST OF LESSON SEGMENTS Lesson Segment (Lethu) 1: Introducing lessons ................................................................ 128 Lesson Segment (Lethu) 2: Three lessons introduction continuation ................................. 129 Lesson Segment (Lethu) 3: Using the variety of available ICTs in instruction .................... 133 Lesson Segment (Lethu) 4: Lethu’s further ICT integration practices ................................ 138 Lesson Segment (Lethu) 5: embedded formative assessment in the lessons ................... 144 Lesson Segment (Nasi) 1: Introducing lessons ................................................................. 161 Lesson Segment (Nasi) 2: Guiding learners in the computer lab ....................................... 164 Lesson Segment (Nasi) 3: Nasi assessing learners in real time ........................................ 166 Lesson Segment (Thupa) 1: Thupa introducing lessons ...................................................... 94 Lesson Segment (Thupa) 2: Teacher-Learners’ interactions ............................................... 95 Lesson Segment (Thupa) 3:Teacher-Learners’ Conversation on their context .................... 96 Lesson Segment (Thupa) 4: Demonstration of ICT integration practices ............................. 98 Lesson Segment (Thupa) 5: Thupa guiding learners browsing .......................................... 100 Lesson Segment (Thupa) 6: Group presentations in ICT-oriented instructions .................. 102 xiv ACRONYMS CAP: Curriculum & Assessment Policy CK: Content Knowledge CPD: Continuous Professional Development HPC: High Possibility Classroom ICT: Information & Communication Technology ISTE: International Society for Technology in Education LCE: Lesotho College of Education LECSA: Lesotho Evangelical Church in Southern Africa LGCSE: Lesotho General Certificate of Secondary Education MICST: Lesotho Ministry of Information, Science and Technology MOET: Lesotho Ministry of Education & Training PCK: Pedagogical Content Knowledge PK: Pedagogical Knowledge PS: Primary School STEM: Science Technology Engineering & Mathematics STIC: Science Technology Innovation Centre TCK: Technological Content Knowledge TK: Technological Knowledge TPACK: Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge TPK: Technological Pedagogical Knowledge UFS: University of the Free State UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation 1 CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY 1.0 INTRODUCTION Emerging technologies require teaching and learning experiences to shift from traditional teaching to constructive learning by engaging learners in technology- oriented, scientific, inquiry-based teaching and learning (Ghavifekr & Rosdy, 2015; Guzey & Roehrig, 2009). The present study investigated how Grade 6 - 7 Basic Education teachers in Lesotho integrate Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) into classroom practices. Follow up data collection with one participant teacher was conducted in Grade 6 in another year, where he was currently placed for Science and Technology. Scholars argue that the effective integration of ICTs into instruction has the potential to help improve learning and teaching (Aikins & Arthur-Nyarko, 2019; Jita & Akintunde, 2021). Research trends on ICT integration since the 1980s have uncovered teachers’ multiple uses of technology in classroom practices, highlighting ICTs’ potential to improve teaching and learning. The main barriers to successful integration were mainly the lack of infrastructure and teachers’ computer literacy skills (Msila, 2015). The studies further exposed more obstacles such as teachers’ access to resources, lack of confidence and competence skills (Chigona, 2018), as well as the beliefs and attitudes of individual teachers towards the use of technology for teaching and learning (Günes & Bahçivan, 2016; Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Innovative digital technologies emerged in the 21st century, which required of teachers to shift from traditional teaching instruction to technology-oriented instruction and develop learners’ ability to implement 21st-century skills (Davies & West, 2014). To facilitate effective ICT integration, different countries have developed ICT policies that guide the integration process through reforms which have been implemented. However, it is clear that in many cases the intended ICT integration policy plan and the actual integration process are frequently out of synchronisation (Cohen, 1990). Thus, more research is needed to focus on understanding teachers’ ICT integration practices in greater depth. In order to motivate the use of ICTs in teaching, many countries have identified projects to train teachers on ICT pedagogies and have even supplied schools with 2 some ICT infrastructure (Kalanda & De Villiers, 2013). George and Ogunniyi (2016) argue that the effective integration of ICTs into teaching provides opportunities to engage learners in conceptualising the sometimes abstract science content. There is growing literature that explores the actual classroom practices of ICT integration of teachers in depth. For instance, Williams and Otrel-Cass (2017) engaged six science teachers in a case study. The teachers were trained on how to implement learner- centred approaches where the learners take responsibility for their own learning process. What is surprising is that, even though the literature reveals that there has been an improvement in teachers’ ICT competences over time, teachers continue to underutilise the acquired skills in their classroom practices (Brinkerhoff, 2006; Chai et al.; Tsai & Tan, 2011; Guillén-Gámez & Mayorga-Fernández, 2020; Padayachee, 2017). On the issue of underutilisation of ICT skills, Ke and Hsu (2015) contemplate that there is usually a gap between teachers’ ICT classroom practices and expectations about how they should integrate ICT into teaching and learning; hence, the critical need to assist teachers in coping with teaching using technology. Ke and Hsu (2015) and Mishra and Koehler (2006) further emphasise that when teachers have well-developed Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), they can design and implement innovative technology-oriented instruction in their classroom practices. Existing studies on the use of technology in teaching and learning mainly focus on barriers to ICT integration, professional development training, the beliefs and attitudes of individual teachers, and the role of leadership in the ICT integration process (Gaible & Burns, 2005; Howard, Chan & Caputi, 2015; Koh, Chai & Tay, 2014). Some studies also provide brief accounts of the ways in which ICTs are used through self-reporting surveys and interviews (Hinostroza, et al., 2011). For instance, Hayes’ (2007) qualitative study explored six public schools in Australia giving a brief account of teachers’ ICT integration classroom practices using classroom observations and interviews. Each school nominated teachers who were innovative and were considered experts on the use of technology in learning and teaching. The growing body of qualitative studies in South Africa also highlights the emerging constraints to ICT integration in schools’ contexts (Chigona, 2018; Jita & Munje 2020; Msila, 2015; Tsakeni & Jita, 2019). The studies highlight the limited literature available that focuses 3 on subject-specific classroom practices. The implication is that more studies are required to gain deeper insights into teachers’ actual ICT integration practices in specific subjects. Thus, the present study intended to reveal classroom practices of ICT integration in the Science and Technology subject in Basic education through triangulation of data on teachers’ ICT integration strategies in the Lesotho context. Qualitative studies accessed mostly used interviews and/or observations without much triangulation with document analysis. The present study hopes to contribute to the literature on ICT integration practices, informed by classroom observations in Lesotho. 1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY The study was undertaken within the Lesotho context. Lesotho has announced the 10 years of basic education as compulsory for all Basotho children. A new, integrated curriculum was developed (MoET, 2009) and has gradually been implemented from primary school since 2013. In the new curriculum, the subject Science has been replaced with an integrated Science and Technology learning area and the curriculum is divided into five learning areas. The redesigned basic education curriculum intends to provide learners with scientific and technological knowledge and skills that will enable them to function socially, economically and technologically in the global world. MoET (2009) echoes that learners will build excellent communication skills using ICTs as part of the Science and Technology curriculum. The redesigned syllabus was rolled out in Grade 7 in 2017. Regarding basic education, I assumed that primary schools are now better established with adaptation to the new curriculum; hence, my intention to investigate teachers’ ICT integration classroom practices in Grades 6 - 7 in Basic Education. Lesotho is no exception to the problem of low levels of ICT integration into subject teaching (Baller, Dutta & Lanvin, 2016; Kalanda & De Villiers, 2013; Makuru & Jita 2022). While reforms have taken place, for instance, the training of teachers on ICT integration through Microsoft School of Technology Innovation Centre (STIC) project since 2007, it is still not clear, however, what the results are in terms of changed classroom practices pertaining to the integration of ICTs into science teaching. Lesotho, like other countries, is committed to international protocols such as Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)s, Education for All (EFA) and the SADC 4 protocol, which encourage development of Science and Technology and promote a curiosity for teaching and learning of science and technology (Lesotho Science and Technology Policy, 2005). Moreover, Lesotho has its own policies, such as the National Vision 2020, a National ICT Policy of 2005 (MICST, 2005), the Lesotho Education Sector Strategic Plan, ESSP of 2005–2015 (MoET, 2005), a MoET Curriculum and Assessment Policy (MoET, 2009), the Lesotho National Strategic Development Plan (2013–2017), the Lesotho Country Working Document (2017), the Education Sector Plan of 2016–2026 (MoET, 2016) and the Integrated Primary Curriculum which guide the integration of technology into education in general, even though Lesotho does not have an ICT policy for education specifically. The Lesotho National ICT policy framework recommends that learners be empowered with technological and entrepreneurial skills to prepare them for social, economic and technological challenges. In addition, the new Curriculum and Assessment Policy has introduced a Science and Technology curriculum. The curriculum requires of learners to appreciate and apply scientific and technological knowledge in effective communication using ICT. Learners are expected to appreciate the use of scientific and technological knowledge as well as skills for promoting personal and social development, interaction within an environment in a sustainable way, good health and healthy living and production, especially by using locally available materials (MoET, 2009). Additionally, since 2005, projects such as the School Net Lesotho, Microsoft School Technology Innovation Centre Project and the NEPAD e-School have benefited many secondary schools in Africa, including Lesotho, with ICT skills (Jita & Akintunde, 2021). Moreover, in 2006, Lesotho undertook a national study investigating the training needs of teachers for mathematics, science and technology curriculum-effective delivery (Mokuku et al., 2013). The limited studies in Lesotho on the use of ICT in the classroom collectively show some evidence of ICT integration practices among teachers in specific subject areas (Bohloko et al., 2019; Jita & Akintunde, 2021; Lisene & Jita, 2018). A quasi- experimental study by Bohloko et al. (2019), for example, examined the integration of YouTube videos into the learning and teaching of LGCSE chemistry curriculum. The study reaffirms what has been indicated in literature, namely that the use of ICTs such as YouTube improves learners understanding of abstract scientific concepts. 5 Similarly, an action research evaluating ICT integration in the science classrooms of Lesotho secondary schools has been documented and established that teachers were optimistic about the use of ICTs (Kalanda & De Villiers, 2013). However, Lisene and Jita’s (2018) quantitative survey emphasises teachers’ inadequate use of developed ICT skills in the learning and teaching of physical science at LGCSE level (Grade 11). This science curriculum at senior secondary level in Lesotho requires of teachers to empower learners with ICT skills as they prepare to transit to tertiary levels. On the other hand, Jita and Akintunde (2021) explored teachers’ perceived confidence of ICT integration by surveying pre-service teachers from the National University of Lesotho (NUL) and the LCE in their final-year programme of science education studies. It is evident from their study that the teachers in Lesotho are at best only moderately integrate ICTs in science lessons, and that it is necessary to have mechanisms in place to support them with ICT pedagogy. On the contrary, Ralebese’s (2018) study focuses on teachers’ instructional and assessment practices at primary schools in Lesotho for the recent curriculum of MoET (2009). However, the study is silent about teachers’ use of ICT resources in the classroom practices. The present study therefore focuses on exploring the actual ICT integration into classroom practices of in-service teachers at primary schools to inform the research community about these practices within the context of Lesotho. The small pool of existing studies suggests the need for future research to focus on classroom practices in order to gain deeper insights into how technology is integrated into instruction. What seems to be missing in the studies is lessons from practices of teachers who are experts in ICT integration, focusing in particular on the requirements of the new Science and Technology curriculum in Lesotho (MoET, 2009). Hennessy et al. (2010) argue that teachers with good ICT integration, classroom practices can be studied to inform the body of research about effective ICT integration strategies; hence, my interest in investigating how science teachers, within the context of Lesotho, use ICTs for instruction in their classrooms. 1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM Literature shows that many teachers have developed a range of useful ICT skills, even though there is still inadequate ICT integration into learning and teaching (Chai et al., 2011; George & Ogunniyi, 2016; Jita & Munje, 2020; Sang et al., 2010). Many 6 countries have developed policies and strategic plans to facilitate effective ICT integration into schools. They have invested in reforms to provide infrastructure for schools and empower teachers with ICT skills. For instance, Vallance (2008) documents how Singapore developed the master plan for IT in Education policy. It is through the strategic plans from this policy that all schools in Singapore were equipped with ICT infrastructure and internet by 2002. The aim of the policy was to encourage communication and collaboration between teachers and learners. Lesotho has also developed the National ICT policy and the Education strategic plan to motivate ICT integration in all sectors. These policy documents were developed to facilitate innovation, creative thinking, leadership skills and lifelong learning. Lesotho engaged in initiatives capacitating both in-service and preservice teachers with ICT pedagogy and in some cases, with computers also, which benefitted some primary and secondary schools. What is not clear is why after initiatives such as the School Net Lesotho, STIC Project and the New Partnership for Africa Development (NEPAD) e- School there is still inadequate ICT integration in schools (Jita & Akintunde, 2021; Kalanda & De Villiers, 2013). Although many countries have developed national ICT policies for effective integration of ICT into teaching and learning, there is a gap between the intentions of ICT policy and science teachers’ ICT integration practices. This could be due to reasons such as teachers’ sense making of the policy, possibly differing from policy makers’ intentions and context-related factors (Cohen, 1990; Moffitt, O'Neill & Cohen, 2023). It is not surprising, therefore, that some researchers have called for more exploration of actual cases of ICT integration into classroom practices in order to develop models of good practices, as most previous studies have not explored ICT-oriented instruction in depth (Prestridge, 2012). When emphasising the need to explore teachers’ ICT classroom practices, Finger and Finger (2013) refer to teachers’ ICT integration classroom practices as a “black box of technology integration”, as not much is known about how teachers go about integrating ICT into learning and teaching. Additionally, Kalanda and De Villiers (2013:1664) accentuate this need when they argue, Contextual and localised research is needed on e-learning, particularly on the progress of ICT integration in the science classrooms, since science teachers were among the early adopters of the new technologies. 7 The implication from the quote is that research will inform the education system about what is happening on the ground regarding the use of ICTs in learning and teaching. A study by Juanda, Shidiq and Nasrudin (2021) in the era of Covid-19 further stresses the need to ensure teachers development of TPACK and readiness for ICT integration to cope with emerging pandemics. Thus, the present study sought to investigate the ways teachers integrate ICT into science and technology instruction at the basic education level to understand how teachers cope with ICT integration and to inform teachers about a range of practices on the use of ICTs for instruction in Lesotho classroom situations. The study has the potential to contribute to the ICT Policy for Education in Lesotho, which is currently in draft stage and the reviews of Lesotho Basic Education Curriculum policy which informs the review of curriculum. 1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Teaching science through an inquiry approach has the potential to engage learners in higher order thinking skills, especially when integrating ICTs into such learning circumstances. Emerging technologies have the potential to improve science instruction (Donnelly, McGarr & O’Reilly, 2011; Guzey & Roehrig, 2009; Sang et al., 2010). Different models of ICT integration have been developed to explain ICT integration in schools. Donnelly et al. (2011) argue that some teachers integrate ICT for assessing learners, while others use it for learning purposes, shifting from a teacher-dominant instruction to a learner-centred instruction. On the other hand, Starkey (2010) has presented a digital-age matrix that can be used to explain how teachers utilise ICTs in teaching and learning. The matrix highlights the levels of learning and expectations such as presenting and processing information and communicating using technology. It provides one important way to frame and understand the integration of ICT into teaching and learning. On the other hand, Oyier et al. (2015) argue that emerging technologies assist in managing instructional practices and recording students’ learning progress in schools. The authors further emphasise that classroom instruction is changing rapidly with ICT integration, as chalk and blackboard are gradually replaced by devices such as smartboard, notebooks, memory cards, flash disks and overhead projectors in a technology-oriented instruction classroom. On the other hand, Capuk (2015) points out different ways of ICT integration, including integrating ICT, as a stand-alone 8 subject in which learners are taught technology content, or ICT integrated into curricula in different ways in a variety of subject disciplines, including the virtual laboratory. However, most commentators discourage the integration of ICT as a stand-alone subject matter, which the current study also underwrites. What is clear from previous research is that teachers cannot simply integrate ICT; they need to have special knowledge of technology to integrate it into lessons. Mishra and Koehler (2006) have established that teachers manage to utilise technology tools in instruction if they have what is called Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). This is an extension of Shulman’s (1986) model of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) (Koh & Divaharan, 2013). Shulman (1986) established the knowledge base for teachers with one of the constructs as Pedagogical Content Knowledge, which is critical for teaching effectively. The researcher emphasises that apart from content knowledge, a teacher needs this special professional knowledge in order to deliver the lesson effectively. The TPACK adds the pedagogy of technology to the PCK model by Shulman, incorporating teachers’ knowhow of delivery of instruction using ICT tools. The TPACK has seven knowledge areas, also referred to as constructs. They are Pedagogical Knowledge (PK), Content Knowledge (CK), Technological Knowledge (TK), Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK). The definitions of these constructs by Chai et al. (2011) are demonstrated in section 2.9.1 of the literature review. However, according to Mishra and Koehler (2006), the TPACK framework has a gap; it describes the sources of knowledge underlying ICT integration expertise but does not indicate how the knowledge can be strengthened, especially through instructional practices. In extending the TPACK framework, Koehler, Mishra and Cain (2013) emphasise the role of contextual factors in science teachers’ TPACK and encourage future research to validate the model. Koh et al. (2014) further justify the significance of context in teachers’ strategies of ICT integration, and they refer to the model as TPACK in action. Rosenberg and Koehler (2015) further emphasise the contribution of contextual factors to TPACK, shaping ICT integration across schools. However, the scholars stipulate that qualitative studies on the impact of context on TPACK do not often analyse the factors in depth; hence, the need for further research in this regard. 9 A variety of ICT integration models are established in literature in addition to the TPACK framework. Examples of such models are the Teacher ICT Integration Model and the teachers’ ICT-integration support model. The Teacher ICT Integration Model was used to establish orientation of different types of teachers while integrating ICT in classrooms. It was revealed that some teachers utilise ICT for assessment purposes, while others use it for learner centred teaching (Donnelly et al., 2011). The teachers’ ICT integration support model highlights the support teachers require to use laptops effectively in teaching using ICT-incorporated instruction (Howard et al., 2015). The researcher further indicates that the relationship between teachers’ ICT integration and subject-specific areas depends on the overall support, the technical support and the professional development that influence teachers’ beliefs and readiness to use laptops in their classroom instruction. The model has a number of self-reflective scales used to measure teachers’ competences in the use of ICT in the classroom. The current study draws from the contextual TPACK model to allow me to gain deep insights into how individual teachers instruct learners by using technology in the classrooms in a variety of school contexts. The TPACK model is appropriate for this study, since teachers who have advanced TPACK knowledge are likely to be innovative and can manage technology-oriented activities. Such teachers usually have the skills to develop authentic assessment tasks (Graham et al., 2009) and the TPACK framework will thus allow me as a researcher to collect valuable data on the teachers’ classrooms practices in a technology-oriented instruction. The TPACK is supported with the High Possibility Classroom (HPC) model to find finer details of teachers’ classroom practices of ICT integration. A more elaborate discussion of these models is presented in Chapter 2 of this study. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The study answers the following main research question: How do teachers integrate ICTs into the teaching of science in basic education in Lesotho classrooms? The following sub-questions unpack the main question: 1. What are the discourses that inform ICT integration practices of teachers of science in Lesotho? 10 2. How do teachers across different school contexts in Lesotho practise the integration of ICTs into the teaching of science renamed science and technology in Grades 6 to 7? 3. How can a (theoretically and empirically) sound account be constructed of the teachers’ integration of ICTs into the teaching of science and technology in Lesotho? 1.5 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES The aim of the study was to: Investigate how teachers integrate ICTs into the teaching of science in basic education in Lesotho classrooms. Basic education in Lesotho comprises the first 10 years of schooling, from Grades 1 to 10. At Grades 5 - 7, “Science” has been replaced with “Science and Technology” in the current curriculum. In 2005, no significant professional development programmes for teachers on ICT-oriented instruction existed in Lesotho, but from 2006, the number of trained teachers gradually increased (Kalanda & De Villiers, 2013). The specific objectives of the study were to:  Explore how the discourses inform science and technology teachers’ ICT integration practices in Lesotho.  Document the actual classroom practices of teachers across different primary schools in Lesotho who integrate ICTs into the teaching of science and technology in Grades 6 - 7.  Construct a theoretically sound account (and explanation) of why the integration of ICT into the teaching of science and technology takes place the way it does in Lesotho. 1.6 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY A qualitative study approach was used to explore and understand how teachers integrate ICT into the teaching of science and technology. The study employed an exploratory multiple-case design from an interpretive perspective to develop an in- 11 depth analysis of science teachers’ ICT integration into classroom practices. Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2018) postulate that interpretivism enables the researcher to undertake small-scale research from either an insider or an outsider perspective. Moreover, the researcher was able to understand, interpret and explain the observed actions and meanings rather than focusing on causes of the actions. On the other hand, Johnson (2014) affirms that a multiple-case study enables the researcher to explore different cases of the same phenomena within limited resources in their natural settings. In this case, I selected specific schools where integration seemed to be happening and investigated how teachers integrate ICT into the teaching of science in Lesotho schools and then limited the findings to specific school contexts. 1.7 DATA COLLECTION I collected data from an outsider perspective (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). I collected data for a period of five to seven weeks until the data collection reached saturation point. McMillan and Schumacher (2010) further argue that valid data are achieved when events unfold naturally, with participants ignoring the presence of the researcher. Moreover, the initial plans for data collection usually change as they are reviewed after selection of the research site and when mapping the field, as experience with data collection suggests new directions of interviews and observations. To support this idea, Saldana (2011) stipulates that in qualitative studies, data collection should be regarded as an evolutionary process where pre- planned data collection methods can be changed to secure the required data if the existing plan does not work. The study employed document analysis, observations, and interviews for data collection. The content analysis of policy framework documents and lesson plans revealed how the documents informed teachers about integrating ICT into science teaching. I requested such documents from the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) Lesotho, the principals, and the participant teachers at the research site. The principals were also requested to provide a school policy that guides ICT integration into teaching even though, only one participant school had the policy. In the study about ICT school policy, Tondeur et al. (2008) suggest that future research may focus on investigating how the informal policies affect formal policies and ICT integration into schools. 12 It was planned that the three teachers from different primary schools would be observed teaching two 80-minute lessons each per week for about three weeks. However, I had to be flexible at each school, as I depended on schools’ arrangements of the use of ICT in instruction. McMillan and Schumacher (2010) argue that intensive observations reveal verbal, tacit knowledge and non-verbal words people usually demonstrate by actions or use of objects. The lessons were video recorded. After observing their lessons, in-depth interviews were conducted with the teachers for about one hour. To triangulate the results, the principals were also interviewed afterwards to get a sense of the context and expectations. The audio-recorded interviews enabled the researcher to collect intensive data on a small sample (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Ritchie et al. (2013) emphasise the critical role of the researcher for a successful interview. 1.8 SAMPLING The target population was Lesotho Basic Education schoolteachers of Science and Technology in Grades 6 - 7. Grade 7 is the exit into junior secondary education level in Lesotho. Purposeful sampling of participants within my reach (Cohen et al., 2018; Creswell & Creswell, 2018) was used to select three science and technology teachers and their principals for exit interview from schools of different contexts. The teachers’ expertise in utilising ICTs and their experience with the new science and technology curriculum were the criterion for selection. The teachers were identified through a process of nomination, including self-nomination. The teachers were also selected by multiple recommendation by the principal and local school inspector. 1.9 DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION, REPORTING AND QUALITY ASSURANCE The qualitative data were analysed inductively by coding, categorising and interpreting (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). Combination of narrative and content analysis was used to analyse data (Creswell & Creswell, 2018; Guzey & Roehrig, 2009). Individual teachers’ cases were coded, and categories established from their ICT integration classroom practices. Patterns were developed to offer in-depth descriptions of ways teachers use ICT tools in science teaching from emerging themes. Saldana (2011) further states that similar codes are grouped together under a named category; 13 however, different researchers can code the same data differently. Additionally, the author stipulates that researchers need to establish how the categories interact and interplay in order to explain and understand the emerging issues about the phenomena under study effectively. NVivo was used to analyse the collected qualitative data. To ensure reliability of the results, consistency was maintained when collecting data so that valid conclusions (Johnson & Christensen, 2014) could be reached. The interpretation of results was further supported by adequate evidence from observations of video records. To ensure the validity of the results, there was evidence that the selected teachers are experts in the utilisation of ICTs in teaching. Issues of trustworthiness such as triangulation of instruments, member checking, thick description, prolonged time spent in the field, an external auditor and clarity on bias were considered in this study (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). 1.10 VALUE OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH ICT integration into science education is meant to improve teachers’ technology pedagogy and to use specific ICT tools to improve teaching and learning (Hinostroza, et al., 2011; Jita & Akintunde, 2021). The present study will inform the education system about the possibilities of improving technology integration into science classrooms. Like other studies, there are limitations and delimitations (Beglar & Murray, 2009) to this study. The purposive sampling employed could not enable generalisation of the findings to the participants’ population. Some schools are in regions of Lesotho that are very difficult to reach and expensive for the researcher to engage due to limitations of time and funds. I sampled teachers from schools of different cultures and contexts within my reach in one district out of ten in the country. 1.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Ethical considerations were applied throughout the research stages. I adhered to the principles of informed consent (Flick, 2014). The teachers took part in the study on a voluntary basis and could withdraw from the study at any time (Morrell & Carroll, 2010). The participants were further provided with a feedback report. From the beginning of 14 the study, I sought ethical clearance from the University of Free State and the Ministry of Education in Lesotho for permission to collect data at selected schools. 1.12 DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS The following are key terms in this study: Discourse; TPACK; ICT; In-service teachers; ICT Integration; Science Instruction; The High Possibility Classroom (HPC) model; Classroom practices and Basic Education; Teaching and Learning. Chai et al. (2011:1185) define Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) as “knowledge of facilitating students’ learning of a specific content through appropriate pedagogy and technology”. Jita (2016:73, 74) defines Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) as “both hardware, software and other digital applications technologies such as computers, laptops, software programmes, mobile technologies, online tools and such e-platforms”. In-service teachers are teachers working within a school context of which majority have completed their teacher training before becoming part of the education system. Davies and West (2014) define Technology Integration (TI), which is also referred to as ICT integration, as “the effective implementation of educational technologies to accomplish intended learning outcomes”. In the present study ICT integration refers to use of the educational technologies such as computers, mobile phones, soft wares or any other available ICT resources in classroom practices to improve teaching and learning. Mobile phones are also considered in this study, since their penetration in the country is significant. The 2016 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) survey of 10 African countries stated Lesotho at 107% mobile penetration, while the After Access survey of 2017 ranked Lesotho at 79% (Gillwald & Mothobi, 2019). Bagiyan (2014:9) presents multiple definitions of discourse and concludes that it is a multi-faced phenomenon. For instance, Discourse is defined as a difficult communicative phenomenon including not only the text, but also the extra-linguistic factors, essential and necessary for the full understanding of the text. It is also defined as a thin contacting surface which pulls together language and reality, mixing lexicon and experience. Discourse can be written or spoken (Fairclough, 2013). ICT discourse 15 in this study are the spoken and written discourse that drive the use of ICTs in classroom practices. Hunter (2017) indicates that the High Possibility Classroom (HPC) model is a conceptual framework extending the TPACK using research on exemplary teachers’ expertise of ICT integration. Koehler et al. (2013:13) define Teaching as “a complicated practice that requires an interweaving of many kinds of specialised knowledge”. For instance, the specialised knowledge areas could be “knowledge of student thinking and learning, knowledge of subject matter and increasingly knowledge of technology”. Research shows that incorporating technology in teaching is complicating teaching further when teachers encounter challenges with new technologies (Koehler et al., 2013) Harel and Koichu (2010:115-116) argue that learning is multi-dimensional and multi- faced with many definitions in literature. The authors define learning as “a continuum of disequilibrium-equilibrium phases manifested by (a) intellectual needs and psychological needs that instigate or result from these phases and (b) ways of understanding or ways of thinking that are utilized and newly constructed during these phases. Classroom practices in this study refer to teachers’ actions when conducting an instruction in this case, the science and technology instruction. Basic Education in this study refers to Grade 1 to Grade 10 level of education in Lesotho, where Grade 1 to 7 is Primary school level and Grade 8 to 10 is Junior Secondary education level. Science Instruction in this study refers to teachers’ delivery of a prepared science lesson. 1.13 LAYOUT OF CHAPTERS Chapter 1 elaborates on the current situation of ICT integration at schools and its impact on the teaching and learning of science at primary schools. The challenges and the successes are also indicated, as well as how they motivate the current study. 16 Furthermore, the gap of ICT integration globally and in the Lesotho context is justified in this section. Chapter 2 covers literature on ICTs in the teaching and learning of science and the teachers’ pedagogy for ICT integration. Teachers’ use of ICTs in classroom practices of science and the ICT integration models discussed in the literature will be discussed in this section, justifying the choice of the TPACK model for this study. The chapter will also reveal what the literature says about teachers’ use of ICT-incorporated instruction in different contexts. A brief account of current Lesotho teachers’ ICT integration classroom practices and the current ICT tools status in Lesotho context will also be given qualitatively, with highlights of the country’s initiative reforms that motivated the use of technology in learning and teaching in Lesotho. Chapter 3 discusses the qualitative methodology, the exploratory multiple-case research design employed, the purposive sampling techniques and the instruments which collect data in the present study. The benefits of the design, the classroom visits, interviews, content analysis and observations that would be undertaken and the purposive sampling involved are described in this chapter. Furthermore, the characteristics of participants, the instruments used in the study, and the data collection and analysis plan are elaborated on in this section. Chapter 4 presents the narrative of cases of the three participant teachers and content analysis of policy documents. Emerging themes from the qualitative data analysis will form the basis for cross-case analysis in Chapter 5. Data will also be analysed, and presentations given with the aid of NVivo software. Chapter 5 presents the cross-case data analysis and interpretations of the three cases of the study, the discussions, recommendations, conclusions, limitations, and significance of the study. It assists to answer the last research question which requires the construction of meaning of why teachers integrate ICTs the way they do in Lesotho context. The chapter points to the evidence of the new knowledge contributed by this study to the body of research and to the Lesotho Education System in particular. 17 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION Chapter 1 introduced the background and overview of this study, which is an investigation of science teachers’ classroom practices of ICT integration into teaching and learning at the basic education level within the Lesotho context, post the introduction of the new Science and Technology curriculum at this level. Globally, a number of studies have examined integration of ICTs into learning and teaching as a necessary requirement for education (Chai et al., 2011; Ghavifekr & Rosdy, 2015; George & Ogunniyi, 2016; Jita & Munje, 2020). Moreover, scholars also emphasise that institutions for training of pre-service teachers should empower them with the necessary ICT skills to cope with effective ICT integration into classroom practices (Jita, 2016; Sang et al., 2010). The main problem centres on the persisting rather insignificant use of ICTs in instruction. The study aims to reveal discourses about ICT integration in schools, the teachers’ practice of ICT integration and how teachers’ classroom practices on the use of ICTs can be understood within a Lesotho context at Basic Education level. It is believed that sensitising the Education system about the experiences of teachers’ practices on the ground, regardless of existing contextual challenges could motivate other teachers to use ICTs effectively in their school contexts. This chapter gives an overview of existing literature on ICT integration into classroom practices, its challenges, the successes of ICT integration and the exemplary pedagogies of good classroom practices pertaining to ICT integration. The chapter also positions this study in the ongoing qualitative studies using the TPACK framework to add knowledge about teachers’ practices of ICT integration in Lesotho context. The chapter commences with the setting for the study and standards for the teaching and learning of science in the 21st century. It proceeds to studies on the integration of ICTs into education in different countries internationally and in Africa, including Lesotho, especially into science classrooms. I then continue to introduce the TPACK model as the theoretical framework for the study. Next, I provide trends of the TPACK framework as it evolves in different studies to include issues of context that encourage qualitative studies about the framework, up to the extension to the HPC model with which I also engage in this study. The chapter concludes by identifying the gaps in literature 18 regarding ICT integration into classroom practices and motivates the focus of the present study. 2.2 THE SETTING FOR THE STUDY The study was undertaken within the Lesotho context. Three science teachers from primary schools in one district of Lesotho with evidence that they integrate ICT into the learning and teaching of science participated in this study. The principals of the targeted schools also participated to validate the findings. The target group was Grades 5 to 7, depending on availability, after negotiating access to the research field. 2.2.1 Background – the country Lesotho, the Mountain Kingdom, is entirely surrounded by South Africa. According to the Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP, 2016–2026), Lesotho has a population of about two million people. It is categorised as a developing country. Like other countries, Lesotho’s education system development is guided by the Millennium Development Goals, the Education for All, and other policy frameworks which ensure that learners are prepared to fit into the global society. Therefore, Lesotho also sets targets for its education system to achieve the agreed-upon goals and objectives. However, Lesotho’s schools are still challenged in respect of a conducive learning atmosphere for all, especially with regard to a lack of infrastructure at many schools, in particular for using ICT tools. Moreover, in 2005, no significant professional development programmes for teachers on ICT-oriented instruction existed in Lesotho, but from 2006, the number of trained teachers has gradually increased (Kalanda & De Villiers, 2013). 2.2.2 The Lesotho education system The Government of Lesotho is committed to ensuring quality education for the children of Lesotho. The Ministry of Education and Training is responsible for the implementation of policies geared towards achieving the goals concerning education. Formal education comprises 10 years of basic education and two years of secondary education. The 10 years of basic education consist of seven years of primary education (Grades 1 to 7) and the first three years of junior secondary education (Grades 8 to 10), while two years are allocated to senior secondary education (Grades 11 to 12). Integrated Early Childhood Care and Development is provided for children from 0 to 5 years of age, usually referred to as pre-school, before learners proceed to 19 Grade 1 to start formal education (MoET, 2009). After completing their senior secondary education, learners can transit to the tertiary level to further their studies for about four to six years. This depends on whether they just want to obtain a degree or diploma or wish to proceed to postgraduate tertiary education. Lesotho has introduced 10 years of compulsory basic education for all Basotho children. The national objectives of the Lesotho Education System are, amongst others, to ensure that all Basotho children obtain a basic education to develop their social and individual competencies. Moreover, the educational programmes are expected to focus on the development of learners’ competency in scientific thinking, problem solving and entrepreneurial and technological skills to enable them fit into the global world. Additionally, it is also expected that Lesotho should have integrated curriculum and assessment strategies to facilitate the accomplishment of these education goals. Basic Education specifically aims to empower learners with the knowledge, attitudes and skills that will enable them to respond to socio-economic and technological changes. It also aims to facilitate the development of scientific, social, entrepreneurial and technological skills to promote independent and critical thinking skills that would contribute towards solving socio-economic problems. This means that at the end of 10 years of basic education, the acquired skills will assist learners to survive in the global society. According to the new curriculum, from Grade 9 onwards, learners will select either an academic or a vocational educational stream to prepare them for the world of work. 2.2.3 The new Lesotho Curriculum A new, integrated curriculum was developed (MoET, 2009) and has gradually been implemented from primary school upwards since 2012. The new curriculum has five learning areas, namely “Linguistic and Literacy; Numerical and Mathematical; Personal, Spiritual and Social; Scientific and Technological; and Creativity and Entrepreneurial” (MoET, 2009:4-5). The learning areas are intertwined with the aspects of the curriculum that address the challenges the country has. These aspects include, “effective communication; awareness of self and others; environmental adaptation and sustainable development; health and healthy living; and production and work-related competencies” (MoET, 2009:4). The expectation is that the integrated curriculum aligns the learning areas with the daily challenges of the country. 20 The new curriculum has already been rolled out up to Grade 9. The current study thus focuses on the integration of ICTs into the scientific and technological learning area to investigate teachers’ classroom practices to equip learners with the technological skills to fulfil the aim of that learning area. 2.2.3.1 The Lesotho Science and Technology Curriculum In the new Lesotho curriculum, the subject Science in Grades 5 to 8 is now referred to as Science and Technology. Aligned with the curriculum aims, the attributes of the Science and Technology curriculum should enable learners to:  apply scientific and technological knowledge and skills and use ICTs to communicate effectively;  use scientific and technological knowledge and skills to understand and appreciate oneself and others and promote personal and social development;  apply scientific and technological knowledge and skills to respond to environmental challenges and to interact with the environment in a sustainable way;  apply scientific and technological knowledge to promote good health and healthy living and appreciate the impact of socio-economic and political development on people’s health; and  apply appropriate scientific knowledge and technological skills to enhance production, utilising locally available materials (MoET, 2009:28-29). In addition, the policy specifies that the Science and Technology curriculum is an integration of the science, ICT, technical subjects, agriculture and geography subjects from the previous curriculum. This suggests that in a science and technology lesson, one expects to see the integration of science and the indicated related science subjects with ICT, instead of computer education taught separately, as used to be the case before the implementation of the curriculum informed by MoET (2009). The expectation is also that teachers should prioritise developing learners’ competencies in ICT to achieve the indicated goals of the curriculum. However, according to Agyei and Voogt (2011), it is teachers who are technologically competent and have access to ICT resources who can integrate ICTs effectively into classroom practices. This is 21 further attested to by Almerich et al. (2016), who stress that ICT competencies are critical for teachers use of ICT resources in classroom practices. 2.2.3 Clarification of key concepts ICT integration is a complex activity teachers are confronted with in order to teach effectively the 21st-century learners. It is complex, because technology keeps evolving and the teachers need to keep pace with it to remain relevant in the education system. The main challenge is that teachers tend to teach todays’ learners the way they were taught. The recent curricula require teachers to teach otherwise. As teachers are struggling with coping with ICT integration, learners seem to be advanced in manipulative skills of ICT devices. Bhasin (2012:137) defines ICT integration as a comprehensive process of applying technology to the educational system to improve teaching and learning”. Ghavifekr et al. (2014:25) stress that “ICT integration and implementation is a complex process which requires strategic planning by the policy and decision makers”. The implication is that policies on ICT integration are guiding teachers on how to use ICTs effectively in instruction. Moursund (2005:50) argues that The needed teacher ICT knowledge and skills can be learned on the job by an appropriate combination of in-service education, observing and helping a computer teacher or other classroom teachers. Jita and Munje (2020:108) observe that the improvement of quality teaching using ICTs is urgent as South Africa seeks to improve performance in science subjects, where traditional methods of teaching have not produced the desired results across subjects. The implication is that there is persistent use of traditional teaching approaches to date that require attention. Koehler et al. (2013: 14) stress that there is no one best way to integrate technology into curriculum. Rather, integration efforts should be creatively designed or structured for particular subject matter ideas in specific classroom contexts. The use of ICTs in instruction contributes to shifting teaching to learner centred approaches which contributes positively to development of learners 21st-century skills. In an ICT integrated lesson, learners are actively engaged in discovering and sharing 22 educational information, while the teacher is facilitating the lesson. Ghavifekr et al. (2014:25) further stress that the foundation and basic skill of ICT should be introduced into the primary school curriculum, to equip children with 21st century skills in their early learning environment due to the rapid growth of global information. The implication is that primary school learners are also expected to develop competencies that enable them fit into the global world. In the present study, ICT integration is used to mean use of available ICT resources for the purpose of meaningful learning of content such as science in classroom practices. Discourse is a complex activity with multiple definitions, according to different scholars, which point to communication among the people beyond the sentences representing it. Discourse talks to the interactive communication among the people in an institution such as education or specific context such as school, incorporating the facial expressions and accompanying gestures displayed during the communication. The implication is that the discourses can be documented, for instance, in policies, or they can be established when people in different contexts express their feelings about issues that concern them. Sherboboevna (2022:127) defines discourse as “an interactive activity of the participants of communication, information sharing, influencing one another, using different communication strategies, their verbal and nonverbal embodies in communication practice”. In the 21st century, the emerging technologies have increased the diversity of interactions and communication strategies in communities and globally. The discourses incorporated issues of ICT integration in Education. There are discourses that drive the use of ICTs in classroom practices. The discourses shape the teachers’ decisions of using ICTs in instruction. Literature stresses that there are multiple definitions of discourse. For instance, discourse is considered as a social practice consisting of statements “pulling together language and reality” (Bagiyan, 2014:10). The present study focuses on discourses of ICT integration. The discourse about ICT integration is used to mean the documented communication information in Lesotho policies that informs ICT integration and the teachers’ expressions of how they feel about use of ICTs in teaching and learning of science in primary schools, incorporating both written and verbal discourses. 23 Teaching is a dynamic complex and fast-paced activity in which a teacher facilitates learning in classroom practices. Mishra and Koehler (2006:1020) show that “it is highly complex activity that draws on many kinds of knowledge”. The teacher is expected to have content and pedagogical knowledge for the successful delivery of instruction. Todays’ learners require teaching to be conducted in a different manner from what it used to be. The teacher is expected to be digitally literate and to additionally have ICT literacy and ICT pedagogy knowledge for integrating ICT into classroom practices. The demands of the 21st-century learners are shifting the usual teaching practices. Teachers are required to utilise teaching strategies that enable learners develop 21st- century skills. The main challenge of in-service teachers is lack of exposure to ICT pedagogy during their teacher training. Another challenge is limited access to ICT resources, even for the teachers who were trained on ICT pedagogy. The teachers are confronted with the need for using ICTs in instruction to enable learners to develop ICT literacy and skills. Additionally, teaching is expected to cater for all types of learners and their varying learning styles. Use of ICTs in classroom practices contributes to multiple representation of information. It enables access to text information, listening to audio records and watching the videos on scientific content. In this study, teaching is used to mean facilitating instruction in a learner centred environment so that learners acquire 21st-century skills to fit into the global world. Learning is a reaction to teaching. It is a dynamic activity in which learners acquire new knowledge through effective teaching. Munna and Kalam (2021:1) define learning as “change that is permanent in nature because it is brought into learners by a teacher through techniques”. The literature encourages learner-centred approaches that promote independent learning styles, with the teacher being the facilitator of the learning process. Scholars stress that learning is effective when there is development of competencies for survival in higher levels of education and in the world of work, and teaching strategies cater for all learning styles. In a classroom setting, learners all have different learning styles. There is a combination of auditory, visual and kinaesthetic learners. This is alluded to by Munna and Kalam (2021:2), who argue that teachers “must use a variety of teaching approaches depending on the learning styles of the students”. Moreover, Fu (2013:112) observes that, due to ICT, 24 learning and teaching no longer depend exclusively on printed materials. Multiple resources are abundant on the Internet, and knowledge can be acquired through video clips, audio sounds, visual presentation and so on. Furthermore, learning is expected to promote learners’ 21st-century skills, such as problem solving, collaboration, communication, creativity, digital literacy and ICT skills. Scholars show that learning can be from traditional or constructivist approach (Charles et al., 2021). A traditional approach is characterised by teacher-centred approaches where the teacher transmits knowledge to learners who are passive and may not necessarily understand the content transmitted. Such learners usually experience challenges to apply the acquired knowledge to new situations and daily life experiences. On the contrary, the constructivist approach considers that learners are responsible for their own learning; they construct new knowledge through problem solving, inquiry, group work and others. Current trends encourage the constructivist approach, which is characterised by learner-centred approaches. The literature further shows that the infusion of ICT pedagogy in teaching and learning shifts teachers’ instruction to learner-centred approaches and contributes positively to learners’ development of 21st-century skills. Learning in this study is used to mean the acquisition of new knowledge and competencies by learners for survival in the global world, guided by the teacher facilitating development of 21st-century skills. 2.3 TEACHING AND LEARNING OF SCIENCE IN THE 21ST CENTURY Research suggests that the effective teaching of science for 21st-century learners should develop learners who are equipped with the necessary technological skills to fit into the global society. Moreover, teachers can equip learners with technology skills, provided they are also computer literate. Thus, ICT integration is clearly one of the strategies that promote the effective teaching of science. On the other hand, it is argued that there are still barriers to ICT integration (Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Bingimlas, 2009; Günes & Bahcivan, 2016). These barriers have a negative impact on teachers’ decisions pertaining to the incorporation of ICTs into the instructional practices. It is clear from this discussion that teachers should be empowered with technological skills and pedagogy in an ongoing process to cope with engaging 25 learners in technology-oriented instruction and in resolving challenges brought by persisting barriers to ICT integration. Furthermore, teaching science through an inquiry approach has the potential to engage learners in higher-order thinking skills, especially when integrating ICTs into learning. Emerging technologies have the potential to improve science instruction (Guzey & Roehrig, 2009; Donnelly et al., 2011; Erdem, 2019). Different models of ICT integration have been developed to explain the integration of ICTs into schools. The emerging technologies therefore have the potential to assist teachers in developing effective technology-oriented instruction. However, Serin (2011) stresses that affordability and accessibility of suitable software for specific instruction could be a barrier to effective ICT integration. Furthermore, the level of preparedness of the teachers has an impact on the degree to which use of ICTs can improve science instruction. This implies that ongoing teacher professional development, especially on pedagogy including the use of ICTs in education could be valuable to facilitate teachers’ awareness of new trends of pedagogy as technology evolves. 2.4 PHILOSOPHY OF ICT INTEGRATION INTO TEACHING AND LEARNING With the aim to improve the education of learners, teachers and teacher training tutors, Moursund (2006:2) stipulates the following as his philosophy about technology in education, “a set of principles, guidelines, priorities and ways of thinking that help me to make decisions as I carry out my professional work as a computer educator”. Moursund (2006) believes that ICT has the potential to change in education regarding the development of arithmetic, reading and writing for about 5 000 years ago to the date of his study, utilising for instance computers, internet, cell phones, digital motion, the web and still cameras, all digital devices that store and play robots, music games and videos. This incorporated authentic content and the systematic integration of ICT into curriculum content, instructional practices and assessment methods in teaching and learning. He further emphasises that learners in the USA and probably throughout the world grow up in an environment rich in utilising ICTs in daily activities. Therefore, they need to utilise them efficiently in teaching and learning to meet the requirements of the rapidly changing and ever-growing global digital world. Drawing from this view, it can be suggested that it is necessary to exhaust available strategies that could be 26 used to teach and assess learners effectively using ICTs to take advantage of the available emerging and evolving technologies. Moursund (2006) further suggests that every teacher, regardless of the discipline, needs to know some content and pedagogy on ICT. Moreover, ICT is an influential aid in instruction including problem solving in every discipline taught in schools. It is also regarded as an aid to both physical and intelligent competencies. The author further indicates that using the web to access and disseminate information throughout the world overcomes physical restrictions and saves time significantly. Education systems throughout the world should aid learners in coping with ICT systems rather than teaching learners to do tasks manually that could easily be done by means of ICTs. Additionally, Moursund (2006) contends that computing (digital computers, programming, computer tools used in problem solving) is one of the major six languages recognised globally and, in doing so, the author supports the idea of a pedagogy shift to the effective integration of ICT throughout curriculums and instruction as well as assessment. This includes assisting students to learn and solve problems independently using ICTs (Moursund, 2006). This suggests that in order for teachers and learners to fit in the global world, ICT literacy is a necessity for teachers. This is supported by Webster (2017:27), who stipulates the following about technology in teaching and learning according to technology leaders, such as instructional technology specialists from school districts in the USA. “Technology is a tool, and technology change is inevitable and Technological optimism.” As a tool, technology is viewed instrumental for achieving educational goals. Webster (2017) further suggests that technology is inevitable, including the idea that there are changes in societies because of the use of technology that cannot be avoided or resisted. This is pivotal for schools to keep up with the rapidly evolving emerging technologies. The study makes it clear that resistance to technology change prevails in schools, even though schools are pressured to utilise technology in teaching and learning. Drawing from this view it can be argued that there are challenges with the effective use of ICTs in classroom practices due to different contextual factors. It is therefore necessary to have studies that explore practices in different contexts to improve practice. Like other scholars, Webster (2017) emphasises that technology has the potential to improve the quality of education and to change the world positively, thus promoting 27 and advocating the use of emerging technologies globally. It can be argued that our education systems can no longer cope without ICT integration if we really want to overcome the challenges of poor performance and lack of interest in subjects such as science and mathematics. The implication is that teachers and learners need a paradigm shift and support from the Ministries of Education and Training to shift from their usual everyday classroom practices to technologically enriched classroom practices. One way of support could be the professional development of teachers’ pedagogy, involving exposure to the effective utilisation of ICT tools. Teachers could also be supported by revealing classroom practices of exemplary teachers on ICT integration. As a researcher, I support the idea that technology is inevitable, and schools need to keep up with emerging technologies in order to assist learners develop 21st-century skills. The current study therefore endeavours to reveal the classroom practices of teachers who actually integrate ICTs into their teaching and learning of science in basic education in Lesotho, thus promoting and advocating the use of ICTs in teaching and learning. 2.5 WHAT INFORMS ICT INTEGRATION IN CLASSROOM PRACTICES It needs to be noted that the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 2011) ICT competency framework for teachers, highlights guidelines for teachers’ ICT integration into classroom practices in order to equip learners with problem solving, as well as collaborative and creative skills using ICTs. It is indicated that the integration could include learners’ technology literacy, in which learners use ICT for effective learning to acquire in-depth knowledge of concepts, applying them in real-life problems and knowledge creation to generate information for societal development. It is in support of this view that different countries have announced their support for ICT integration into primary and secondary schools and made initiatives to fund schools with ICT tools and programmes that facilitate teachers’ professional development regarding pedagogy on ICT integration. Lesotho, the country research site for this study, though still encountering some challenges, is no exception. On the other hand, Trust (2018) points out that the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) (2017) also advocates the qualities of ICT oriented pedagogical teachers. The emphasis, amongst others, is that a teacher who uses ICT 28 effectively in instruction is a learner continuously advancing in ICT pedagogy. The teacher is a leader guiding learners to acquire ICT knowledge and skills. He is also a citizen promoting learners’ curiosity to contribute to the global world. Moreover, the teacher is also a collaborator expanding learners’ knowledge and the use of ICTs. Furthermore, the teacher is a designer creating a virtual learning environment that motivates learners to be innovative and problem solvers. Lastly, the teacher is an analyst who uses data to assess, guide and communicate educational processes. Drawing from these views, science teachers in Lesotho, as part of the global world, could be expected to use ICTs effectively in classroom practices, instilling the culture of collaboration and sharing of ideas using emerging technologies among the learners and other teachers. This means teachers should be well equipped with ICT-oriented pedagogy. Science teachers in Lesotho are no exception. Lesotho, like other countries, complies with international standards. The Lesotho teacher is therefore also expected to be of a standard stipulated by the global associations. It is at the heart of this study to find out teachers’ practices of ICT integration in science and technology within the Lesotho context. In response to the needs of 21st-century education, South Africa has also developed policies that facilitate the provision of ICT tools in schools, as well as the development of programmes that support teachers and teacher training institutions on effective ICT integration strategies. There are ongoing projects to empower teachers and learners. However, as in schools internationally, Lesotho teachers still face challenges in respect of the effective integration of ICT into teaching and learning. Like other countries, Lesotho has also developed a national policy on ICT integration (Gillwald, Mothobi & Deen-Swarray, 2017), even though the ICT policy specifically for Education is still at its draft stage to date. Projects from both Governmental and Non- Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are engaged in training teachers about ICT integration and providing schools with ICT tools for effective ICT integration process. For instance, since 2005, projects such as the School Net Lesotho, Microsoft School Technology Innovation Centre Project and the NEPAD e-School have assisted many secondary schools in Africa, including Lesotho, with ICT skills (Kalanda & De Villiers, 2013). Six schools benefited from the NEPAD project. Teachers were professionally trained; schools were supplied with ICT laboratories; and learners had an opportunity 29 to use ICT tools in classroom practices. The project had an impact on the development of several policies in the country. Moreover, six schools in Lesotho also benefited from assistance by the Community Education Computer Society (CECS), the NGO from South Africa that promotes ICT literacy throughout South Africa. The literacy programmes consisted of 80-hour sessions training teachers on the presentation software, word processing, spreadsheets and others computer tools (Isaacs, 2007). However, the main challenge in Lesotho is lack of ICT infrastructure at schools, especially primary schools. Therefore, teachers encounter problems with implementing the acquired ICT pedagogy skills within their different school contexts. Some have limited ICT tools with a large number of learners in a classroom situation, while others have no ICT tools at all. The main challenge is that ICT-related pedagogy requires practice, otherwise the skill just disappears, with no access to ICT tools. On the other hand, most survey studies about teachers’ beliefs and perceptions of ICT integration reveal the persisting existence of barriers and enablers of ICT integration, mostly through teachers’ self-reflection instruments. In addition, most of the qualitative studies focus on interviewing teachers about their classroom practices, without paying attention to classroom observations to confirm what the teachers have specified. The implication