THE INFLUENCE OF MUSICAL ANALYSIS AS A 

STRATEGIC TOOL ON UNDERGRADUATE 
PIANO STUDENTS’ MEMORISATION OF A 

CLASSICAL SONATINA 
 

K du Preez 
 

 
 
 

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements in respect of the Master of 
Music in the Odeion School of Music in the Faculty of 

Humanities at the University of the Free State. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Month and year: November 2024 
Student number: 2017002011 
 
 
 
 
Supervisor: Dr A. Froneman   
Co-supervisor: Prof. M. Wium  

 



i 

       

 

 

DECLARATION MASTERS STUDENT 

 

I, Kayme du Preez, declare that the Master’s Degree research 

dissertation or interrelated, publishable manuscripts/published articles, 

or coursework Master’s Degree mini-dissertation that I herewith submit 

for the Master’s Degree qualification Master of Music at the University of 

the Free State is my independent work, and that I have not previously 

submitted it for a qualification at another institution of higher education. 

 

________________       _______________ 

Student’s Signature                                                              Date 

 

____________________ 

(Name of Department) 

 

 
 
 
 

 
 

 

 

  



ii 

DECLARATION LANGUAGE EDITOR 

 

John Linnegar 

Publishing Training Consultant, Text Editor, Proofreader, MS evaluator, Writer 

PostNet Suite 104, Private Bag X19, Milnerton 7435 ּ  Cell: 082 556 8175 

Partner, McGillivray Linnegar Associates 

Life Member, Exco member, Professional Editors’ Guild (PEG) ּ Accredited Professional Text Editor, PEG & SATI 

Director, Dictionary of South African English (DSAE, PanSALB English NLU)  

Member, Publishers’ Association of South Africa (PASA) 

Member, Society for English-language Professionals in the Netherlands (SENSE) 

Member, Canberra Society of Editors, Australia; Member, Nordic Editors and Translators (NEaT), Finland 

Author: Engleish, our Engleish: Common errors in South African English and how to resolve them (Pharos, 2013) 

Co-author: Text Editing (UPA, Brussels, 2012); grammar, punctuation and all that jazz … (MLA Publishers, 2019) 

Academic writing & editing: towards clear, concise and coherent texts (MLA Publishers, 2024) 
 

Email: johndlinnegar@gmail.com    Website: www.editandtrain.co.za  

 
LETTER OF CONFIRMATION: 

NATURE OF EDITORIAL INTERVENTION 
 

To: The Academic Head,  
Odeion School of Music, 
Faculty of Humanities, 
University of the Free State 

  
 
 

  15.11.2024 

   

I write to confirm that I was engaged as an accredited professional text editor to perform the 
following editorial interventions on the Master of Music thesis of Ms Kayme du Preez titled ‘The 

influence of musical analysis as a strategic tool on undergraduate piano students’ memorisation 
of a Classical sonatina’: 

 

1. Copy-editing the text (comprising five chapters), which included language and stylistic editing 

and imposing consistency of usage. 

2. Checking the numbering and formatting of the hierarchy of headings and subheadings and the 

titles of the figures and tables. 

3. Styling the large quotations, which are displayed separately from the author’s text. 

4. Checking that the reference list is both correct and consistent in all respects. 

 

This being an examinable work, no structural or content editing was undertaken. Any questions about 

these facets were flagged for the student’s attention and action. 

 

John Linnegar 

Accredited Text Editor (English), Professional Editors’ Guild 

  

mailto:johndlinnegar@gmail.com
http://www.editandtrain.co.za/


iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

I hereby acknowledge the inputs of and support from the following people: 

 

• My supervisor on this project, Dr Anchen Froneman, and co-supervisor, Prof. 

Matildie Wium, for their valuable guidance, respected input and expert insight 

during all stages of this project. I sincerely appreciate your support and all the 

time and effort invested in this project.  

• My family and friends who showed an interest in this project and who constantly 

motivated me. I deeply appreciate your support and understanding. 

• My parents, in particular, for their encouragement, love and support. Thank you 

for your patience and motivation.  

 

  



iv 

ABSTRACT 

As a normalised notion, professional pianists are often expected to perform recitals 

from memory, which can increase their performance anxiety. In pursuit of committing 

the various components of a piece to memory, analytical strategies in particular are 

beneficial to establishing a secure memory of a piece, as concluded in previous 

research by Williamon and Valentine (2002), Timperman and Miksza (2019) and 

Ginsborg (2019), among others. Regarding memorisation strategies, the literature to 

date has concluded that piano students often refrain from using analytical strategies 

to facilitate memorisation, despite their positive effects. The limited nature of the 

existing literature in providing adequate guidance in this regard might explain this 

phenomenon. Accordingly, this study therefore investigates the influence of musical 

analysis as a strategic tool on undergraduate piano students’ memorisation of a 

Classical sonatina as they have experienced it. The aim of the study was to support 

undergraduate piano students’ memorisation of Classical sonatina movements by 

means of an analytical strategy based on William Caplin’s theory of formal functions 

(applied to the Classical sonatina by Edward Jurkowski [2010]). A second aim was to 

establish the ways in which implementing such a strategy influences their 

memorisation process – in this case, three undergraduate piano students.  

 

To this end, a collective case study was conducted in which three voluntary 

undergraduate piano students from two different South African institutions 

implemented a formulated analytical strategy over a six-week period to facilitate the 

memorisation of a Classical sonatina movement. The strategy consisted of 

complementary materials, including an example analysis, a series of videos and a 

glossary of relevant terms. These materials aimed to demonstrate and explain how 

concepts specifically related to Caplin’s theory can be implemented practically to 

facilitate memorisation primarily through structural analytical processes. The data 

collected through various procedures provided valuable insights into the participants’ 

experiences. Analysis of the data highlighted the effect that the implementation of the 

strategy had on their memorisation. It provided insights into their experience and 

perception of the strategy and revealed how analysis could be used in combination 

with other strategies to achieve the goal of memorisation of a piece. Overall, the 

findings reflected positive engagements with structural analysis to facilitate 



v 

memorisation, to the extent that they will hopefully inspire both the participants and 

readers to explore further the use of analysis for this purpose.  

 

Keywords: piano performance; memorisation; components of memory; structural 

analysis; new Formenlehre; William Caplin; theory of formal functions; inter-thematic 

fusion; sonata form; sonatina; undergraduate piano students 

  



vi 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

OSM Odeion School of Music 

UFS University of the Free State 

Op. opus 

No. number 

b.i. basic idea 

c.i. contrasting idea 

frag. fragmentation 

PAC perfect authentic cadence 

IAC imperfect authentic cadence 

HC half-cadence 

 

  



vii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

DECLARATION MASTERS STUDENT .................................................................................. i 

DECLARATION LANGUAGE EDITOR...................................................................................ii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... iii 

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................... iv 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................... vi 

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................. xi 

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... xi 

LIST OF ANNEXURES ......................................................................................................... xi 

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................. 1 

1.1 Background and rationale of this study ................................................................ 1 

1.2 Research aims, objectives and questions ............................................................ 6 

1.3 Research hypothesis ............................................................................................ 7 

1.4 Research design and research methodology ....................................................... 8 

1.5 Ethical considerations ........................................................................................ 11 

1.6 Value of the research ......................................................................................... 12 

Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................... 14 

2.1 General memorisation ........................................................................................ 14 

2.1.1 Processes involved in forming memories ..................................................... 15 

2.1.2 Forms of memory: sensory, short-term and long-term .................................. 17 

2.2 Memorisation of music ....................................................................................... 19 

2.2.1 Importance and potential benefits of memorising music in general .............. 20 

2.2.2 Components of music memorisation ............................................................. 22 

2.2.3 Sensory processing systems: proprioception, exteroception and interoception

 ............................................................................................................................... 27 

2.2.4 Cognition as an interactive or embodied process ......................................... 30 

2.3 Analysis of music for memorisation: different approaches, potential benefits and 

research findings ...................................................................................................... 33 

2.3.1 Ways of approaching the analysis of music for memorisation ...................... 33 

2.3.2 Potential benefits .......................................................................................... 34 

2.3.3 Previous literature and qualitative research findings ..................................... 37 



viii 

2.4 Sonata form ........................................................................................................ 40 

2.4.1 Historical development ................................................................................. 41 

2.4.2 Descriptions of sonata form .......................................................................... 43 

2.5 The New Formenlehre ......................................................................................... 45 

2.5.1 Hepokoski and Darcy’s sonata theory .......................................................... 46 

2.5.2 William Caplin's theory of formal functions ................................................... 47 

2.5.2.1 Unique perspectives of Caplin’s theory .................................................... 47 

2.5.2.2 Sonata form structure and characteristics ................................................ 51 

2.6 Sonatina form terminology ................................................................................. 54 

2.7 Analysis of sonatina movements ........................................................................ 58 

Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY ............................................................................... 62 

3.1 Research design and context ............................................................................. 62 

3.2 Participants ........................................................................................................ 63 

3.3 Materials development ....................................................................................... 64 

3.3.1 Written analysis in the form of a marked-up score ........................................ 64 

3.3.1.1 Identification of relevant terms and concepts ........................................... 65 

3.3.1.2 Colour-coding system .............................................................................. 65 

3.3.1.3 Applying terms and concepts to sonatina movements ............................. 66 

3.3.2 Series of videos ............................................................................................ 76 

3.3.3 Extensive glossary ........................................................................................ 80 

3.3.4 Materials’ role and contribution to the data collection ................................... 81 

3.4 Data collection methods ..................................................................................... 82 

3.5 Data-analysis procedures ................................................................................... 85 

3.6 Ethical considerations ........................................................................................ 87 

3.7 Researcher bias ................................................................................................. 88 

Chapter 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ............................................... 90 

4.1 Overview of each individual participant .............................................................. 90 

4.1.1 Participant 1 .................................................................................................. 90 

4.1.2 Participant 2 .................................................................................................. 92 



ix 

4.1.3 Participant 3 .................................................................................................. 93 

4.2 Theme 1: Effect on memorisation process ......................................................... 97 

4.2.1 Deeper learning through analytical interaction .............................................. 97 

4.2.1.1 Facilitation of memorisation ..................................................................... 98 

4.2.1.2 Enhanced attention to detail ................................................................... 100 

4.2.2 Increased efficiency in learning and memorising ........................................ 100 

4.2.2.1 Easier learning and acceleration of the learning process ....................... 101 

4.2.2.2 Automatic and subconscious learning and memorisation of notes ......... 101 

4.2.3 Reassurance while playing from memory ................................................... 101 

4.2.3.1 Enhanced memory retention .................................................................. 101 

4.2.3.2 Comforting feeling while playing from memory....................................... 102 

4.3 Theme 2: Experience and perception of the strategy ....................................... 102 

4.3.1 Positive experience ..................................................................................... 103 

4.3.1.1 Exciting and enjoyable ........................................................................... 103 

4.3.1.2 Clear and effective approach ................................................................. 103 

4.3.2 Intention of future use ................................................................................. 103 

4.3.2.1 Acknowledgment of the strategy's relevance and importance as an 

analytical tool to facilitate memorisation ............................................................. 104 

4.3.2.2 Enthusiasm to implement selected elements of the strategy for future 

memorisation ..................................................................................................... 104 

4.3.3 Potential for improvement ........................................................................... 105 

4.3.3.1 Implementation of the strategy over a shorter period of time ................. 105 

4.3.3.2 Availability of additional resources ......................................................... 105 

4.3.3.3 Implementation of the various aspects thoroughly ................................. 106 

4.3.4 Areas of difficulty experienced .................................................................... 108 

4.3.4.1 Adopting the principles of the strategy with the accompanied terminology 

and applying it to the sonatina movement .......................................................... 108 

4.3.4.2 Analysing and memorising the development section ............................. 109 

4.3.4.3 Remaining focused and actively engaging with different components to 

memory .............................................................................................................. 109 



x 

4.4 Theme 3: Integration of additional methods and strategies .............................. 109 

4.4.1 Mental practice ........................................................................................... 110 

4.4.1.1 Mentally playing through the piece away from the piano ........................ 110 

4.4.1.2 Using visual cues with mental practising methods ................................. 110 

4.4.2 Additional analytical reinforcement ............................................................. 111 

4.4.2.1 Individual hand analysis and practice ..................................................... 111 

4.4.2.2 Pattern identification ............................................................................... 111 

4.4.3 Visual memory strategies............................................................................ 111 

4.4.3.1 Visualising the score .............................................................................. 112 

4.4.3.2 Visualising the typography of the piano .................................................. 112 

4.4.4 Listening strategies ..................................................................................... 112 

4.4.4.1 Listening to a recording of the piece several times ................................ 112 

4.4.4.2 Listening to multiple covers .................................................................... 113 

4.4.5 Sight-reading .............................................................................................. 113 

4.4.6 Muscle memory strategies .......................................................................... 114 

4.4.6.1 Deliberate actions leading to the establishment of muscle memory ....... 114 

4.4.6.2 Establishment of muscle memory subconsciously through instinctive and 

natural actions .................................................................................................... 115 

4.4.7 Video-recording as a self-assessment tool ................................................. 115 

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION .................................................................................. 117 

5.1 Summary of study ............................................................................................ 117 

5.2 Interpretation of research findings .................................................................... 119 

5.3 Value of the study ............................................................................................. 126 

5.4 Limitations to the study ..................................................................................... 127 

5.5 Suggestions for further study ........................................................................... 129 

5.6 Final remarks ................................................................................................... 130 

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 131 

 

 

  



xi 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 3.1 Colour selection of each structural component......................................... 66 

Table 3.2 The relevant cadential pattern of a sonata exposition, based on the 

illustration by Joel Galand (1999) ............................................................................. 68 

Table 3.3 Similarities and differences in the structure between two sonatina 

movements ............................................................................................................... 71 

Table 4.1 Overview of themes, categories and sub-categories ................................ 95 

 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 3.1 Structure of multi-coloured flow chart. ..................................................... 79 

 
LIST OF ANNEXURES 

Annexure 1: Document presented to participants 

Annexure 2: Diabelli sonatina op. 168, no. 1: Analysis 

Annexure 3: Informed consent form 

Annexure 4: Participants’ information form 

Annexure 5: Interview schedule 

Annexure 6: Example of data analysis 

Annexure 7: Ethical clearance letter 

Annexure 8: Gatekeeper’s approval letter 1 

Annexure 9: Gatekeeper’s approval letter 2 

Annexure 10: Gatekeeper’s approval letter 3 

Annexure 11: Gatekeeper’s approval letter 4 

 

 

 

 



1 

CHAPTER 1:  INTRODUCTION 

1.1 BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE OF THIS STUDY 

The practice of memorising music for recital was first promoted by the celebrated 

performers of the Romantic period; and for professional pianists in particular it has 

ever since become the norm (Aeillo & Williamon 2002, p. 168; Nagel 2015, p. 62). 

Because of this expectation, many performers constantly seek to find the most 

effective strategies for memorising music (Palmer 1997, p. 121; Walls 2007, p. 63). 

When fully embraced, the memorisation of music and its performance from memory 

can be extremely valuable to the performer, providing them with artistic freedom and 

offering numerous benefits. Furthermore, it can also have a positive influence on the 

musicality of the performance (Bernstein 2020, p. 53; Hargest 2014, p. 47; Klickstein 

2009, p. 52; Walls 2007, p. 64). Memorisation is therefore a powerful and extremely 

valuable skill which can transform a musician’s performance for the better1.  

  

Memorisation is a very complex process, though, involving several brain processes 

and structures across various cerebral systems. A series of neurochemical and 

electrophysiological changes lead to the creation of memories and enable the 

acquisition of new information (Baddeley 2014, p. 4; Fourie, Van der Merwe & Swart 

2016, pp. 121–122). The exact processes in the human brain that lead to memorisation 

are still not completely understood by performers or researchers. Several theories and 

models have been hypothesised throughout the past several decades, aiming to 

explain the function of different forms of memory (Baddeley 2014, p. 4; Reichling 1989, 

p. 9). Scholars have, however, identified six different components of memory involved 

in the memorisation of music. Specifically, these are: visual, auditory, kinesthetic, 

tactile, emotional and analytical memory (Ginsborg 2019, p. 17; Kenyon 2016, p. 8). 

A musician should strive to engage all of these components when memorising music 

in order to form a really secure memory of a piece (Ginsborg 2019, p. 17). 

 
1 Important to mention, however, is the fact that memorisation is not always preferred by all musicians 
and that, in some cases, it can be less beneficial for musicians to perform from memory. Varying from 
individual to individual, playing from memory can significantly increase performance anxiety and 
therefore, does not always necessarily transform a performer’s playing for the better. See for example, 
‘To use, or not to use?’ (Nagel, 2015), ‘Performance anxiety and memorisation: Tricks to help you avoid 
having memory slips under pressure on stage’ (Hodges, 2018) and ‘With or without your music’ 
(Bernstein, 2020). 
 



2 

In addition to the memory components, the influences of sensory processing systems 

in the memorisation process are significant and should not be overlooked. Processes 

known as interoception, exteroception and proprioception are all engaged and actively 

involved in the cognition and therefore the memorisation of music (Marzvanyan & 

Alhawaj 2023). More recently, however, the role of the entire body and body 

movements in the cognition of music has been investigated. An embodied music 

cognition theory suggests that perception and body movements are interconnected in 

the processes of learning and memorising music (Leman & Maes 2014). 

 

Despite these various components and systems, the focus of this study is primarily on 

analytical memory (one of the components of memory). The analytical component of 

memory is typically viewed as a more cognitive component than the others, one that 

requires cognition-based approaches (Mishra 2010, p. 10). Over the past several 

decades, many researchers and authors have acknowledged the multiple benefits of 

using analysis to facilitate memory (Chaffin 2007; Mishra 2010; Rubin-Rabson 1937; 

Williamon & Valentine 2002). However, analytical strategies for memorising music 

appear to be less instinctive and require deliberate action. Consequently, this 

component of memorisation is often neglected (Shteinberg, Newcomb, Kwak & 

Chance 2014, p. 52). 

 

With the analytical component of memory and associated memorisation strategies in 

mind, Mishra (2010, p. 10) stated the following regarding the content of the existing 

literature concerned with the memorisation of music: 

 

Understanding of human thinking and especially memory has changed drastically … . In 

psychology, the influence of the sensory memories (aural, visual, and kinesthetic) has 

been supplanted by a more concept-driven understanding of human memory. However, 

the proportion of articles specifically advocating an analytical or conceptual approach to 

musical memorization has changed little over the century. 

 

As Mishra remarked in the quotation above, there has not been the significant increase 

in investigating and advocating different analytical strategies that can be used as a 

tool to aid memorisation that one might have expected. Furthermore, the studies that 

have been undertaken during the last century have not produced specific guidelines 



3 

for implementing such analytical memorisation strategies. In the past, musical analysis 

has been the focus of several studies, articles and research projects. Certain aspects 

of musical analysis have been discussed, investigated and observed in the previous 

literature. These include the hierarchy of and the relationship between the different 

levels of music to facilitate memorisation (Chaffin 2007; Chaffin, Gerling, Demos & 

Melms 2013; Froneman 2008), guided analysis of single-line melodies during training 

(Ross 1961) and strategies for identifying patterns and motifs in music (Chaffin & Imreh 

1997; Lartillot 2014). Only a few studies have investigated the use of structural 

analysis to some extent (Chaffin 2007; Noice et al. 2008), but again, their focus was 

not to develop a tool that musicians might implement. 

  

For almost a century, researchers have affirmed that the use of analytical strategies 

for memorising music is beneficial (Chaffin 2007; Mishra 2010; Rubin-Rabson 1937; 

Williamon & Valentine 2002). Perhaps because of the lack of literature providing 

specific guidelines for implementing analytical memorisation strategies as well as the 

less spontaneous character of the use of analysis for memorisation, many musicians 

continue to rely on conventional strategies and descriptions of memorisation (Mishra 

2010, pp. 11 & 17). These often include approaches associated with sensory memory 

components, such as primary dependence on ‘muscle memory’ (Gerling & Dos Santos 

2017, p. 74; Mishra 2010, pp. 11 & 17). But while these approaches might be sufficient 

for short pieces, Hallam (1997) asserts that more complex pieces require more 

focused and analytical approaches.  

 

Hallam (1997) concluded that it is mainly expert musicians who employ analysis 

extensively to aid memorisation. This conclusion is supported by the findings of studies 

by Noice et al. (2008), among others. In contrast, it became evident that university 

students did not necessarily depend on analytical methods for memorisation, instead 

applying or incorporating various other methods, as shown in research by Mishra 

(1999), Williamon and Valentine (2002), Lehmann, Sloboda and Woody (2007) and 

Gerling and Dos Santos (2017).  

 

With the intention to provide aid to university students in this respect, a statement by 

Chaffin (2007) provides valuable insights. Chaffin (2007, p. 378) asserted that ‘formal 

structure provides musicians with a ready-made retrieval scheme that can be used to 



4 

provide reliable and flexible access to their memories of the music’. Therefore, it is 

sensible to assume that an understanding of formal musical types and their unique 

characteristic structure, especially the sonata form in this case, may be a good starting 

point to facilitate undergraduate piano students’ memorisation.  

To illustrate the importance of the sonata form for the purposes of this study, which is 

concerned with sonatina movements, I would like to emphasise the close connection 

that sometimes exist between the two form types. In this regard, Hepokoski (2006, p. 

344) states:  

 

Type 3 sonatas are the standard ‘textbook’ structures, with expositions, developments, 

and recapitulations that normally begin with P [the Primary Theme] in the tonic … the 

Type 3 is the most familiar type of sonata ….  

 

He continues:  

 

At times Type 1s [also known as ‘sonatina’ form] with modestly expanded retransitional 

links connecting the exposition to the recapitulation become virtually indistinguishable 

from Type 3s with small development sections (2006, p. 344).  

 

These statements clearly highlight the fact that the sonata form and the sonatina form 

share certain characteristic qualities in some instances. Hepokoski (2021, p. 84) 

dispels any further confusion or doubt regarding this connection by additionally 

asserting: ‘First movements of “sonatinas” … can be Type 3 sonatas ….’ The 

understanding of the sonata form is therefore crucial to this study as the sonatina 

movements included in this study were selected specifically for their structural relation 

to the sonata form, as in the cases mentioned by Hepokoski above. The understanding 

of the sonata form should therefore also help participants with memorising the first 

movement of a sonatina (which is the focus of this study).  

 

A complete formulated theory of the sonata form was first documented in 1826. 

Subsequent theories that aimed to describe the sonata form structure in a systematic 

manner resort under the term Formenlehre (Bergé 2010, p. 17; Prim 2017; Randel 

2003a; Webster 2001a, p. 21); prominent authors in this group include Adolph 



5 

Bernhard Marx2 (1795–1866), Heinrich Schenker3 (1868–1935) and Charles Rosen4 

(1927–2012) (Bergé 2010, p. 17; Caplin 2010a, p. 64; Greenberg 2022, p. 14).  

 

Since the late 1900s, a re-evaluation of theories of the sonata form known as the New 

Formenlehre (Hepokoski 2021, p. xi) have improved on previously problematic 

elements and created clearer classifications and descriptions of concepts while still 

preserving all the functional aspects of this musical form (Caplin & Martin 2016, p. 4; 

Hepokoski 2021, p. xi). Two fundamental approaches forming part of the New 

Formenlehre are James Hepokoski and Warren Darcy's Sonata Theory and William 

Caplin's theory of formal functions. Although both theories are widely acknowledged, 

providing extremely valuable information and insights, I have chosen Caplin’s theory 

of formal functions as the analytical strategy used in this study. Caplin’s theory is 

widely respected, it is highly influential and relevant to the current field of music theory 

and analysis. Furthermore, the principles of Caplin’s theory are flexible and applicable 

to all Classical forms, including sonatina movements, making it the ideal choice for this 

particular study.  

 

As this study focused on sonatina movements, the literature in this regard is also 

considered. In contrast to the large volumes of literature available on sonata 

movements, the previous literature concerned with sonatina movements specifically is 

significantly less. Nevertheless, the available literature has explored various facets of 

sonatina movements, including analytical procedures and pedagogical insights 

(Blakley 1982; Höhmann 2007; Lee 2016; Messaritaki 2016; Rhoden 1998; Thomson 

1989; Yuan 2016). Jurkowski’s application of Caplin’s theory to sonatina movements 

as presented in a 2010 article stood out, however. Despite Caplin’s silence on 

sonatinas specifically, Hepokoski’s observations of the close connection between 

certain sonata and sonatina movements (as highlighted in the quotations above) 

provided Jurkowski with the opportunity to apply Caplin’s principles effectively to 

sonatina movements. The analytical materials created for this study were inspired by 

and based on these demonstrations by Jurkowski in an attempt to facilitate 

undergraduate piano students’ memorisation of sonatina movements. 

 
2  See Die Lehre von der Musikalischen Composition (1837–1847).  
3  See Das Meisterwerk in der Musik, published in 1925. 
4  See Sonata Forms, published in 1988. 



6 

1.2 RESEARCH AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND QUESTIONS 

This study aimed to support undergraduate piano students’ memorisation of Classical 

sonatina movements by means of an analytical strategy based on William Caplin’s 

(1998, 2013) theory of formal functions (especially those applied to the Classical 

sonatina by Edward Jurkowski [2010]). Furthermore, the study aimed to establish how 

implementing such a strategy influences the musicians’ memorisation process as 

experienced by the undergraduate piano students. This strategy will indicate how 

concepts specifically related to Caplin’s theory can be implemented practically to 

facilitate memorisation primarily through structural analytical processes.  

 

According to Mishra (2010, p. 9), few existing articles concerning the memorisation of 

music focus only on one memorisation strategy, as has been attempted in the present 

study. Although this study focused very closely on only one specific memorisation 

strategy by means of structural analysis, I do, however, believe that the use of a 

combination of strategies is potentially the most effective approach. Therefore, the 

strategy that is discussed in this dissertation could be supplemented by other 

memorisation strategies regarding the sensory components of memory, which fell 

outside the scope of this study. The incorporation of various memorisation and 

practising strategies, in addition to analytical strategies, was observed both in 

scholarship (for example, Mishra (1999, 2002) and Gerling and Dos Santos (2017)) 

and in the processes that were followed by the participants in this study.  

 

The objectives of this research project were as follows:  

• To develop an analytical strategy, in the form of a series of complimentary 

materials, and sufficient guidelines to using it, which can serve as an effective 

tool to aid undergraduate piano students in memorising a Classical sonatina.  

• To identify the specific and unique analytical processes involved regarding the 

structural analysis of a Classical sonatina according to William Caplin’s theory 

of formal functions that should be considered when memorising. 

• To investigate undergraduate piano students’ experiences of using an 

analytical strategy as a strategic tool to memorise a Classical sonatina and its 

influence on their memorisation.  



7 

Based on the stated aims and objectives, hence, the research question guiding this 

study is: How does the use of musical analysis as a strategic tool influence 

undergraduate piano students’ memorisation of a Classical sonatina? 

 

The following sub-questions are also of importance to the study: 

• What are the specific and unique analytical processes involved regarding the 

structural analysis of a Classical sonatina according to William Caplin’s theory of 

formal functions that should be considered when memorising? 

• How do undergraduate piano students experience the use of musical analysis as 

a strategic tool for the memorisation of a Classical sonatina?  

 

1.3 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS 

Based on the information presented in the background and rationale (and later in 

Chapter 2) I had certain expectations regarding the participants’ implementation of the 

analytical strategy, their engagement with the materials and the processes they were 

expected to follow to memorise the sonatina movement. These can be viewed as my 

research hypothesis, stating my expectations regarding participants’ experiences and 

possible outcomes.  

 

It was my belief that the implementation of an analytical strategy, focused specifically 

on structural analysis and Caplin’s theory of formal functions, would facilitate 

participants' memorisation of the sonatina movement. I expected that the strategy 

would enhance their ability to remember musical elements by engaging different 

components of memory, including sensory memory and emotional memory. I further 

expected that participants would experience general memorisation processes 

(including perception, ingraining, maintaining and recall) not specifically limited to 

memorisation of music. It was my hope that the execution of these processes would 

lead to the transfer of information to long-term memory storage, which would enable 

recall further in the future.  

 

Participants were anticipated to benefit from a sensory-rich experience through 

hearing, sight and touch as part of sensation and perception processes at the 

beginning of the memorisation process. As they engaged with the music, neural 



8 

connections were expected to form (during the process of ingraining). Further, through 

constant practice, these pathways would potentially be maintained and linked to their 

pre-existing knowledge of music theory, analysis, and form. Consequently, they would 

be able to recall the piece from memory with ease.  

 

It was expected that the auditory and visual elements of the experience in particular 

would contribute to the formation of sensory memories, which would engage the visual 

and auditory components of memory. This might include visualisation of the score: 

seeing their fingers playing the piano and perceiving the sound produced by their 

playing the piano and hearing different recordings of the piece. Accumulated 

knowledge and personal past experiences would facilitate in long-term memory 

retention. Furthermore, the kinesthetic awareness developed through memorisation 

was expected to enhance performance comfort and technical execution of the piece. 

 

Overall, the detailed and thorough analysis, including the use of a marked-up score 

and a color-coded system, was assumed to significantly influence the participants' 

memorisation of the sonatina movement. Consequently, this was expected to lead to 

a comfortable and confident performance. 

 

1.4 RESEARCH DESIGN AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

The project unfolded in four stages: a literature review, the development of an 

analytical strategy for the Classical sonatina to support memorisation, the 

implementation of the strategy and the data analysis. The literature review 

summarised the existing literature on the following topics that forms an important 

background to the study: general memorisation processes; memorisation of music and 

the different components involved, focusing especially on the analytical component 

with its benefits; the sonata form, focusing on the development of both the form itself 

and the theories aiming to describe the form; two main approaches to the structural 

analysis that forms part of the New Formenlehre, focusing especially on William 

Caplin’s theory of formal functions and, finally, a discussion of sonatinas and the 

previous literature concerned with their analysis. 

  



9 

The second stage involved the formulation of an analytical strategy, and the 

associated materials to be presented to participants, based on Caplin’s theory of 

formal functions. For this stage of the project, a series of complementary materials 

were formulated that aim to provide detailed guidance in using the form and structural 

analysis of a Classical sonatina to be used as a memorising tool. This was achieved 

through an in-depth analytical case study, where a series of five videos, focused on 

the first movement from Clementi’s sonatina op. 36, no. 2 was created. The series of 

videos was supplementary to a detailed colour-coded marked-up score of the same 

sonatina movement and a glossary listing all the relevant terms and concepts. These 

materials were created as part of the analytical strategy. 

 

The third stage followed a collective case study design and involved voluntary 

participants’ implementing the formulated strategy. Participation spanned a six-week 

period situated within a predetermined six-month period. This stage of the study aimed 

to investigate the influence of the analytical strategy on the participants’ memorising 

process as experienced by each of them. A case study design was considered and 

found most appropriate for this study as I, the researcher, ‘has clear identifiable cases 

with boundaries and seeks to provide an in-depth understanding of the cases or a 

comparison of several cases’ (Creswell & Poth 2018, p. 159). The collective case study 

design, specifically, allows for the incorporation of different perspectives on the matter 

for an even better and more comprehensive understanding (Creswell & Poth 2018, p. 

157).   

  

The participants were selected based on a volunteer sampling strategy, with 

undergraduate piano students having been identified as the target population. The 

sampling process maximises the information and knowledge acquired in the limited 

time period of the study (Du Plooy 2009, p. 108; Tellis 1997). The volunteered 

undergraduate piano students (a total of three participants) came from four specifically 

identified South African universities. This allowed those participants who had had 

exposure to various music theory pedagogies to be included in the study. The 

participation of three voluntary students was considered ideal, as Creswell and Poth 

(2018, p. 160) suggest that single cases should be limited so as not to exceed four or 

five with a collective case study, such as this one, to ensure maximum detail. First-



10 

year piano students were excluded due to the greater possibility that they might not 

have sufficient theoretical knowledge required for participation in this study.  

 

The participants were provided with the materials developed in the second stage, to 

serve as a comprehensive example. After that, they were asked to implement the 

proposed strategy themselves by memorising a given sonatina movement with a 

similar structure to the example provided but which was shorter in length. The 

participants were asked to provide comments about their experience as part of the 

data collection.  

 

Data collection took place through various procedures: Feedback was gathered 

through semi-structured interviews, which prompted participants to reflect on their 

experience; audio recordings of their practice sessions were also requested for 

observation; a video-recording at the end of their six-week period of themselves 

attempting to play the piece from memory was observed and finally, documentation in 

the form of journaling, kept by each participant, was collected. The use of multiple data 

sources, known as triangulation, that were used to collect all the participants’ individual 

data was intended to help ensure the reliability and validity of the case study (Baxter 

& Jack 2008, p. 556; Fidel 1984, p. 276). 

  

The fourth and last stage of the research design involved the analysis of each 

participant’s self-reflections and of all of the data collected from them. Within-case 

analysis and thematic analysis were used to analyse the data and to make sense of 

it. I thoroughly consulted each individual participant’s data in order to identify 

significant statements among them, as suggested by Ayres, Kavanaugh and Knafl 

(2003, p. 881). Next, I engaged in cross-case analysis in comparing the data from the 

individual participants with one another. This process contributed to distinguishing 

between those elements of the experience that were relevant to all the participants 

and those that were relevant to the individual participants only, which would lead to 

the identification of relevant themes. This process of cross-case analysis was intended 

to decontextualise the data; however, after the identification of common themes and 

categories, significant statements from the individual participants were again 

recontextualised through within-case analysis (Ayres et al. 2003, pp. 871–874). 

 



11 

In the context of thematic analysis, the data set was systematically categorised, the 

coding being applied in an inductive manner. Connections and relationships between 

codes were identified to establish themes and categories through a semantic 

approach. The analysis was conducted following a realist/essentialist paradigm. A 

report of the data analysis is presented in Chapter 4 and features rich thematic 

descriptions across the entire data set (Braun & Clarke 2006).  

  

The aim of the data analysis was to help me form a better understanding of the manner 

in which each participant interpreted and implemented the analytical strategy with 

which they had been provided. The focus was on the participants’ experiences, which 

helped to answer the research question and the sub-questions (Ayres et al. 2003, p. 

876). Furthermore, it enabled me to draw conclusions and make further 

recommendations. A more descriptive account of the research methodology and 

analytical processes is presented in Chapter 3. 

 

The thesis itself is structured as follows:  

Chapter 1 – Introduction 

Chapter 2 – Literature review 

Chapter 3 – Methodology 

Chapter 4 – Data analysis and discussion 

Chapter 5 – Conclusion. 

 

1.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Respect for the participants, informed consent by them, voluntary participation without 

coercion, their right to withdraw, the preservation of anonymity and specific permission 

required from the participants for audio- or video-recording were all important ethical 

principles that were considered throughout the study. 

 

Gatekeeper’s approval was obtained from all the relevant institutions to use their 

students as participants in the study and final ethical clearance had been obtained 

from the University of the Free State’s General and Human Research Ethics 

Committee. The Ethical Clearance number assigned to this study is: UFS-

HSD2022/0712/23  



12 

1.6 VALUE OF THE RESEARCH 

The study and the consequent findings are valuable as they contribute to the existing 

body of knowledge regarding the implications of musical analysis on memorisation. 

This study followed a unique research design, which provided a new perspective on 

the investigation of this topic. What makes this research design unique is the fact that 

the participants received a thorough analytical strategy to aid memorisation. This 

included sufficient guidelines for and demonstrations of using this strategy and an in-

depth example of its implementation. The incorporation of such a practical and concise 

guide to analysing music in order to facilitate memorisation before its implementation 

responds to an identified gap in the literature on the subject. Previous qualitative 

studies that were consulted, concerned with analysis and memorisation, excluded the 

implementation of such analytical materials to serve as a tool for facilitating 

memorisation.  

  

For both piano students and prospective pianists the memorisation of music is a crucial 

skill to acquire as professional pianists are mostly expected to perform from memory. 

The study has practical implications as it had a direct impact on the participants. The 

knowledge gained might potentially have a positive influence on their future 

memorisation endeavours. The materials included in the study and presented in this 

dissertation have the potential to influence readers in a similar manner through some 

investigation on their part.  

 

The study provided the participants with the opportunity to comprehend and implement 

an analytical strategy themselves with guidance from the researcher. Participation in 

this particular study therefore enabled the participants to acquire new skills, 

contributing to improved memorisation abilities, which could be strengthened even 

more in the future.  

 

In addition to the visual, auditory and kinesthetic components of memory (also known 

as the sensory components), incorporating analytical strategies that engage the 

analytical component in the memorising process might contribute to a more secure 

memory of a piece. I believe that this study has the potential to improve undergraduate 



13 

pianists’ quality of memorisation, leading to an enriched musical performance and 

experience. 

 

  



14 

CHAPTER 2:  LITERATURE REVIEW 

This chapter discusses the existing literature on three interconnected areas of focus 

to contextualise this research project: the concepts of memorisation, musical analysis 

and musical form. The first discussion is on memorisation processes in general and 

how the human brain functions to formulate memories. This section forms a foundation 

to the rest of the discussions that follow in this chapter by providing a concise 

explanation of the basic principles and concepts related to memorisation. This is 

followed by the memorisation of music, focusing on the specific components involved 

and the role of sensation and the embodiment of music perception and cognition. The 

significant role that musical analysis plays in facilitating memorisation is emphasised 

by referring to and reflecting on the previous research concerned with musical analysis 

and memorisation. Finally, the focus shifts to musical form. Here, in particular, the 

sonata form is highlighted because some first movements of sonatinas (pointing in 

particular to the selected sonatina movements used in this project) relate to this 

structure. A brief reference is made to the concept of Fromenlehre, pointing to various 

theories and descriptions of the sonata form, and a brief overview of the form’s 

historical development is provided. The New Formenlehre is the next point, where the 

two main approaches to it are highlighted, namely, James Hepokoski and Warren 

Darcy's Sonata Theory and, more importantly for the present study, William Caplin's theory 

of formal functions. The last part of the literature review focuses on sonatinas, including: a 

clarification of the relevant terminology, a view on the form’s historical applications and a 

reflection on the previous literature concerned with the analysis of sonatina movements.  

 

2.1 GENERAL MEMORISATION 

The processes and systems involved in the human brain to orchestrate memorisation 

in general, with a particular focus on important models and theories of memorisation, 

are discussed in this section. This should help to form a basic idea of the way in which 

the human brain functions in creating and storing memories, before we shift focus to 

the memorisation of music specifically. 

 

Memory is a grouping of various systems that function together to allow a person to 

learn from past experiences and predict the future. It performs a critical role in the 

functioning of all human beings (Baddeley 2014, p. 1; Gaddis & Adler 2023; Madigan 



15 

2015). People share the same neurological and cognitive systems involved in the 

process of memorisation and for centuries these mental processes have been under 

investigation (Chaffin, Demos & Logan 2016, p. 568; Seibert 2023). In the late 1800s, 

psychologists had already proposed that memory is an active process which can be 

‘divided’ into various sections or systems (Baddeley 2014, p. 5; Seibert 2023). 

However, the fundamental mechanisms leading to more complex facets of memory 

and learning remain uncertain (Baddeley 2014, p. 8). A generalised simplified process 

of memorisation, including all the stages involved, is discussed below.  

 

2.1.1 Processes involved in forming memories 

The process of memorisation involves several complex processes, systems and 

structures in the human brain (Apostolaki 2013, p. 226; Gaddis & Adler 2023). Also 

involved is a chain of neurochemical and electrophysiological changes that occur in 

order to formulate memories and acquire new information. It is very difficult for 

researchers to fully understand these neurological processes involved in human 

beings (Baddeley 2014, p. 4; Fourie et al. 2016, pp. 121–122). 

 

With reference to the neuronal structures, the creation of memories is understood to 

be grounded on changes occurring in the strength of the synaptic connections relating 

to the memory (Rasch & Born 2013). The memorisation process in general can be 

described in a four-stage process, involving perception, ingraining, maintaining and 

recall. The more these stages are executed, the more reliable and secure will be the 

memories that are formed (Klickstein 2009, p. 52). Essentially, throughout the process, 

every system involved in memory needs to be able to register given information, store 

that information over a period of time and retrieve it when necessary (Baddeley 2014, 

p. 9). The process can be described briefly as follows, as starting with a process known 

as sensation, which is very closely related to perception. 

 

Before exploring the first of these four stages in the memorisation process, it is worth 

pointing to the significance of sensation. Going hand in hand with perception, this 

process, known as sensation, facilitates the way human beings perceive and interpret 

the world surrounding them. Sensation involves the process through which the 

sensory receptors and nervous system sense sensory stimuli from the external 

environment through interoceptors and exteroceptors and respond to them (Hodges 



16 

& Sebald 2011, p. 351; Marzvanyan & Alhawaj 2023). Sensation explains how raw 

sensory information is processed: the senses receive sensory information and through 

the receptors physical stimuli are converted into electrical signals, which are 

transmitted to the brain (Hodges & Sebald 2011, p. 111). These signals are then 

processed further. The topic of sensation is discussed in further detail with specific 

reference to learning music in section 2.2.3. 

  

Viewed as a process that occurs after sensation but before cognition, perception is 

very closely coupled to memorisation (Apostolaki 2013, p. 218; Hodges & Sebald 

2011, p. 348). Perception involves the gathering and accumulation of external stimuli 

through the senses, which is processed by various brain systems to form a sensory 

memory (Auday & Schafer 2023; Baddeley 2014, p. 18). Neural networks that support 

the perception of a given stimulus grow stronger as exposure to the stimulus increases 

(Hodges & Sebald 2011, p. 138). Perception triggers emotions, stimulating different 

systems in both the brain and the body (Koelsch 2011; Leman & Maes 2014, p. 237). 

The perception of external stimuli through various senses can contribute to ensuring 

a vibrant memory (Klickstein 2009, p. 53). After these external stimuli are gathered 

through the processes of sensation and perception, ingraining is the next step of the 

memorisation process to occur. 

 

The ingraining process involves the formation of neural pathways into the brain as 

information is processed and interpreted by neurons (Klickstein 2009, p. 53). The brain 

processes the perceptions formed from external stimuli, leading to the creation of new 

neural connections in the brain. At first, these connections are very vulnerable and 

easily prone to decay, which results in forgetting. This process of perception leading 

to the creation of neural connections is also known as encoding. Encoded stimuli are 

stored to enable easy retrieval on demand later in the process; the manner through 

which the stimuli are encoded originally will have an influence on the recall at later 

stages (Apostolaki 2013, pp. 218–219; Rasch & Born 2013). In order to preserve and 

strengthen these newly formed connections in the brain, maintenance – the next step 

in the four-stage process – is essential. 

 

The maintenance of memory is a constant and continuous innovative process where 

the neural pathways, imprinted during the ingraining stage, are effectively maintained 



17 

to reduce the probability of forgetting a memory; this will prevent the gradual 

disintegration of the mental pathways that were previously constructed and therefore 

help to keep memories secure and vivid (Klickstein 2009, p. 54). Consolidation 

processes over the short and long term strengthen and stabilise the neural 

connections and transfer memories from the short-term to the long-term memory. 

These processes are also necessary to integrate the newly formed memory into the 

individual’s network of pre-existing knowledge (Rasch & Born 2013). This familiar pre-

existing information is very important as it serves as the building blocks with which 

new memories are able to form (Bernardi, Schories, Jabusch, Colombo & Altenmüller 

2012, p. 277; Fourie et al. 2016, p. 123). The final step of the process is the recall of 

the newly formed and maintained memory. 

  

Recall refers to the process of accessing one’s stored memories (Rasch & Born 2013). 

A retrieval system is necessary to organise the cues that provide access to newly 

formed sections of information in one’s long-term memory. Recalling memories starts 

with relevant retrieval cues associated with the various senses and the information is 

often recalled according to an individual’s conceptual interpretation (Bernardi et al. 

2012, p. 277; Madigan 2015; Palmer 1997, pp. 117 & 128). During this stage of the 

memorisation process, multidimensional and multi-layered relationships are being 

developed and reflected (Palmer 1997, p. 121). This is the final stage of the process 

that describes the general process of memorisation.  

  

To conclude, memorisation is an intricate process across various systems and 

structures in the brain (Baddeley 2014, p. 4). It can, however, be explained in a 

simplified manner, describing a four-stage process that includes perception, 

ingraining, maintaining and recall (Klickstein 2009, p. 52). Through careful execution 

of all four stages, a newly formed, secure memory should be the result. Performing a 

music piece successfully from memory would be the result of a thoroughly executed 

memorisation process.  

 

2.1.2 Forms of memory: sensory, short-term and long-term 

Researchers have tried to explain the systems and processes of memory by means 

of various theories created through decades of research. These theories have some 

fundamental differences in the way they view retaining and retrieval actions during 



18 

memorisation (Gaddis & Adler 2023). Controversy during the mid-1900s led to various 

theories and models of memory being formulated. These various theories and models 

aim to explain the function, cooperation and interaction of three distinct forms of 

memory, namely, sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory 

(Apostolaki 2013, p. 226; Gaddis & Adler 2023; Reichling 1989, p. 9). Each of these 

three forms of memory has a unique function and is explained below.  

 

The first form of memory, sensory memory, points to the role of storage during the 

processes involved in perception (Auday & Schafer 2023; Baddeley 2014, p. 18). The 

two most researched components of sensory memory, include visual/iconic and 

auditory/echoic memory (Auday & Schafer 2023). The visual memory is dependent on 

the stimuli’s brightness and the information received by the brain from the retinas that 

remains after the stimuli ends (Baddeley 2014, p. 7). The auditory memory also 

involves various systems to perceiving and processing information through hearing 

and is not limited to the sound of speech alone (Baddeley 2014, pp. 11 & 14). This 

leads to the second form of memory: short-term memory.  

 

The storage of information to the short-term memory is necessary in order to perform 

a variety of cognitive tasks such as reasoning, problem-solving, comprehending, long-

term learning and understanding (Baddeley 2014, p. 14 & 18; Seibert 2023). In order 

to create a representation of a certain object, short-term memory enables a person to 

access and integrate a variety of information from different sources, forming a 

comprehensible view of their surroundings (Baddeley 2014, p. 7). Short-term memory 

persists only for very short periods of time if information is not further processed and 

it also has a relatedly restricted capacity (Apostolaki 2013, p. 226; Hodges & Sebald 

2011, p. 137; Madigan 2015; Seibert 2023). After further processing, such information 

will be admitted to long-term memory stores (the last of the three forms of memory) 

and perish from one’s short-term memory.  

 

Also worth mentioning, is working-memory. Although short-term memory and working-

memory are related, they function differently. Working-memory, unlike short-term 

memory, is not only involved in temporary storage of information, but also the 

processing and manipulation of information necessary for complex cognitive tasks. It 

includes various components, each responsible for the processing of different sensory 



19 

inputs, which then transfers information to long-term memory storage (Apostolaki 

2013, p. 226).  

 

Long-term memory is a more durable encoding system, one enforced through sleep, 

among other aspects, and stores information to memory for very long periods of time 

– some might say permanently (Baddeley 2014, p. 15; Hodges & Sebald 2011, p. 137; 

Rasch & Born 2013). Long-term memory can be categorised as two types: semantic 

and episodic. Semantic memory is concerned with generalised information about 

everyday life, acquired over longer periods of time. Episodic memory, on the other 

hand, includes memories about personal experiences (Baddeley 2014, p. 16; Gaddis 

& Adler 2023; Hargest 2014, p. 47; Madigan 2015; Rasch & Born 2013). It is still 

unclear, however, whether these resemble separate systems of memory or just 

different parts of the same system (Baddeley 2014, p. 16).  

 

The exact difference between short-term and long-term memory systems remains 

controversial. While some believe that it is the same system functioning under different 

conditions, others believe that they are two separate systems functioning very closely 

together (Baddeley 2014, p. 15).  

 

Nevertheless, it is clear that, although there are many theories of memory, sensory 

memory, short-term memory and long-term memory are the three most acknowledged 

forms of memory to occur. They all play a fundamental role in formulating memories. 

For musicians, it is important to take note of these various processes and structures 

involved in memorisation, because knowledge of this might help one to develop a 

better understanding of the various processes and components involved in the 

memorisation of music specifically. Topics related to this are discussed in the following 

sections.  

  

2.2 MEMORISATION OF MUSIC 

With the basic principles necessary to understand general memorisation processes 

having been explained, this section now focuses on the memorisation of music 

specifically. The reasons that musicians should consider memorising their music are 

discussed, with further reference being made to the various components involved 



20 

which should be engaged in the memorisation of music. The components referred to 

include sensory components (tactile, visual and auditory components of memory), the 

kinesthetic and emotional component and the analytical component of memory.  

 

With the focus for present purposes on the emotional and sensory components, a brief 

discussion of sensory-processing systems is also included, highlighting 

proprioception, interoception and exteroception. These processes highlight the 

integration of the memory components into the cognition process. Flowing from and 

connected to this discussion on sensory perception and cognition, the idea of an 

embodied music cognition paradigm within the context of music performance is also 

included. This section therefore provides a brief background to all the elements 

necessary to form a holistic and secure memory of a piece for performance.  

 

2.2.1 Importance and potential benefits of memorising music in general 

The historical practices concerned with memorising music place an expectation on 

certain instrumentalists to perform from memory (Nagel 2015, p. 62). Although 

important for pianists in particular, memorisation is considered a skill which can be 

acquired by anyone and can be improved through practice (Klickstein 2009, p. 52; 

McKinney 2008, p. 26). Despite the fact that the memorisation of music often threatens 

to increase a performer’s level of anxiety, it offers numerous benefits which most often 

outweigh its negative aspects (Walls 2007, p. 63). In my opinion, these benefits justify 

the time and effort spent on memorisation. These benefits can appear in and improve 

upon various facets of a musician’s skills to memorise and perform music: from an 

artistic level to a technical and theoretical level, and many more. The benefits are all 

intertwined with and connected to each other. 

 

First, Hargest (2014, p. 47) asserts that the use of the visual cortex, the biggest neuro-

system in the brain, is reduced when the use of a score is eliminated during a 

performance from memory. This allows the musician to place more focus on other 

aspects of the performance, improving their concentration, communication and artistry 

that might have otherwise been compromised (Hargest 2014, p. 47). Playing from 

memory therefore provides a performer with more artistic freedom (Klickstein 2009, p. 

52).  

 



21 

A further benefit of a score-free performance is the fact that a performance from 

memory gives a performer the opportunity to explore new and innovative ideas. For 

example, it enables a musician to discover aspects of the music that might have been 

overlooked otherwise, while increasing musicality and expression (Hargest 2014, p. 

47; Klickstein 2009, p. 52; Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 53; Walls 2007, p. 63). In addition, 

this close connection to the music and independence of the score enables the 

musician to perform the music with greater fluency, better tone, more confidence and 

greater awareness (Hargest 2014, p. 48; Walls 2007, p. 64). 

 

Furthermore, at a technical level, memorisation can make it easier for a performer to 

execute technically challenging aspects of a performance (Bernstein 2020, p. 53). This 

is because memorisation enhances a musician’s kinesthetic awareness of the music, 

which increases the performer’s ‘kinetic comfort’ while playing the instrument. Such 

kinesthetic awareness directly connects to the activity of sensory-processing systems 

known as interoception, exteroception and proprioception (fully discussed in section 

2.2.3). This leads to more comfort and ease during a performance (Bernstein 2020, p. 

53; McKinney 2008, p. 26).  

 

However, to play any piece from memory in a confident and secure manner (and in a 

way that will most likely produce these benefits), extensive knowledge of all aspects 

of the piece at a theoretical level is also required. The performer needs to form a deep 

theoretical and structural familiarity with the piece, which is achieved through analytical 

memorisation strategies in order to perform it independently of the score (Hargest 

2014, p. 47; Klickstein 2009, p. 52; Walls 2007, p. 64). These analytical encounters 

with the score increase the musician’s awareness of the relationships between the 

melodic, harmonic and diatonic aspects in the music (Palmer 1997, p. 121). This in 

turn leads to improved musical quality while reducing any errors that may arise in the 

music as a result of a more accurate hearing and understanding of the notes (Hargest 

2014, p. 47; Walls 2007, p. 63). More benefits specifically associated with analytical 

encounters when memorising music are discussed in section 2.3.1. 

 

For the moment, I share one final thought regarding the effect of analytical interactions 

with the score when memorising. In a sense, when seeking benefits associated with 

playing from memory, in addition to those mentioned above, the musician needs to 



22 

spend adequate time analysing the score to become familiar with the piece to such an 

extent that the score is no longer necessary. I believe that such theoretical familiarity 

of a piece poses benefits beyond its immediate implications on the memorisation of 

the specific piece in question: improved theoretical knowledge and newly acquired 

information, obtained through a deep engagement with a score in an attempt to store 

it in memory. This can be valuable as it might enrich and extend a musician’s existing 

framework of theoretical knowledge. In my opinion, such an accumulated reservoir of 

theoretical knowledge can be implemented and beneficial to facilitating the 

memorisation of other pieces in future interactions.  

 

Drawing on all these, it is my observation, assumption and personal experience that a 

performer playing from memory is more focused, attentive and aware of the music and 

their surroundings. Such a musician seemingly has the freedom to be more 

expressive, creative and adventurous in their interpretation and performance, 

communicating their intention more easily and effectively to the audience. A musician 

not bound by the score often holds deep and valuable theoretical knowledge obtained 

through the memorising process, which is likely to shape them into more sensitive, 

confident and holistic performers altogether.  

 

Hodges (2018, p. 81) notes that memorisation and all the benefits it brings (such as 

those mentioned above) have the ability to influence both the performer and the 

performance positively when fully embraced. It is therefore important that pianists are 

aware of these benefits and embrace them. More important, however, is taking 

cognisance of the various components of memory and their associated memorisation 

strategies that are most likely to lead to the effective memorisation of a piece. This is 

more likely to result in a musician’s reaping these benefits. These components are 

discussed in the following section.  

 

2.2.2 Components of music memorisation 

Although it is important to take note of the processes and systems involved in 

memorisation, musicians might also benefit from understanding the various 

components of memory. In the existing literature, reference is made specifically to five 

components of memory: visual, auditory, kinesthetic or ‘muscle memory’, emotional, 

and analytical memory (Ginsborg 2019, p. 17; Kenyon 2016, p. 8). Although not 



23 

considered as one of these five main components of memory, tactile memory is a sixth 

component also mentioned in the literature; it plays an important role in memorisation 

(O’Brien 1943, p. 552). These components of memory (most of which is dependent on 

the five senses) are not exclusively connected to the memorisation of music 

specifically. Nevertheless, their application in music memorisation, is extremely 

significant.  

 

It is normal for musicians to have a natural tendency to apply certain components more 

than others; however, it is important that they aim to engage all of the components of 

memory as much as possible. This will enable a musician to develop a mental 

representation of a piece, which is more secure and reliable (Ginsborg 2019, p. 18; 

Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 52). Each of these components of memory is dependent on 

various aspects of a musician’s musical knowledge and each requires a different 

amount of time to master. This is unique for each individual musician and can also 

vary from piece to piece (Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 52). In order to optimise the transfer 

of all the various components to memory, though, Ginsborg (2019, p. 17) asserts that 

it is necessary to spend sufficient time on the memorising process, working in a 

deliberate and strategic manner in short sessions.  

 

Dubé (2003) stated that visual, auditory, kinesthetic and conceptual (or analytical) 

memory are the four components necessary for pianists to memorise music. Even 

though this project focuses primarily on the analytical component to memory, these 

other components are still worth mentioning in this literature review as I am convinced 

that these components cannot fully function independently. Being cognisant of the 

function of these components and knowing how to engage all of them fully when 

memorising music is vital to memorising music in the most effective and secure 

manner. The following is a brief description of each of the six components to memory.  

 

Emotional memory 

The first component of memory, emotional memory, focuses on the emotion conveyed 

through the piece and the emotions that the performer associates with the piece 

(Kenyon 2016, p. 44). Emotional memory is personal and each individual musician’s 

imagination and creativity, pertaining to the way that they interpret and connect to the 

piece through dynamics and articulation, is extremely important for it to take effect 



24 

(Ginsborg 2019, p. 17; Kenyon 2016, p. 44). Emotional cues in music that facilitate the 

retrieval of the music from one’s memory are established through expression in playing 

the piece (Chaffin et al. 2016, p. 563). Despite Dubé’s statement mentioned above 

(not specifically listing emotional memory as a vital component to memorise piano 

music), Sloboda (2005, p. 334) mentions that strong emotions play a fundamental role 

in any musical engagement and therefore interoception also forms an essential part 

of this discussion (in section 2.2.3). 

 

Tactile memory 

The next component is tactile memory, which depends on the sense of touch. For 

instrumentalists, this memory is formed by the physical interaction between the 

musician’s hands and body and the instrument. It is the recall of the physical feeling 

of the way chords and passages feel under the musician’s fingers and the way in which 

the body moves to be able to play and reach certain notes on the instrument (Kenyon 

2016, p. 17). Therefore, also contributing to the establishment of tactile memory, is the 

musician’s choice of fingering for each individual piece. Fingering should be carefully 

considered to be most efficient and should be applied consistently throughout practice 

(Klickstein 2009, p. 53; Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 53). This type of memory can play a 

significant role in developing certain musical and instrumental techniques (Baker & 

Green 2016, p. 13). Also concerned with the relationship between the musician’s body 

and the instrument is the next component of memory: kinesthetic memory.  

 

Kinaesthetic memory 

Also known as muscle memory, this component is many musicians’ primary 

component as an aid to memorisation (Mishra 2010, pp. 11 & 17). With this type of 

memory, the physical movements of the musician’s hands and body in relation to the 

instrument are recalled and this is achieved through constant and deliberate repetition 

in order to eventually automise movements (Aiello & Williamon 2002; Ginsborg 2019, 

p. 17; Mishra 2010, p. 12; Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 53). Opposed to what one might 

assume from the term ‘muscle memory’, the memory is not being physically stored in 

the muscles. Rather, when a series of muscle movements are frequently repeated, the 

movement pattern is stored as a complete unit in the brain. When recalled, the 

sequence of specific movements runs automatically, therefore establishing muscle 

memory (Hodges & Sebald 2011, p. 235).   



25 

Further on the topic of automised movements relating to muscle memory, Chang 

(2007, p. 107) mentions two types of reflex motion that are necessary in order for a 

musician’s hand to move in an automised manner: the reflex motion from the hands 

when touching the keys on the instrument and the brain’s reflex response to the 

sounds that are being produced. Regarding the motor systems in the body, neurons 

in the brain become more effectual through constant practice and training, which 

reduces the number of neurons eventually required to execute the task (Hodges & 

Sebald 2011, p. 173). Again, the involvement of sensory processing systems, in this 

case proprioception in particular, cannot be excluded as it is so closely connected 

(section 2.2.3).  

 

Although muscle memory can increase anxiety and be very unreliable in stressful 

situations when used in isolation, it is still very useful. It plays an essential role in 

mastering difficult passages in the music and to provide confidence while performing 

(Chaffin et al. 2016, p. 561; Ginsborg 2019, p. 17; Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 53).  

 

Visual memory 

The next component is the visual memory. It includes two main elements: the 

visualisation of the sheet music and the visualisation of the hands on the instrument. 

To achieve the former, the musician needs to remember what the notes look like on 

the printed paper by ‘seeing’ them in their mind’s eye. Some musicians may find this 

easier and more useful than others (Chaffin et al. 2016, p. 563). Although less 

instinctive, this process might also aid a musician’s sight-reading abilities and enable 

mental practice away from the instrument (Chang 2007; Ginsborg 2019, p. 17; Kenyon 

2016, p. 39; Mishra 2010, p. 11; Walls 2007, p. 64). The latter – visualisation of the 

hands on the instrument – is more concerned with remembering the topography of the 

instrument and the patterns formed by the hands while playing the instrument (Mishra 

2010, p. 11; Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 52).  

 

Auditory memory 

Auditory memory is the penultimate component. This type of memory depends on the 

harmonic, melodic and rhythmical elements of the music and the sound of it 

(Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 52; Walls 2007, p. 65). During a musical performance, there 

are two forms of auditory memory: retrospective auditory memory (remembering what 



26 

was already played) and prospective auditory memory (remembering what still needs 

to be played). These two types of auditory memory are crucial to helping the performer 

to navigate through a piece (Chaffin et al. 2016, p. 562; Ginsborg 2019, p. 17; Kenyon 

2016, p. 30). It is through listening and audiation that the elements of melody, structure 

and rhythm are remembered in order to create an overall picture of the specific piece 

and therefore strengthen this component (Ferrari, Kokotsaki, DP Newton & LD Newton 

2017, p. 4; Mishra 2010, p. 11).  

 

Analytical memory 

This then leads to the last component of memory and also the one in consideration in 

this study: analytical memory. In the memorisation of music, theoretical knowledge of 

the music forms the foundation of this component of memory. This includes form, 

patterns and motifs, harmonic and phrase structures and other elements related to the 

structure of a piece (Kenyon 2016, p. 10). Mishra (2010, p. 12) describes analytical 

memory as ‘the cognitive interpretation of patterns in a musical work’. Analytical 

memory is crucial because musical structures and units are recalled from a musician’s 

memory according to their conceptual interpretation while performing (Hargest 2014, 

p. 47; Palmer 1997, p. 117).  

 

This type of memory is developed by the thorough and in-depth analysis of a piece 

before the memorisation process starts and also by constant engagement with the 

analysis during the memorisation process (Ginsborg 2019, p. 17; Kenyon 2016, p. 10). 

This is the most important component in this study as the participants applied structural 

analysis to facilitate the memorisation of a sonatina movement.  

  

To conclude, existing literature highlights six components involved in the memorisation 

of music in particular. Even though some of these are more instinctive than others, 

depending on each individual musician, musicians should still strive to engage with 

them all if they are to gain the best result when memorising music. When used in 

isolation, these individual components may increase anxiety during performances, 

leading to a less-secure memory. However, when combined and integrated, the 

performer is likely to experience a more confident and secure memory of the piece.  

 



27 

While the emotional memory is probably the most abstract of them all, relying on deep 

inner feelings, connections and emotions, the visual, auditory, tactile memory are each 

clearly bound to the senses, making them ideal to enhancing the process of perception 

when attempting to memorise a piece. Establishing memories with these various 

components (pointing to the sensory memory components) is subject to the co-

operation of several sensory processing systems in the human brain. These systems 

are briefly discussed in the following section before devoting full attention to the 

component of primary concern in this project: the analytical component. 

 

2.2.3 Sensory processing systems: proprioception, exteroception and 

interoception 

A variety of different sensory processing systems are involved and intertwined in order 

for human beings to make sense of the world around them. Interconnected with the 

various components of memory as discussed above, these systems also have an 

influence on musicians’ ability to learn and ultimately memorise music. These systems 

include processes known as exteroception, interoception and proprioception; they 

explain how sensory stimuli are detected, interpreted and processed to enable 

understanding and learning. For musicians, these processes play an important role in 

their ability to master both the cognitive and the physical aspects necessary to play an 

instrument. These three processes are briefly discussed in the light of their 

significance to learning and performing music specifically.  

 

Proprioception 

The first of these interconnected systems is proprioception. This is an interconnected 

process involving the ability to perceive the movements, position and orientation of a 

person’s own body in space through proprioceptors (Barlow 2018; Marzvanyan & 

Alhawaj 2023; Smitt & Bird 2013, p. 469). This system is necessary to successfully 

maintain balance and to coordinate movements. In addition to the sensory organs 

receiving input from the muscles, mechanoreceptors in the skin are also sensitive to 

physical changes such as pressure, touch and stretch (Marzvanyan & Alhawaj 2023; 

Moller 2003, pp. 83 & 197).  

 

For musicians, proprioception is an important process necessary in order to coordinate 

the playing of an instrument. It promotes accuracy in finger positions on the instrument 



28 

and sensing both body movements and muscle engagement. It might contribute 

further to keeping the correct body alignment and posture. Proprioception connected 

to playing an instrument can be significantly enhanced through practice (Smitt & Bird 

2013, p. 471). The next system being discussed is exteroception. 

 

Exteroception 

Exteroception points to the perception of external stimuli from the external 

environment, which are detected through exteroceptors and the senses (Herman, 

Olszewska, Gaca, Droździel & Marchewka 2023; Marzvanyan & Alhawaj 2023). The 

‘Gestalt laws of cognitive organization’ create a firm basis for music cognition and 

provides a foundation for the way musicians structure sensory stimuli (Hodges & 

Sebald 2011, p. 151). It explains how people perceive stimuli by recognising patterns, 

grouping similar elements and simplifying complex information, all of which is 

applicable in the cognition of music (Hodges & Sebald 2011, pp. 130–132; Patel & 

Demorest 2013, p. 666; Tan, Pfordresher & Harrép 2010, p. 78). 

 

For musicians, exteroception can be related back to the sensory components of 

memory, as explained in section 2.2.2 (especially auditory memory). The detection 

and processing of stimuli through the auditory systems enables musicians to interpret 

and respond to musical elements such as pitch, timbre, sound dynamics and rhythm. 

Psychological variables, including signal shape, time and frequency, also plays a role 

in a musician’s psychological perceptions of these elements (Hodges & Sebald 2011, 

p. 127). When playing with other musicians, exteroceptive skills are necessary to 

listen, respond and adjust accordingly in response to the other musicians’ playing. 

Although the detection of and reaction to external stimuli have an impact on a 

musician’s performance, the awareness and processing of internal stimuli is just as 

important. 

 

Interoception 

Interoception, also referred to as body sensations, refers to a person’s ability to 

perceive internal stimuli and to sense their physiological and physical state (Herman 

et al. 2023; Köteles 2021, p. 19). In a musical setting, interoception points to the 

performer’s emotional connection to the music. Consequently, emotions felt by a 

performer may influence the expressive qualities communicated through a 



29 

performance (Crispin & Östersjo 2017, p. 296; Köteles 2021). Listening to music 

increases the biochemicals released in the body, which provokes emotional responses 

in the brain. Other parts of the brain integrate these emotional responses, input from 

the sensory system and other inputs, which facilitates the experience of conscious 

emotions (Hodges & Sebald 2011, p. 193). 

 

Continuing the discussion on interoception, it is known that a person can experience 

several physiological changes in response to hearing and performing music, including 

possible changes in heart rate, breathing and biochemical responses. Some physical 

movements that may occur include reflexive motor movements such as foot-tapping, 

facial gestures, body-swaying and head-nodding. Such responses can be evoked in 

both the listener and the performer. The different life experiences of different people 

lead to different responses when engaging with music (Hodges & Sebald 2011, pp. 

178 & 184; Willliamon, Clark & Küssner 2017, p. 206). Interoceptive skills enable a 

musician therefore to develop a better awareness of their physical responses to music, 

further improving their capability to express emotions through a performance. This 

brief discussion of interoception reveals a clear connection between interoception and 

the emotional component to memory, as discussed in the previous section. 

  

These processes play a critical role in the cognition of music. They explain how 

musicians gather information, presented as stimuli from both the environment and 

from within the individual and how the brain proceeds to process these stimuli. It can 

be concluded that the cognition of music, leading to learning and memorising music, 

is processed in a variety of ways. Each stimulus is processed through one of the 

various sensory processing systems (as discussed in this section). The information 

can consequently be associated with one of the components of memory (as discussed 

in the previous section), depending on what the stimulus was.  

 

Important to remember, however, as mentioned earlier and as with the components of 

memory, that these various processes and systems are all interconnected. They do 

not function independently or separately, which makes this matter more complex. The 

next section, relating more to the kinesthetic component of memory, points to the shift 

in more recent views of music cognition and how the body is acknowledged to be a 

major contributor. 



30 

2.2.4  Cognition as an interactive or embodied process 

The role of body movements, such as those evoked by performing and listening to 

music, has been at the centre of more recent research, building upon older theories 

about music cognition and perception. Body movements play an important role in 

music performance and researchers now acknowledge the significant role of the 

human motor system in musical interactions (Davidson & Correia 2002; Leman & 

Maes 2014, p. 236).  

  

In the past, the cognition of music was primarily and almost exclusively considered 

from a perspective of perception, considering the capacity to experience music in 

connection with learning, predictive processes and memory (Leman, Maes, Nijs & Van 

Dyck 2018, p. 748). Such views concentrated on predictive mechanisms in perception, 

disregarding the potential impacts of bodily factors on such predictions (Leman et al. 

2018, p. 748). Perception and action were viewed as being separate processes, with 

actions and body movements as the exclusive outcome of perception (Leman & Maes 

2014, p. 236). The paradigm of embodied music cognition, in contrast, emphasises 

the connection between and the importance of physical experiences and actions in the 

cognition of music (Cox 2016, p. 11; Leman et al. 2018, p. 748).  

 

Embodied music cognition suggests that perception and action (body movements) are 

interconnected and have an influence on each other (Leman & Maes 2014, p. 237). 

Both motor and perception systems therefore play significant roles in our interaction 

with the external environment (Hodges & Sebald 2011, p. 240; Leman & Maes 2014, 

p. 237). Physical information is sensed from the musical environment, which results in 

physical expression as a reaction to such detected information: this creates a 

deliberate musical interaction (Cox 2016, p. 11; Leman & Maes 2014, p. 236). Music 

in turn inspires physical movements that convey numerous expressive qualities, inner 

emotions and intentions (Leman & Maes 2014, p. 237). Elements of music, such as 

dynamics, touch, articulation and phrasing, are directly related to the way musicians 

move their bodies in space and the physical movements they produce (Cox 2016, p. 

12; Davidson & Correia 2002).  

 

Essentially, action and perception function in a continuous cycle, each dependent on 

each other. In basic terms, sensory information detected and gathered by the senses 



31 

generates motor commands for action; the expected sensory outcomes as a result of 

those actions are being predicted in advance (Leman & Maes 2014, p. 236; Leman et 

al. 2018, p. 748). When music is perceived, sensory-motor mechanisms are being 

activated; these movements or actions then again lead to the perception of music. This 

repeated interaction sequence with the music is at the core of a sense-giving musical 

experience (Leman & Maes 2014, p. 242).  

 

The strong relationship between gesture and sound is also highlighted: expressive 

gestures are translated into sound and sound is decoded back into expressive 

gestures. Any form of musical expression is communicated through actions and 

gestures. Music-driven gestures may therefore be facilitating musical perception 

(Davidson & Correia 2002; Hodges & Sebald 2011, p. 233; Leman & Maes 2014, p. 

237). These statements clearly suggest a direct relationship between perception and 

action, which can be demonstrated through observing the interaction between the 

perceived sounds, produced as the musician plays an instrument, and the expressive 

gestures that form part of the performance. 

 

Our perception, experience and understanding of music are not exclusively restricted 

to mental processes occurring in the brain, as previously believed; instead, the entire 

body is actively involved. Physical actions shape and are shaped by the musical 

environment, with constant interactions occurring between the musical environment, 

body movements, the mind and the sensations experienced. The body in its entirety 

is crucial to creating and enhancing a musical experience.  

 

The analytical component requires the musician to engage with the score at an 

intellectual level, demanding one to apply theoretical knowledge in order to analyse 

and understand the various structural elements that led to the construction of a piece. 

The internalisation of a piece’s structural features allows the musician to integrate this 

knowledge with physical actions and responses, which contributes to embodied 

cognition processes and the action–perception cycle discussed above. For example, 

understanding of the form, section boundaries and phrases enables the performer to 

prepare physically for the transition and flow between sections, which might manifest 

through physical gestures such as changes in body tension and breathing that might 

lead to changes in dynamics and tempo. These gestures then heighten the performer’s 



32 

perception of the approaching section boundary or a new phrase. This might especially 

be the case as the performer approaches cadences in a piece, realising the function 

of the cadence within the piece.  

 

Understanding of the harmonic framework can also be a valuable tool. Certain 

harmonic progressions and harmonies can provoke certain emotional responses, 

which can be expressed through the body as either tension or relaxation. These bodily 

states influence expressive gestures in the music. The performer therefore physically 

responds to harmonic changes in the music, which helps with the perception of 

expressive cues, tension and release in the music. Another example, might be how 

repeated sections in a piece (such as the material in the exposition and recapitulation 

of the sonatina movement) lead to repeated physical movements, which might 

reinforce muscle memory. Subtle changes that occur, however, might demand 

changes in body movements to accomplish changes in, for example, dynamics or 

articulation. Each repetition might therefore ‘feel’ different and unique for the 

performer; however, it is still connected to similar material. These subtle physical 

changes may also in turn heighten the performer’s perception of these changes that 

occur between different sections in the music.  

 

Although embodiment plays an important role in the perception of music, it is only one 

element forming part of a complex interconnected network of cognitive, motor and 

sensory systems (Leman & Maes 2014, p. 236). The nature of these individual 

systems in a specific context at a particular moment influences the way in which 

external sensory information is perceived (Leman & Maes 2014, p. 241). Hodges and 

Sebald (2011, p. 233) assert that a good balance between cognitive skills, expressive 

skills and motor skills is required in order to achieve an effective musical performance.  

 

Structural cognisance can therefore be valuable in enriching embodied music 

cognition. It is this component of memory (the analytical component) that stands at the 

core of this project and which has the potential to benefit the memorisation of a piece 

immensely when it is correctly understood and applied.  

 



33 

2.3 ANALYSIS OF MUSIC FOR MEMORISATION: DIFFERENT 

APPROACHES, POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND RESEARCH 

FINDINGS 

The focus is now placed on the analytical component of memory exclusively as this 

component forms the base of this study. In this section, insights are briefly shared on 

the various ways one can approach analysis. The potential benefits of musical analysis 

are then discussed with regard to its ability to facilitate memorisation. Previous 

literature concerned with musical analysis and memorisation is then highlighted and 

the findings and conclusions of qualitative studies regarding musical analysis and 

memorisation strategies are discussed. The findings and conclusions of these studies 

provide the context for this research project.  

 

2.3.1 Ways of approaching the analysis of music for memorisation 

Music analysis is a broad field of scholarly interest with many kinds of application to 

music practice. The analysis of music with a view to supporting memorisation includes 

aspects such as the form and style of the piece; understanding and identifying phrase 

and section boundaries; identifying rhythmic, harmonic and melodic patterns, and 

analysing the melodic and harmonic structures (Hargest 2014, p. 47; Hodges 2018, p. 

79; Klickstein 2009, p. 53; Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 53). Approaches to analysing 

music for the purposes of memorisation can be extremely basic and straightforward: 

for example, simply acknowledging and identifying certain kinds of chords and 

progressions mentally – Mishra (2010, p. 12) calls such approaches ‘informal’. In 

contrast, the analysis can be extremely complex and multifaceted, taking the form of 

a thorough in-depth theoretical analysis of a specific piece by engaging in labelling 

strategies (Hargest 2014, p. 47; Ross 1964, p. 269; Shteinberg et al. 2014, p. 52). 

 

The addition of colour in the analytical process is an important option to consider when 

analysing for memorisation. This use of colour has been advocated by Aeillo and 

Williamon (2002) and has been investigated by Ferrari et al. (2017). They suggest that 

by associating a certain colour with certain features of key recurring themes and other 

aspects of structure, a musician’s mental burden is reduced, which leads to an 

increase in one’s capacity for analytical thinking (Ferrari et al. 2017, p. 8).  

 



34 

Taking it one step further, Ferrari et al. combined the use of colour with a graphical 

representation of a piece’s structure to facilitate the understanding of the musical form 

even further (2017, p. 4). A colour-coded and graphical representation adds another 

visual component in addition to the score. It might therefore potentially facilitate the 

learning of the piece for musicians with a preference for visual learning methods. 

Additionally, it supports listening and audiation of a piece. This leads t