TEACHERS’ LIVED EXPERIENCES OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE:  A 
PHENOMENOLOGICAL CASE STUDY 

 

by 

 

SIMPHIWE WINDVOËL  

2012023632 

 

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR 
THE DEGREE OF 

 

MASTER OF EDUCATION 

in 

COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION  

FACULTY OF EDUCATION  

UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE 

BLOEMFONTEIN  

 

SUPERVISOR: Dr CC OKEKE 

 

MAY 2023



i 
 

DECLARATION 
I, Simphiwe Windvoël, hereby declare that the dissertation titled: Teachers’ Lived 

Experiences of School Violence: A Phenomenological Case Study is my original work, 

both in conception and execution. In addition, sources cited are acknowledged in the 

text, as well as in the list of references. 

 

 

------------------------------------                                                          
Signature    
 
May 2023 
------------------------------------- 
 Date                                                                           
  

 

  



ii 
 

DEDICATION 
This dissertation is dedicated to my grandfather, Ndoyisile Jan Windvoël. Mkhuma, 

Mbathana, Matshaya, Xesibe, Khandanyawana. Mfaziebelenye, rwaaammm! 

  



iii 
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
I would like to extend my acknowledgement and deepest gratitude to the following 

individuals who have assisted with the completion of the research study. Without their 

assistance, inspiration, and contribution, this study would not have been possible. I will 

forever be grateful for that. 

• My supervisor, Dr Charity Okeke, thank you for your professional guidance, 

motivation, and infinite patience. I know it was not easy, but you never gave up 

on me. I am so grateful that God selected you as my supervisor. 

• I would like to express my appreciation for the principal for granting permission 

to conduct the study at the school and the teachers who volunteered to take part 

in the study.  

• To Mr J.P. Holtzhauzen, thank you so much for your unwavering care and 

support, for constantly making exceptions for me and empowering me beyond 

measure.  

• My appreciation also goes to the Free State Department of Education for funding 

this study. 

• To my parents, my mother Selina Nobumvu Windvoël, thank you for your 

unconditional love, support and prayers. My late father, Amos Kobuoe, your 

legacy and teachings remain my source of motivation. 

• To my family and friends, I am most grateful for your prayers and words of 

encouragement throughout this journey. You are the wind beneath my wings.  

• Lastly, I want to thank my Pappa God for the strength, courage and grace to 

complete this study. Indeed, I can do all through the Almighty God that 

strengthens me. Praise and Honour to You, Lord! 

  



iv 
 

ABSTRACT 
School violence is becoming a global scourge and teachers seem to be helpless in 

tackling the challenging violent behaviour of learners in classrooms. Teachers are 

expected to apply alternatives to corporal punishment, even as violence increases, 

making these attempts at discipline futile. This study explored teachers’ lived 

experiences of school violence at one high school in the Xhariep District of the Free 

State province. The aim of the study was to make positive contributions to the creation 

of safe and healthy school environments for teachers by formulating new coping and 

intervention strategies that can help curb school violence, thus aiding teachers and 

managers with tools to manage school violence.  

The study adopted a qualitative research approach with a phenomenological case 

study research design to describe how school violence related to the lived experiences 

of teachers. A purposive sample of eight teachers from one high school participated in 

the study. Data were collected through semi-structured and face-to-face audio-

recorded interviews. The data were transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis 

as outlined by Braune and Clarke (2012) to identify themes and sub-themes. Findings 

from the study show that school violence remains a concern in South African schools. 

Teachers experience school violence in various forms, and it is detrimental to their 

physical, mental and emotional wellbeing. It has significant implications for teachers’ 

professional motivation, satisfaction, job retention and efficacy.  

Teachers resorted to different strategies to deal with violence, such as reporting and 

campaigning against school violence; peer communication; self-check and avoidance; 

temporary removal of learners from school; motivation and coping training skills; and 

recreational activities, taking time-off, and medication. However, none of these coping 

strategies were adequate by itself, so teachers recommended multiple intervention 

strategies to assist teachers, including debriefing sessions and mentoring; parental 

involvement; counselling and psychological support; support from school stakeholders; 

conflict management training and workshops; and amendment of policies and laws.  

Keywords: 

Coping strategies, intervention strategies, phenomenological case study, school 

violence, teachers.  

 



v 
 

TABLE OF CONTENTS  
Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………i 
Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………ii 
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………iii 
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………...iv  
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………...v  
References…………………………………………………………………………………..xi  
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………….xi 
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………….....xi 
List of Acronyms………………………………………………………………………......xi 
 

CHAPTER 1……………………………………………………………………………….….1 
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………….............1 
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY……………………….….1 
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM…………………………………………………….4 
1.3 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY………………………………………………………….5 
1.4  AIM OF THE STUDY………………………………………………………………...….6 
1.5 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION………………………………………………...………7 
1.5.1 Sub-research Questions………………………………………………………..…..7 
1.6 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY…………………………………………………...….7 
1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY………………………………………………………7 
1.8 DEFINITION OF KEY WORDS…………………………………………………………8 
1.9 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………….……...9 
1.9.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………….…………..9 
1.9.2 Theoretical Framework – Routine Activity Theory ………………………..…..10 
1.9.3 Review of Related Literature…………………………………………………….11 
1.9.3.1 Concept of school violence……………………………………………………..11 
1.9.3.2 Types of school violence………………………………………………………..13 
1.9.3.3 Causes of school violence against teachers………………………………...14 
1.9.3.4 Teachers experiences of school violence…………………………………….15 
1.9.3.5 Strategies to handle school violence against teachers…………………….17 
1.9.4   Summary of preliminary literature review……………………………………..18 
1.10 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY…………………………………………..............19 



vi 
 

1.10.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………19 
1.10.2 Research Paradigm…………………………………………………….................19 
1.10.3 Research Approach………………………………………………………………..20 
1.10.4 Research Design…………………………………………………………………...21 

1.10.5 Study Site and Participants………………………………………………………22 

1.10.6 Sample and Sample Size………………………………………………………….22 
1.10.7 Instruments for Data Collection………………………………………………….23 
1.10.8 Data Collection Procedures……………………………………………………...24 
1.10.9 Data Analysis………………..…………………………………………………….24 
1..10.10 Data Trustworthiness……………………………………………………………26 
1.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS………………………..……………………………..27 
1.12 ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS……………………..……………………………28 
1.13 CHAPTER SUMMARY………………………………………………………………..29 
 
CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………………………..............30 
LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………………………………30 
2.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….30 
2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK……………………………………………..............30 
2.2.1. Motivated Offender…………………………………………………………………30 
2.2.2. Suitable Targets…………………………………………………………………….31 
2.2.3. Capable Guardians………………………………………………………………...31 
2.2.4 Importance of RAT Theory to the Study…………………………………………33 
2.3 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE………………………………………………34 
2.3.1 The Concept of School Violence………………………………………………….34 
2.3.2. The History and Prevalence of School Violence………………………………36 
2.3.3 Types of School Violence………………………………………………………...37 
2.3.3.1 Physical violence…………………………………………………………………37 
2.3.3.2 Psychological violence………………………………………………………….39 
2.3.3.3 Sexual violence……………………………………………………………………40 
2.3.3.4 Bullying and cyber-bullying…………………………………………………….42 
2.4 CAUSES OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE………………………………………………...43 
2.4.1 Exposure to Violence……………………………………………………………..44 
2.4.2 Access to weapons, drugs and alcohol……………………………................45 



vii 
 

2.4.3 Socio-Economic Background…………………………………………………...47 
2.4.4 Influence of Peer Groups and Gangs…………………………………………..47 
2.4.5 Gender Inequalities……………………………………………………………….49 
2.4.6 Psychological and Emotional Stress…………………………………………..50 
2.4.7 Teachers and Parental Influences………………………………………………51 
2.4.8 Poor School Discipline and Management Policies…………………………..53 
2.4.9 Social Media Influences…………………………………………………………..53 
2.5 TEACHERS EXPERIENCES OF SCHOOL VIOLENCE…………………………...54 
2.6 COPING STRATEGIES FOR SCHOOL VIOLENCE……………………………….57 
2.7 INTERVENTION STRATEGIES FOR SCHOOL VIOLENCE………………………59 
2.7.1 Developing Teacher-Parent Relationships……………………………………..59 
2.7.2 Teacher and Learner Relationships Through Caring and Recreational 
Activities…………………………………………………………………………………….60 
2.7.3 Developing School Policies and Safe Environment…………………………..60 
2.7.4 Prevention Programmes, Training, and Counselling…………………………61 
2.8 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY……………………………………………………..62 
2.9 CHAPTER SUMMARY………………………………………………………………...62 
 
CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………………………...............64 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………64 
3.1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………..64 
3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM………………………………………………………….......64 
3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH……………………………………………………………..65 
3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN…………………………………………………………………..66 

3.5 STUDY SITE AND PARTICIPANTS………………………………………………….67 

3.5.1. Study Site…………………………………………………………………...............67 

3.5.2. Participants………………………………………………………………...............68 
3.6 SAMPLING AND SAMPLE SIZE……………………………………………………..68 
3.7 INSTRUMENTS FOR DATA COLLECTION…………………………………………69 
3.8 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES……………………………………………….71 
3.9 DATA ANALYSIS……………………………………………………………………...71 
3.10 DATA TRUSTWORTHINESS………………………………………………………..74 
3.10.1. Credibility…………………………………………………………………………..74 



viii 
 

3.10.2. Transferability……………………………………………………………………..75 
3.10.3. Dependability……………………………………………………………………...75 
3.10.4. Confirmability……………………………………………………………………..75 
3.11 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS………………………………………………………76 
3.12 CHAPTER SUMMARY……………………………………………………………….77 
  
CHAPTER 4………………………………………………………………….....................78 
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE FINDINGS……………………..78 
4.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………….78  
4.2 RESEARCH JOURNEY……………………………………………………………….78 
4.2.1 Ethical approval……………………………………………………………………78 
4.2.2 Inviting and meeting participants for consent and data 
collection……………………………………………………………………………………79 
4.2.3 Transcription……………………………………………………………………….80 
4.2.4 Participants background information………………………………...............80 

4.3 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS…………………………………………………..81 

4.3.1 Theme 1: Teachers’ perception of school violence…....................................83   

Sub-theme 1: School violence originates from the community……………….......83 

Sub-theme 2: Learners’ developmental gaps…………………………………………84 

Sub-theme 3: School violence remains a continuous problem……………………85 

Sub-theme 4: Policies and laws failed teachers………………………………...……86 

Sub-theme 5: Job dissatisfaction and resignation……………………….………….88 

4.3.2 Theme 2: Teachers experiences of school violence…………………………..89 

Sub-theme 1:  Bullying……………………………………………………………………90 

Sub-theme 2: Physical violence…………………………………………………………91 

Sub-theme 3: Emotional abuse………………………………………………………….93 

Sub-theme 4: Verbal abuse………………………………………………………………95 

Sub-theme 5: Sexual violence………………………………………………….………..96  



ix 
 

Sub-theme 6: Vandalism…………………………………………….……………………97  

4.3.3 Theme 3: How school violence affects teachers’ professional lives……….98 

Sub-theme 1: Post-traumatic stress and anxiety…………………………………....98 

Sub-theme 2: Professional performance………………………………………..........99 

Sub-theme 3: Professional disengagement and demotivation…………………..100 

4.3.4 Theme 4: Teachers coping strategies to deal with school violence………103 

Sub-theme 1: Report and campaign against school violence…………………….103 

Sub-theme 2: Interpersonal communication………………………………………..104 

Sub-theme 3: Self-check and avoidance………………………………………….....105 

Sub-theme 4: Temporary removal of learners from school……………………….106 

Sub-theme 5: Motivation and coping training skills…………………...…………...107 

Sub-theme 6: Recreational activities, time-off and medication…………………..109 

4.3.5 Theme 5: Intervention strategies to assist victim teachers………….……110 

Sub-theme 1: Debriefing and mentoring……………………………………………..110 

Sub-theme 2: Parental involvement…………………………………………………..111 

Sub-theme 3: Counselling and Psychological supports…………………………..113 

Sub-theme 4: Support from school stakeholders…………………………..………114 

Sub-theme 5: Conflict management training and workshops…………………….117 

Sub-theme 6: School procedures and policies amendments…………………….117 

4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY………………………………………………………............119 

 

CHAPTER 5………………………………………………………………………….........120 
DISCUSSION OF FINDING AND CONCLUSION…………………………………….120  
5.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………...120 
5.2 DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS…………………………………………………..120 



x 
 

5.2.1 Theme 1: Teachers’ perception of school violence………………………….120 
5.2.2 Theme 2: Teachers experiences of school violence…………………………124 
5.2.3 Theme 3: How school violence affects teachers’ professional lives……...127 
5.2.4 Theme 4: Teachers coping strategies to deal with school violence………129 
5.2.5 Theme 5: Intervention strategies to assist victim teachers………………...132 
5.3 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS…………………………………………………………..135 
5.4 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY…………………………………………………..138 
5.4.1 Implication for policy – DBE……………………………………………………..138 
5.4.2 Implication for school…………………………………………………………….138 
5.4.3 Implication to teachers……………………………………………………………139 
5.4.4 Implication for learners…………………………………………………………...139  
5.5 RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER STUDIES………………………………...140 
5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY……………………………………………………..140 
5.7 CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY…………………………………………………….141 
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….142 
 
APPENDICES  
Appendix A: UFS Ethical Clearance Letter……………………………………………...166 

Appendix B: FSDE Permission Letter……………………………………………….......167 

Appendix C: School Permission Letter…………………………………………………..168 

Appendix D: Sample of Participant Consent Form………………………………………169 

Appendix E: Interview Guide………………………………………………………………170 

Appendix F: Certificate of Language Editing……………………………………………172 

Appendix G: Turnitin Report………………………………………………………………173 

 

LIST OF TABLES  
Table 4.1: Participants background information………………………………………….80 

Table 4.2: Themes and Sub-themes………………………………………………………81 

 
LIST OF ACRONYMS 
AEU  Australian Education  

APA   American Psychological Association  

ATL   Association of Teachers and Lecturers    

CDC  Center for Disease Control and Prevention 



xi 
 

CJCP   Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention  

DBE   Department of Basic Education 

FSDE  Free State Department of Education  

GP   Gauteng province 

KZN   KwaZulu Natal 

LPS  Limpopo Province Statistics 

PTSD   Post-traumatic stress disorder 

RAT   Routine activity theory  

RCL  Representative Council of Learners 

SACE  South Africa Council for Educators  

SADTU  South African Democratic Teachers' Union 

SAPA   South African Principals Association  

SAPS   South African Police Service  
SASA   South African Schools Act  
SGB   School governing body  

SMT   School management teams  

TA   Thematic analysis  

UK   United Kingdom 

UNESCO  United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization 

USA   United States of America 

WHO   World Health Organization 

YSA   Youth Studies Australia



1 
 

CHAPTER 1 

INTRODUCTION   
 
1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 
The prevalence of school-based violence in South Africa is increasing drastically, and 

research has shown the effects on learners, without acknowledging that teachers are 

hugely affected also (Sibisi, 2016:13). According to Govender (2015:2), school 

violence is a global phenomenon and teachers seem to be helpless in tackling the 

challenging violent behaviour of the learners in the classrooms. Teachers’ safety is 

often not guaranteed at schools anymore. Bester and Du Plessis (2010:204) indicate 

that teachers have been complaining since 1999 that the Department of Basic 

Education (DBE) is showing no interest in supporting their efforts to expel violent 

learners. Osborne (2004:67) postulates that education stakeholders in positions where 

they can make changes, lack skills to deal with issues of school violence. Therefore, 

teachers are expected to use the same disciplinary measures of detention and learner 

privilege withdrawal while the violence is increasing, making these measures futile.  

In the United Kingdoms (UK), 29% of teachers claim to have been attacked physically 

by a learner (Association of Teachers and Lecturers (ATL), 2008:2). More than 50% of 

teachers in the UK have been victims of violence, causing severe physical and mental 

harm (Nieuwenhuizen, 2018:1). In the United States of America (USA), studies indicate 

an 80% increase in threats and physical violence against teachers (Govender, 2015:4; 

American Psychological Association (APA), 2013:1). Additionally, Benefield (2004:1) 

established in a study of teachers in New Zealand, that 28% of teachers had 

experienced lower forms of bullying as a daily or weekly occurrence and 27% had been 

physically assaulted more than once by learners. In Australian schools, school violence 

resulted in 42 teachers needing medical attention after been assaulted and attacked 

by learners (Australian Education Union (AEU), 2003:2, Youth Studies Australia (YSA), 

2005:10). In a study (Mehmet, 2012:1) conducted in Turkey, emotional abuse was 

experienced by 24.1% of teachers, verbal abuse was experienced by 14.7%, and 

physical abuse was experienced by 6.3% of the participants. Teachers in Scotland 



2 
 

have reported 6 899 instances of violent behaviour on the part of students, both inside 

and outside of schools (Govender, 2015:21).  

In South Africa, physical violence is on the rise too according to principals and teachers 

at primary and secondary schools across the country (Govender, 2015:3). According 

to Burton and Leoschut (2013), 41% of teachers had experienced verbal abuse from a 

learner, while 7.9% had experienced physical abuse. In addition, Maseko (2013:109) 

indicates that in 2011, the secretary of the South African Democratic Teachers' Union 

(SADTU) reported that 67 000 teachers had resigned from work as a result of issues 

with school management and learner violence. The most recent statistics on school 

violence in South Africa are higher than those in the United States, according to 

Mhlongo (2017:5). The South African Principals Association (SAPA) (2020:7) states 

that 358 teachers were exposed to physical abuse according to statistics for the 

Limpopo province while in the Gauteng province (GP), schools expelled 151 learners, 

of which 31 were accused of assaulting teachers and other school staff. Additionally, 

the Free State Department of Education (FSDE) raised concerns about the assault of 

teachers by learners in the province following numerous reports and incidents at 

schools (Nieuwenhuizen, 2018:1).  

Prinsloo and Neser (2007:47) define school violence as any intentional physical or non-

physical condition or act that causes the recipient of that act to suffer physical or non-

physical pain while the recipient is under the supervision of the school. School violence, 

according to a study by Girmen, Kaya, and Kilic (2018:703), is a "multifaceted construct 

that involves both criminal acts and aggression in schools, which impede development 

and learning and also harm the school climate." According to another study by Grobler 

(2018:15), school violence is defined as any verbal or physical act that injures the 

intended victim while they are supervised by the school. Any physical, emotional, or 

verbal act that interferes with the ability to teach and learn in a conducive environment 

is considered school violence, according to the definitions above. 

Miller and Kraus (2008:15) distinguishes different forms of school violence, including 

physical violence in the form of pushing, shoving, attacking, punching, or damaging 

property, including corporal punishment; psychological violence such as verbal abuse 

like name-calling, racial slurs, swearing, and gossiping in order to cause emotional and 

mental harm to a person; sexual violence, such as rape and harassment; and bullying, 



3 
 

which can be in the form of physical or verbal abuse to gain dominance over someone, 

including cyberbullying, which causes harm to a person by means of social media.  

School violence are linked to the availability and misuse of alcohol and drugs, access 

to guns and different weapons, poverty and joblessness, elevated degrees of 

neighbourhood crime, gangsterism, and inadequate lodging or housing (Govender, 

2015:28). Research by Grobler (2018:27) indicates that significant reasons for school 

violence include gender and socially accepted practices and deeper underlying factors, 

such as income imbalance, hardship, marginalization, conflict and the powerlessness 

of schools to authorize approaches that deal with discipline and violence. 

Netshitangani (2014:1398-1400) includes poor parental care, exposure to mass or 

social media and peer influence as common causes of school violence.  

School violence negatively affects teachers’ well-being as it results in burnout and 

professional disengagement (Türküm, 2011:644). Reckson and Becker (2005:107) 

argue that teachers experience stress as a result of having to deal with learners’ 

emotional and educational needs, and this is worsened by the trauma they experience 

when they witness or are affected by school violence. Many teachers suffer from 

physical distress, occupational distress such as burnout or psychological distress such 

as anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder caused by school violence 

(Grobler, 2018:29).  

In addressing the high rate of school violence, Sibisi (2016:49) states that learning 

behaviour can be improved by cultivating positive relationships between learners, 

teachers, and parents. If guardians are considered responsible for the behaviour of 

their children and in that manner can cultivate an ethically decent living climate for their 

children. Additionally, SAPA (2020:18) postulates that having developmental 

programmes for teachers, behavioural and social programmes for learners and 

employing security guards at school can help mitigate school violence. However, the 

challenge with the strategies of prevention is that not all schools are similar in terms of 

demography, geographical area, district resources, teacher-learner ratio and general 

culture, which suggests that different strategies must be applied at different schools. 

Miller and Kraus (2008:21) state that the most effective models for programmes that 

aim to prevent violence use social skills training that includes structured and interactive 

classroom activities such as role play. This study argues that once teachers feel 



4 
 

protected in their own classrooms and are equipped with useful policies, disciplinary 

procedures and support; violence can be eradicated in our schools and communities.  

The aim of this study is to investigate teachers’ lived experiences of school violence 

for a holistic analysis of the cultural and contextual factors that may elucidate the types 

of school violence teachers’ experience. The study also determined the coping 

strategies and intervention strategies used to address school violence in the school 

systems. The routine activity theory, which emphasizes that when there is a motivated 

offender, a suitable victim, and no competent guardian, crime occurs (Miro, 2014:1), 

informed the study.  

 

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM  
School violence is a challenging issue in South Africa (Ozdemir, 2012:51; Galand 

Lecocq & Philippot, 2007:465). It affects teachers emotionally, psychologically and 

physically, which in turn negatively influences teaching and learning processes 

(Klassen & Chiu, 2011:125; Wilson, Douglas, & Lyon, 2011: 235; Espelage, Anderman, 

Brown, Jones, Lane, McMahon, Reddy & Reynolds, 2013:77). Research indicates that 

teachers are the victims of school violence three times more than learners (Kondrasuk, 

2005:639). According to Trackman (2008:29), the culture of violence in South Africa 

can be linked to our apartheid history, which taught students that violence is the only 

way to solve problems, subsequently making it a problem in the school system. De 

Wet (2010:191) adds that teachers may feel powerless because corporal punishment 

as a tool to discipline learners has been taken away, giving learners power over them.  

Khumalo (2019:8) states that violence in schools is negative, and children cannot learn 

in an environment where fear, intimidation, low self-esteem, and bullying are rife. Social 

injustice is perpetuated by these practices, and they are unsustainable for high-quality 

education. De Wet (2007:2) posits that schools with high rates of crime and violence 

are less effective at teaching learners, so they promote unfair and unjust practices. 

The challenge is that teachers’ experiences of learners’ physical violence have caused 

teachers to avoid learners, to become disengaged from the teaching and learning 

activities, to experience burnout, and to resign from the teaching profession (Klassen 



5 
 

& Chiu, 2011:125-129; Wilson et al., 2011:2360; Espelage et al., 2013:82-83; APA, 

2013:1).  

Opic, Lokmic and Bilic (2013:6-10) posit that learners’ physical violence towards 

teachers lead to teachers’ dissatisfaction with their profession and inability to create a 

healthy teaching environment that will ensure the development and success of 

learners. Augustyn, Frank, Posner and Zuckerman (2002:800-802) support the above 

by stating that teachers' performance, attitudes, and thoughts of attrition may be 

affected by their sensitivity to violence in schools. Augustyn et al. (2002:803) further 

postulate that witnessing violence is strongly linked to depression, rage, anxiety, 

disengagement, dissociation, and post-traumatic stress disorder. According to Joyce 

(2013:251), principals have indicated that violence targeted at teachers disrupts 

classrooms and teachers have difficulty controlling their classrooms, which makes the 

teaching environment unconducive for learning. Consequently, the educational system 

is affected by sick leave, workers' compensation, and alternative pay (Espelage et al., 

2013:85).  

The studies mentioned above support the fact that teachers are unable to execute their 

daily tasks in an environment that is filled with violence. Not only does school violence 

negatively affect teachers personally and professionally, it continues to dismantle the 

education system and deprives learners of a good quality education. According to 

Ncontsa and Shumba (2013:2), schools should secure settings where learners and 

teachers can learn, have fun, and feel safe. However, they have become marred by 

violence, which has become a daily occurrence at many schools in South Africa. 

Teaching and learning cannot possibly thrive in this setting. Given these problems, this 

study explored teachers lived experiences of school violence. 

 

1.3 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY 
Teachers are becoming helpless victims of school violence, which has spread 

worldwide (Govender, 2015:2). Indeed, widespread violence at primary and secondary 

schools is becoming a growing concern (Burton, 2008:11). On a personal level, I was 

a victim of school violence early in my career as a first-year in-service teacher at a 

township school. I experienced bullying, verbal abuse, as well as physical abuse. Not 



6 
 

only did I experience school violence from learners, I also witnessed my colleagues 

being violently attacked by learners. One of the incidents I will never forget is when a 

learner pulled a knife on me and pinned me against the wall in my class and threatened 

to stab me if I do not leave him alone, simply because I asked him to leave the 

classroom as he was disrupting teaching and learning. Another incident was when a 

learner took boiling water from the staff kitchen and poured it on a teacher because 

the teacher is “always on her case”. One thing I have learned from these experiences 

is that the trauma that results from experiencing and witnessing such events never 

leave you. However, the above personal experiences moved me to embark on this 

research to determine teachers’ lived experiences of school violence in order to 

establish the prevention and intervention strategies to curb school violence directed at 

teachers in schools. 

The matter of urgency is that school violence directed teachers and the teaching 

environment adversely affects teaching and learning. Good quality teaching and 

learning can only be achieved when the school environment is safe and teacher-

learner relationships are healthy (Sithole, 2017:24). Elghossain, Bott, Akik, Ghattas 

and Obermeyer, (2019:8) acknowledge that “childhood and adolescent violence will 

have an impact on the health, well-being, and ability of the next generation to shape 

society as they navigate rapid social and political change”. This means that if we do 

not solve the problem of school violence against teachers, we will be creating another 

generation of learners who will become violent towards society as a whole. This study 

and its findings will contribute in a positive way to the coping and intervention strategies 

with respect to school violence against teachers. 

 

1.4  AIM OF THE STUDY 
The aim of this study is to investigate teachers’ lived experiences of school violence. 

In line with the main aim, the specific objectives are to: 

• Determine how teachers perceive school violence.   

• Explore the types of school violence experienced by teachers. 

• Examine how school violence affects teachers’ professional lives. 

• Establish teachers’ coping strategies to deal with school violence. 



7 
 

• find out the intervention strategies that could be used to assist victim teachers. 

 

 

1.5 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION  
The main research question that informs this study is: What are the teachers’ lived 

experiences of school violence?   

 

1.5.1 Sub- research questions 
In order to answer the main question, the following secondary research questions will 

be addressed:  

• How do teachers perceive school violence?   

• What types of school violence do teachers experience? 

• How does school violence affect teachers’ professional lives? 

• What are teachers’ coping strategies to deal with school violence? 

• What are the intervention strategies to assist victim teachers? 

 

 

1.6 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY  
This study focuses on teachers’ lived experiences of school violence. Only teachers 

from one high school participated in the study. The study was conducted at one high 

school in the Xhariep District of the Free State province of South Africa.  

 

 

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 
Although there is a high incidence of school violence against teachers in South African 

schools, very little research is available on the effect of violence on teachers 

(Trackman, 2008; De Wet, 2010; Wilson & Douglas, 2011; Taole & Ramorola, 2014; 

Netshiyamgami, 2014; Davids & Waghid, 2016; Sibisi, 2016; Hlatshwayo, 2018; 

Grobler, 2018; Taylor & Smith, 2019). According to Govender (2015:2), the South 

African Democratic Educators Union (SADTU) emphasizes the urgent need to address 

school violence and its underlying causes in order to prevent it. Teacher unions have 

to deal with the growing concern that students are attacking teachers. Alcohol and 

drugs, according to Njeri and Ngesu (2014:2), account for the majority of the rise in 



8 
 

learner violence against teachers in schools. As an in-service teacher, I have 

witnessed how school violence on teachers and in the teaching environment can have 

a negative effect on learning and teaching outcomes. Understanding how teachers 

experience school violence will aid in the development of effective prevention and 

coping strategies to curb school violence and assist victim teachers at schools.  

As safe schools can help mitigate wider exposure to violence and anti-social behaviour 

among learners, the information gathered from this research study will help the DBE 

to create safe school environments for teachers (Burton, 2008:17). When the school 

environment is safe, teaching and learning can be achieved because teachers can 

focus on the job at hand if they are not worried about becoming casualties of learner 

executed violence. Teachers can focus more on offering a quality education to learners 

when the school environment is safe and conducive to teaching and learning. First, the 

study will identify intervention strategies and make recommendations to curb school 

violence. Second, the findings will help teachers to better manage violent behaviour in 

the classroom and help managers of the school to manage violence. Third, the study 

hopes to improve the school environment and community at large to create healthy 

educational environments. Finally, the study aimed to contribute to the education field 

by advancing the scholarly discussion on teachers’ experiences with school violence. 

In essence, understanding how teachers experience school violence will create an 

opportunity to establish effective coping and intervention strategies to curb school 

violence and assist victim teachers at schools. 

 

1.8 DEFINITION OF KEYWORDS 
Violence: According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002:5), violence is 

defined as the intentional use of physical violence, whether threatening or actually 

directed at oneself, another person or against a group or community, and which results 

in or has a high probability of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm or 

dispossession. Physical, sexual and psychological abuse (such as a dependent 

relationship's significant use of power, threat, intimidation and neglect) also forms part 

of this definition. In this study, violence refers to any act that aims to harm and affect 

another individual negatively.  

 



9 
 

School violence: School violence is any conduct by learners, teachers, 

administrators, or non-school individuals who attempt to harm another person or 

damage school property (Zulu, Urbani, Van der Merwe & Van der Walt, 2004:70). In 

this study, school violence means any negative behaviour displayed by any individual 

within the school community that intends to threaten or harm another individual.  

 

Teacher: A teacher refers to a person whose profession is to teach. According to 

Roundell and Fox (2002:12), a teacher is someone who provides assistance to 

students or learners within the school setting. A teacher is also someone who is known 

for guiding and assisting students in learning (Du Plessis, 2008:5).In this study, a 

teacher is someone who is responsible for helping learners acquire knowledge and 

competence through teaching and guided learning.  

 

Learner: The South African Schools Act, 84 of 1996, (SASA) (1996:4) defines the term 

"learner" as "any person receiving education or required to receive education." In this 

study, learner will be referring to individuals who receive knowledge and skills from 

teachers through learning.  

 

Phenomenology: Van Manen (2017:2) defines phenomenology as capturing an 

experience at its origin or pristine essence, without interpreting, explaining, or 

theorizing. Alternatively, Williams (2021:367) defines it as the study of what can be 

experienced. In other words, it is a study that enables one to comprehend the 

fundamentals of a human experience to gain an in-depth understanding of a particular 

experience from the participant's perspective (Crawford, 2016:62). In this study, 

phenomenology is defined as the study of peoples’ experiences of a particular 

phenomenon and what those experiences mean.  

 

 

1.9 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW  
 
1.9.1 Introduction  
South Africa has seen a significant rise in school-based violence over the past few 

decades. The high rate of crime and violence on school grounds demonstrates this. 



10 
 

This section reviews the available literature on teachers’ lived experiences of school 

violence. It commences with the theoretical outlook that informs this study and reviews 

related literature on school violence, types of school violence, causes of school 

violence, teachers’ experiences of school violence at school and prevention and coping 

strategies to curb school violence.   

 

1.9.2 Theoretical framework – Routine Activity Theory  
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, Routine Activity Theory—also known as 

Opportunity theory—has proven to be one of the most useful theories for 

comprehending patterns of victimization and criminal behaviour. Cohen and Felson 

came up with this theoretical explanation in 1979, and its primary goal has been to 

provide information about who is more or less likely to be a crime victim (Cullen & 

Wilcox, 2010:3). According to Cohen and Felson's (1979) routine activities theory, a 

criminal event necessitates the convergence in space and time of a likely offender, a 

person who is motivated to commit a crime; a suitable target, someone or something 

that the likely offender is attracted to commit an offence against; and the absence of 

capable guardians, individuals who are capable and empowered to protect the target 

and discourage offenders (Gotham & Kennedy, 2019:67). In simple terms, Wickert 

(2020:2) defines routine activity theory (RAT) as the occurrence of a crime that is likely 

to occur in the absence of a competent guardian and presence of a motivated offender 

with a suitable target. RAT is frequently used to explain why and how people are more 

likely to engage in criminal behaviour and be victimized. 

There are factors that attract offenders to the targets or that make targets attractive to 

offenders. Mahalingam and Sidhu (2021:308) state that the choice is affected by the 

offenders’ view of the suitable targets' shortcoming – the likelihood of a crime increases 

with the target's suitability and openness. The level of criminal activity is also influenced 

by the population's number of motivated offenders. It is held that offenders are less 

likely to commit crimes if they believe they can achieve their own personal goals 

through legitimate means. This suggests that if offenders believe there are alternatives 

to crime, they will be less motivated to commit crimes. On the other hand, whether 

competent guardians are present or not significantly influences the likelihood of crime 

occurring. When capable guardians are present, there is no opportunity for motivated 

offenders to harm suitable targets. Thus, offence will not occur. Capable guardians 



11 
 

prevent an offender from obtaining suitable targets. As a result, criminal motivations 

and the likelihood of an offence increase when opportunity exists and guardianship is 

absent. 

Moreover, RAT provides an account of how people's daily activities to meet their needs 

create opportunities for crime. People have a variety of daily routines, such as 

commuting to and from work, attending school, church, and other events, shopping, 

engaging in recreational activities, and communicating using a variety of electronic 

technologies (Wikström, 2018:1). These routines determine who the victim will be, 

when, and where a crime will happen. Madero-Hernandez and Fischer (2012:1) 

postulate that the expression "Opportunity makes the thief" emphasizes one point: in 

order to commit a crime, both an opportunity and a motivated offender are required. 

Based on this notion, even the most motivated offender cannot commit a crime unless 

there is an opportunity to do so. This theory formed the basis for this study as it 

explored how teachers become targets of the offending learners out of the sight of 

responsible guardians that can prevent the convergence of the crime, thus lowering 

the likelihood of violence occurring in schools.  

 

1.9.3 Review of related literature 
 
1.9.3.1 Concept of school violence  
The concept of school violence is vast and multi-faceted due to the way it manifests 

itself (Turanovic & Siennick, 2022:1).The likelihood that new teachers will become 

victims of school violence is troubling because the majority of teachers have dealt with 

it in their careers (Sibisi, 2016:23). According to the South African Council for 

Educators (SACE) (2020:1), school-based violence is influenced and shaped by 

contextual factors rather than occurring in a vacuum. 

De Wet (2007:12) describes school violence with reference to the South African law, 

as "violent acts that involve both physical and non-physical harm that may lead to 

damage, pain, or terror." In its 2015 National School Safety Framework, the DBE 

defines school violence as "assault and victimization that occur in and outside the 

classroom, around schools, on the way to and from school, as well as online" 



12 
 

committed against teachers, school safety officials, school administrators, and 

learners, as well as by teachers and learners themselves. 

On the other hand, Hlatshwayo (2018:11) defines school violence as any kind of violent 

activity that takes place in a school setting. This includes things like bullying, physical 

abuse, threats, intimidating, fighting such as punching, kicking, biting, slapping, and 

verbal abuse, shootings, and assaults with a weapon or participation in a gang. Burton 

(2008:19) expounds that school violence is "deliberate harm, discomfort or 

inconvenience caused to people, including incidents such as school fights, harassment 

and drug abuse". 

Based on the given definitions, one can infer that students who engage in serious 

misconduct at school run the risk of even committing murder at school because they 

have access to dangerous weapons (Hlatshwayo, 2018:3). It has become part of 

school life for students to carry weapons, arrive at school under the influence of drugs 

or alcohol, and carry knives and guns, which has a negative effect on education and 

what happens in schools (Mncube & Harbor, 2013:1). 

Sibisi (2016:19) states that violence in schools can come from a variety of sources and 

take many different forms. Miller and Kraus (2008:15) identify different types of school 

violence such as physical violence (including corporal punishment); psychological 

violence (including verbal abuse); sexual violence (including rape and harassment); 

and bullying (including cyberbullying). In other words, extreme acts of school violence 

such as verbal and physical assaults, including punching, whipping, hitting, killing, 

sexual abuse, biting with an object, and beatings can be grouped under physical, 

mental, sexual abuse, neglect or verbal abuse sub-theme respectfully (Khumalo, 

2019:3).  

From the aforementioned elucidations, it is abundantly clear that acts of violence in 

schools go beyond just what happens at schools; it concerns learners’ school 

experiences and the school environment. 

 

 



13 
 

1.9.3.2 Types of school violence  
Govender (2015:17) states that school violence typologies range from physical and 

sexual abuse to psychological and emotional abuse. Physical abusive behaviour may 

take the form of pushing, shoving, attacking, punching, kicking a person or damaging 

property (O’Moore, 2006:4). Sexual violence can take many different forms, including 

rape, sexual assault, and sexual harassment, which includes making inappropriate 

sexual advances and groping. 

Unlike physical and sexual abuse, scholars characterize verbal violence as a 

behaviour with a message conveyed with the conscious intention to cause 

psychological pain (Taylor & Smith, 2019:52). Therefore, verbal abuse is related to 

emotional and psychological abuse; name-calling, racial slurs, swearing, and gossip 

are all included (Booren, 2007:13). Although this type of violence may be used to gain 

power, dominance, or social status, the end goal of emotional and psychological 

violence is to hurt someone. 

According to Veriava and Hodgson (2017:298-299), corporal punishment, gangs, 

gender-based violence, harassment, injury, forceful group initiation, sexual 

harassment, and sexual violation are additional forms of school violence. 

While school violence against teachers is the focus of this study, it is important to note 

that conflict in schools can also occur between learners and teachers; learner-on-

learner; learner-on-teacher and teacher-on-learner (Snodgrass & Heleta, 2009:41). 

Allen (2010:3) highlights the fact that teachers are not only the possible perpetrators 

of school violence, but also some of its victims. 

It is also noteworthy that school violence is often gender-based due to inequalities 

arising from gender roles, men's dominance and women's subordination (Njuho & 

Davids, 2012:271). Ngqela and Lewis (2012:94) explain that females frequently bear 

the brunt of school violence, while males are frequently identified as the perpetrators. 

In a similar vein, female educators are more likely to be the targets of physical and 

verbal abuse. 

 

 



14 
 

1.9.3.3 Causes of school violence against teachers 
There are a variety of internal and external factors that can lead to school violence 

against teachers. School violence is exacerbated by both school-level and community-

level risk factors. The factors at the community level include the availability of alcohol 

and other drugs, access to firearms and other dangerous weapons, poverty, 

unemployment, high neighbourhood crime rates, gang activity, and inadequate housing 

(Govender, 2015:28). 

These factors can disrupt and cause violent outbreaks, which are relatively typical in 

low-income communities and consequently create unrest in the school environment, 

leading to acts of violence (Moore, Jones & Broadbent, 2008:235). Similarly, any 

unexpected change in the family dynamics at home can have adverse effects on 

learners. Espelage et al. (2013:76) highlight that family death or suicide; parental 

divorce and the arrest of a parent can induce a violent reaction if children do not have 

adequate emotional support. 

Furthermore, it is generally acknowledged that societal cultures that promote, tolerate, 

and demand violence are the root cause of school violence (Moore et al., 2003:253). 

This "culture of violence" is especially prevalent in South Africa, where political and 

criminal violence have been consistently high for two and a half decades, leading 

people to accept it and to view it as a normal part of life (Van Jaarsveld, 2008:31). As 

a result, in South African culture, conflict resolution through violence has become the 

norm. Eventually, learners model their way of behaving and reactions to struggles on 

what they see at home and in their networks (Van Jaarsveld, 2008:31). This viewpoint 

is well-exemplified by De Wet (2016:2), who argues that gangsterism and school 

violence are inextricably linked to the Cape Flats specifically, and that racism, class 

privilege, and gender oppression are structural root causes of school violence in the 

Western Cape province. 

The societal acceptance of the use of violence promotes school-based violence as a 

form of dispute resolution. When this culture of violence permeates the school 

environment, it results in risk factors at the school level, such as a negative or harmful 

school climate, association with delinquent peers, poor teacher-student bonds and 

relationships, disorderly school environments, and truancy and high dropout rates 

(Burton & Leoschut, 2012:53). 



15 
 

External factors that cause school violence include poverty and unemployment; sexual 

violence; exposure to domestic and community violence; and mass media that keep 

violence as the norm. Internal factors that cause school violence include inappropriate 

societal norms and values, illegal forms of discipline, abuse of power and authority by 

teachers, disability, gender, race and sexual orientation, poorly run schools and lacking 

effective leadership, creating the space for violence (Veriava & Hodgson, 2017: 297). 

Netshitangani (2014:1400) supports this by mentioning that the most common causes 

of school violence are poor parental care, media exposure, students' low 

socioeconomic status, and peer pressure. 

Teachers play such an important role in the positive growth of our society. However, if 

they are subjected to such danger, how will that benefit our society and consequently 

our country? As an in-service teacher at a dysfunctional public school, I am driven to 

be the voice of my colleagues and explore their experiences in this violent educational 

setting in the hopes that it will force a transformation in the management and discipline 

policies and protocols; so that a conducive educational environment is created to 

ensure academic achievement, schooling, increased teacher retention and job 

satisfaction.  

According to Burton (2008:17), schools are generally regarded as places where 

individuals are prepared for the roles they will play in society as a whole and as 

mechanisms for developing and sustaining positive citizens with pro-social attitudes. 

In addition, Jefthas and Artz (2007:46) suggest that a lack of security at schools may 

contribute to the perpetuation of crime and violence throughout society. 

 

1.9.3.4   Teachers experiences of school violence  
Cangelosi (1988:280-283) suggests that there are four reasons teachers are exposed 

to violence from learners. The reasons include: learners may intend to establish or 

retain their “cool-status” by physically harming the teacher – that way showing that they 

are not afraid; when a learner is being aggressive or irate, the teacher might be an 

easy target for the learner; learners may want to show control over authorities or seek 

revenge against authority figures or even relieve boredom by pranking the teacher in 

a way that puts him/her in danger; and lastly, learners may wish to defend themselves 

if they believe that a teacher poses harm or danger (Cangelosi, 1988:280-283).  



16 
 

According to SAPA (2020:5), there have been reports of violence against teachers at 

schools, such as the video that was taken of a learner throwing an exercise book at a 

teacher, and another depicting a group of learners beating a teacher in the classroom 

while other learners watch and laugh. A more extreme experience is of a teacher that 

was attacked and stabbed 14 times on the back by a learner while writing on the 

chalkboard (Hlatshwayo, 2018:36). SAPA (2020:5-6) further indicates that teachers do 

not want to report these incidents due to the belief that they will be viewed as teachers 

who cannot discipline learners. Should these teachers opt for counselling, they fear 

that this implies defeat or that they do not trust in the school disciplinary methods. The 

result of reporting violent incidents or seeking counselling is that teachers are forced 

to return to the same classroom as the violent learners. Therefore, teachers believe 

they are not supported adequately, and the disciplinary measures used in school or 

the classroom are not sufficient to address violence, and as a result creating room for 

learners to misbehave or cause violent disruptions (Bester & Du Plessis, 2010:226).  

Sibisi (2016:47) postulates that teachers no longer feel safe in their classrooms, which 

leads to increased job resignation, teacher burnout, anxiety, depression, fear, post-

traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), humiliation, and self-esteem issues. Grobler 

(2018:2) mentions that teachers' personal experiences with violence result in 

depression, headaches, anxiety, low self-esteem, feelings of worthlessness, 

helplessness, frustration, shame, guilt, disillusionment, and exhaustion on a 

professional level. This can lead to an overwhelming negative attitude towards 

students, a reluctance to assist with classroom learning, a resignation from the 

profession, mediocrity in teaching, a lack of enthusiasm, an inability to control their 

temper, classroom discipline issues, the breakdown of teaching and learning, and a 

diminished reputation in the eyes of their students, colleagues, and the principal. 

However, there has been little emphasis on teachers’ experiences with violent learners 

in their classrooms and how this consequently affects the entire school system. 

Naturally, the victimization of teachers has the potential to have a significant impact on 

student academic and behavioural outcomes, as well as recruitment, teacher well-

being, and teacher retention. 

 

 



17 
 

1.9.3.5 Strategies to address school violence against teachers 
In order to eradicate school violence against teachers in schools, certain strategies are 

used. Some schools take teachers to professional development workshops where they 

are taught strategies for settling disputes so they do not get out of hand (Colvin, 

2004:116). According to Govender (2015:32-34), learners are sent to behavioural and 

social programmes where they are taught about interventions that can mitigate or 

decrease aggressive behavioural patterns. Schools also strengthen policies and 

disciplinary committees, and lastly, they teach life skills and offer access to counsellors.   

Burton and Leoschut (2012:51) state that positive teacher-learner bonds, academic 

motivation and success, school discipline and clear rules, non-deviant friends and 

peers, and participation in structured pro-social activities are all school-level protective 

factors. Cultural awareness, knowledge, and comprehension aid in the prevention of 

violence in schools and subsequent classroom settings. Furthermore, humour is used 

as a classroom strategy to relieve tension and create a warm classroom environment 

(Bester & Du Plessis, 2010:230).  

 

The South African Principals Association (SAPA) (2020:18) states that having security 

guards, requiring parents to accept responsibility for their children's actions and 

enforcing severe punishment for learners who are violent towards teachers are 

effective strategies in some schools. In the case of gang-related violent schools, a 

school that is well run, inclusive, and well organized can reduce the number of incidents 

and external gang-related violence (Mncube & Steinmann, 2014:209). Sibisi (2016:49) 

states that there are schools that collaborate with advocates for violence prevention to 

establish supportive relationships and develop parenting development programmes 

that emphasize healthy relationships, therefore building a healthy moral development 

for learners. Lastly, Mkhize (2012:53) postulates, hat programmes in schools that try 

to prevent high-risk behaviours like drinking, using drugs, and carrying weapons are 

helpful and that reinforcement of such lessons in the school terrain and classroom has 

reduced the number of incidents of violence in schools. 

 

 

 

 



18 
 

1.9.4 Summary of preliminary literature review 
The section reviewed different literature that demonstrates that school violence 

continues to be a significant problem in South Africa. School violence is clearly multi-

layered and there are different forms of school violence that are informed by different 

external and internal factors. It is evident that learners are faced with different adverse 

forces that then drive them to be violent towards their teachers. The discussions on 

the lived experiences of teachers with respect to school violence provided an overview 

of the effects of school violence on teachers, showing how teachers cannot fully 

execute their day-to-day functions when they are under physical and psychological 

threat or in an unhealthy state. From the literature it is evident that in order for quality 

education to take place, the school environment needs to be safe from any form of 

violence and turbulence.  

An exploration of routine activity theory revealed how crime can occur when there is a 

link between an offender, target and the absence of a guardian who prevents the crime 

from occurring or escalating. The discussion reveals how violent acts can be prevented 

by supervision and eliminating motivation for violence by focusing on all three 

elements. Additionally, the discussions on the strategies to deal with school violence 

showed that the strategies that are already in place are inadequate and that not all 

strategies can work effectively across all schools in South Africa, consequently 

heightening the need to identify new, relevant strategies. The literature review 

therefore provided a holistic conceptualization of violence in school, the effects it has 

on teachers’ functioning and possible prevention. It is clear from the review that 

teachers’ experiences of school violence can create the urgency to better understand 

learners and their backgrounds, to attempt to eliminate the negative stimuli that drives 

learners to be violent beings towards teachers and to create new classroom 

management strategies. Lastly, it exposed the significant need to create school 

environments that are not only conducive to the education process, but also physically, 

psychologically and emotionally healthy to all actors in the school system so that the 

educational objectives can be satisfied. The next section presents the research design 

and methodology.  

 

 



19 
 

1.10 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

 

1.10.1 Introduction 
Research methodology refers to the systematic method a researcher follows to 

guarantee valid, dependable results that are in line with the research aims and 

objectives. The purpose of this section is to outline the research paradigm, approach, 

design and methodologies that will be employed in collecting and analysing data 

regarding teachers lived experiences of school violence. The section will also outline 

how the data will be obtained, the sampling method that will be used, the data collection 

and analysis techniques, as well as the ethical processes to follow before embarking 

on data collection. The above mentioned are discussed below under appropriate 

headings.  

 

1.10.2 Research Paradigm   
According to Kivunja and Kuyini (2017:26), a researcher’s worldview is referred to as 

a research paradigm, and it is the perspective, school of thought, or collection of shared 

beliefs that guide the meaning or interpretation of research data. This worldview has 

significant repercussions for each and every decision made during the research 

process, including the choice of methods and methodology. 

This study is guided by the interpretive research paradigm, which endeavours to 

comprehend and interpret the subject's thoughts or interpretation of the context 

(Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017:33). Glober (2018:7) suggests that this paradigm supports the 

idea that reality is socially constructed with multiple realities or interpretations of 

events. The use of an interpretive paradigm in this study will be useful “to relate 

people’s experiences in their day-to-day natural environment” (Govender, 2015:10). 

Interpretive paradigm allows the researcher to describe and understand humans, 

objects and events in a natural setting (Pham, 2018:3). Sibisi (2016:57) states that the 

researcher relies heavily on the participants' perspectives of the situation being studied 

in order to find meaning in the research process. The author adds that knowledge 

claims must be negotiated in order to reach a consensus when experiences are 

interpreted in different ways. 

In this study, teachers used their daily teaching activities to make sense of their 

experiences with school violence. As a result, the interpretive paradigm is committed 



20 
 

to studying meaning and human phenomena within their context. It does this by 

allowing the researcher to gather information directly from the teachers as they reflect 

on the actual events in a way that allows for documentation (Govender, 2015:43). By 

using this paradigm, meaning can be constructed out of the data from teachers’ 

experiences of school violence.  

 

1.10.3 Research Approach 
This study was informed by a qualitative research approach, which is defined as “a 

type of social inquiry that tends to adopt a flexible and data-driven research design, 

uses relatively unstructured data, emphasizes the essential role of subjectivity in the 

research process, studies a number of naturally occurring cases in detail, and uses 

verbal rather than statistical approaches” (Hammersley, 2013:12). Research 

approaches, according to Creswell (2014:3), are plans and procedures for research 

that cover the steps from broad assumptions to specific data collection, analysis, and 

interpretation methods. The research approach includes attitudes toward 

comprehending human experiences, interpretations of the social world, and how to 

inquire about all of these things (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2018:287). Alternatively, 

Lichtman (2011:240) postulates that through contact with people in their natural 

environments, qualitative researchers investigate human experiences and realities to 

produce rich, descriptive data that aid in our comprehension of those individuals' 

experiences. 

Cohen et al. (2018:287) further state that qualitative research can be used for a variety 

of things, including description, explanation, reporting, development of key concepts, 

theory generation, and testing. As a result, this method helped me to describe the 

teachers' lived experiences with school violence and interpret the meaning in order to 

determine the prevention and coping strategies that will help teachers to better manage 

school violence.  

Since the phenomenon under study involves people's experiences, qualitative 

research is appropriate for this study. According to Creswell (1998:14), qualitative 

research is carried out in a natural setting in which the researcher acts as an instrument 

for data collection, collects words or images, analyses them inductively, focuses on the 

participants' meaning, and describes a process that is linguistically expressive and 



21 
 

persuasive. The ability of qualitative research to provide detailed textual descriptions 

of how people experience a particular research issue is its strength. According to Mack, 

Woodsong, MacQueen, Guest, and Namey (2005:1), qualitative research provides 

information about individuals' behaviours, beliefs, opinions, emotions, and 

relationships in relation to a topic. Lastly, this method will support the study by adhering 

to an inductive approach, focusing on individual meaning, and emphasizing the 

significance of illustrating a situation's complexity. Additionally, because it involves 

examining teachers' personal experiences with school violence, this method seems to 

be suitable for this study. 

 

1.10.4 Research Design   
This study followed a phenomenological case study research design. A 

phenomenological study describes how a concept or phenomenon relates to the lived 

experiences of multiple people (Mourlam, De Jong, Shudak & Baron, 2019:402). It is 

a methodical approach to studying how people find themselves in the world, how they 

define themselves and the world, and how they experience world phenomena (Vagle, 

2014:20). On the other hand, a case study is a comprehensive examination of a single 

individual or group of individuals that aids in our comprehension of real-world 

phenomena (Karlsson 2016:1). Moreover, a phenomenological case study is an in-

depth exploration of phenomena experienced by a particular group of people 

(Mourlam, De Jong, Shudak & Baron, 2019:397).  

According to Crawford (2016:62), phenomenological case studies provide “rich, in-

depth, and developed anecdotes and descriptions and have the potential to impart 

knowledge and comprehension of phenomena to others as well as generate new 

concepts and information”. They produce "a rich and holistic account" of a particular 

phenomenon and are "anchored in real-life situations" (Merriam, 2009:51). 

Phenomenological case studies will permit the researcher to understand complex 

human experiences and reveal the phenomenon's essence. King, Horrocks, and 

Brooks (2018:241) postulate that in phenomenology, people do not experience their 

bodies as objects like any other. However, they are the subject of experience and as 

such should be a central focus of a study based on lived experiences. A 

phenomenological approach is well-suited to studying affective, emotional, and 

frequently intense experiences because the study is based on teachers' lived 



22 
 

experiences of school violence (Merriam, 2009:26). The phenomenological case study 

design of this study will ensure that the data gathered address the research problem 

as clearly, precisely, and objectively as possible. I will however have access to a wealth 

of data that provides a comprehensive understanding of teachers' experiences of 

school violence. Therefore, a phenomenological case study is adopted here because 

this study aims to explore teachers lived experiences of school violence in one high 

school. 

 

1.10.5 Study Site and Participants  
This study took place at one high school in Xhariep District in the Free State province. 

The school is located in a small, rural, impoverished and violent township area in the 

Letsemeng circuit. According to Shaw and Satalkar (2018:80), the term "participant" 

refers to a living individual from whom an investigator conducting research obtains 

identifiable private information or data through interaction. Given the aim of the study, 

teachers who are frequently subjected to violence in schools and are in a position to 

provide pertinent data about their experiences of school violence were selected. In 

other words, participants will be selected based on their capacity to provide the 

researcher with relevant information. Information on age, gender, and years of 

experience at the school were collected from a variety of teachers. 

 

1.10.6 Sample and Sample Size  
According to Mujere (2016:109), a sample is a collection of people, things, or things 

taken from a large population for the purpose of measurement. The author adds that 

the sample represents the population to ensure that the results from the research 

sample can be applied to the population as a whole. Purposive sampling was used in 

this study. In qualitative research, purposeful sampling is a common method for 

selecting information-rich cases that make the most efficient use of limited resources 

(Palinkas, Horwitz, Green, Wisdom, Duan, & Hoagwood, 2015:2). It also entails 

locating and selecting individuals or groups of individuals who are familiar with or have 

experience with a phenomenon of interest (Cresswell & Clark, 2011:20). Furthermore, 

the purpose of using this type of sampling is that it helps researchers to better 

understand people and what they go through. In that way, it also supports the aim of 

this study by exploring the true and real experiences of teachers, creating meaning 



23 
 

from it and extracting what is relevant to the study. The sample included eight teachers 

who had been working at the school for a minimum of five years, who come from 

different age, gender and race backgrounds. This ensured that the data produced are 

rich and reflects the teacher population experiences at the school.  

 

1.10.7 Instruments for Data Collection  
According to Adosi (2020:1), it is important to choose an appropriate data collection 

instrument to use in capturing the needed information to address research questions 

in a qualitative study. The research questions and objectives heavily influence the 

instruments used to collect data (Canals, 2017:399). 

Semi-structured interviews were used to gather the data for this study. A semi-

structured interview is a data collection method for a qualitative study which combines 

the opportunity for the interviewer to further investigate themes or responses with a 

formalized list of open questions to elicit discussion (Cho, Song, & Lee, 2018:344). 

Participants must reflect on past events when participating in interviews. According to 

Palmer and Bolderston (2006:16), participants share attitudes, ideas, beliefs, 

viewpoints, and a deeper understanding, in this case of the factors that influence 

teachers' behaviour and well-being. Therefore, Gonzalez, Brown, and Slate (2008:3) 

state that interviews with teachers are a good fit for the study's objective. According to 

Creswell, Ebersohn, Eloff, Ferreira, Ivankova, Jansen, Nieuwenhuis, Pieterson, Pano 

Clark, and Van der Westhuizen (2010:108) semi-structured interviews are used to 

confirm data from other sources. The authors further state that such interviews are 

usually not long because the line of inquiry is developed by the researcher in advance 

of the interview. These interviews involve open-ended questions, followed by further 

probing and clarification.  

Participants are given the opportunity to respond in their own words when open-ended 

questions and probing are used, evoking responses that are meaningful, unexpected, 

and explanatory in nature, which will improve the quality of the study's data (Adosi, 

2020:5). This method was chosen for this study because it gave me the flexibility to 

inquire about initial participant responses, such as "why" or "how." The researcher 

must pay close attention to what the participants say, interact with them in accordance 

with their individual personalities and styles, and employ "probes" to get them to 



24 
 

elaborate on their responses (Mack et al., 2005:4). The semi-structured interviews 

helped me to gathering important data on the teachers’ lived experiences of school 

violence in school environment since the method implies interaction between myself 

and teachers. Additionally, they helped me to explain, better understand and explore 

teachers’ opinions, behaviour about their experiences and its effects.  

The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and grouped according to the various 

themes that emerged from the data. Audio recordings, as stated by Crawage 

(2005:128), facilitate the preservation of the emotional undertones present in an 

interview, in addition to providing a complete and accurate record of the entire 

interview. Sibisi (2016:62) points out that audio recordings can be replayed and 

transcribed into written records. Therefore, semi-structured interviews enabled me to 

engage teachers in extensive conversations to get their experiences on school 

violence. 

 

1.10.8 Data Collection Procedures 
The procedure of data collection in this study involved interviewing teachers about their 

experiences with school violence in a high school setting. Interviews were conducted 

with participants who had been directly or indirectly affected by school violence and 

who volunteered to be part of the study. Furthermore, the interviews took place at the 

participants’ school so that they could be in a natural and comfortable setting. Data 

were collected through face-to-face interviews, and interviews were audio-recorded to 

capture the data accurately. I determined the time and date of interviews with the 

participants to confirm availability and to ensure that there would be no clash with their 

work duties. Ethics considerations and COVID-19 protocols were observed during and 

after the interviews. After the semi-structured interviews, the data obtained were 

transcribed verbatim and turned into field texts. Since the researcher can always go 

back and come up with new hypotheses, the information from interviews, transcripts, 

and recordings is highly reliable (Silverman, 2000:14). After the data analysis, the main 

themes were identified and categorized.  

 

1.10.9 Data Analysis  
The process of "inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modelling data with the 

intention of discovering useful information, drawing conclusions, and assisting in 



25 
 

decision-making" is referred to as data analysis (Bazeley & Jackson, 2013:28). The 

study used thematic data analysis (TA), which refers to the process the researcher 

uses to determine the main ideas and their frequencies from interviews (Hlatshwayo, 

2018:8). It can also be defined as a useful method for examining the perspectives of 

various research participants, highlighting similarities and differences, and generating 

unexpected insights (Nowell, Norris, White, & Moules, 2017: 2). Thorough thematic 

analysis can yield reliable and insightful results.  

Braun and Clarke’s (2012) outlines six steps for thematic analysis: familiarizing yourself 

with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, 

defining and naming themes, and producing the report (Xu & Zammit, 2020:2). The 

researcher has to first undertake the coding process to create themes from the 

transcribed data. Coding is the process of dividing transcribed data into meaningful 

analytical units by carefully reading it line by line (Creswell et al., 2010:136). Once data 

have been coded, the researcher is able to create themes from the codes and to 

categorize them into a system that makes sense of the data. A theme is a particular 

pattern that has been identified and contains important data-related information about 

the research questions (Xu & Zammit, 2020:2). 

In this qualitative interpretive study, the development of knowledge constructed from 

interactions between the researcher and participants was made possible by the use of 

thematic data analysis. It revealed the meanings that were socially constructed and 

shed light on the social, cultural, and structural contexts that influence individual 

experiences (Kiger & Varpio, 2020:2). In summary, thematic data analysis involved 

gathering the data firstly from the semi-structured interviews, transcribing it verbatim, 

then coding the data using in vivo coding to establish preliminary themes. This was 

followed by identifying underlying patterns, ideas and themes and using them to 

construct meaning from teachers’ experiences. Thematic data analysis was the best 

method for this study because it involves finding meanings that are repeated 

throughout a data set, which is important for understanding phenomena, in this case, 

teachers’ lived experiences of school violence.  

 

 

 



26 
 

1.10.10 Data Trustworthiness  
The trustworthiness of a qualitative study simply refers to the question, "Can the 

findings be trusted?" (Korstjens & Moser, 2018:121). Van Jaarsveld (2011:5) refers to 

trustworthiness as the precision with which the data have been gathered, studied, and 

interpreted. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) in Nowell et al. (2017:3), 

trustworthiness can be established by ensuring credibility, transferability, 

dependability, and confirmability.  

The confidence that can be placed in the veracity of the research findings is referred 

to as credibility. According to Korstjens and Moser (2018:121), credibility refers to 

whether the research findings are an accurate interpretation of the participants' initial 

perspectives and represent valid information derived from their original data. In this 

study, credibility was maintained by relying on participant responses during interviews 

rather than the researchers' underlying assumptions. The study must effectively 

incorporate the participants' facts, perceptions, and experiences. 

Korstjens and Moser (2018:121) refer to transferability as “the extent to which the 

findings of qualitative research can be applied to other contexts or settings with 

additional respondents”. The research was conducted by means of semi-structured 

interviews, and excerpts from those interviews may be used by other researchers to 

determine whether or not the findings would be transferable. The interviews gauged 

the context, behaviour and experiences of teachers so that they become meaningful 

to people external to the study. 

According to Govender (2015:48), dependability is the consistency of the 

measurement, which means that if the same variable is measured in different 

conditions, it will still yield the same or similar results. A clear explanation of the data 

collection and analysis procedures are provided to ensure dependability. After the 

interview data had been transcribed, participants were given the opportunity to confirm 

what they said. 

Lastly, confirmability is defined as “the extent to which the study's findings can be 

verified by other researchers” (Korstjens & Moser, 2018:121).  



27 
 

According to Creswell et al. (2010:145), confirmability describes the extent to which a 

study's participants, not the researcher's bias, motivation, or interest, influence the 

results. This study achieved confirmability for the purposes of validity by clearly 

describing the research steps from the beginning to the development and reporting of 

the findings. All documentation related to the study was kept to show how and why 

decisions were made. Nowell et al. (2017:3) posit that when credibility, transferability, 

and dependability are all satisfied, confirmability is established. 

To gain sufficient understanding of the group and to establish a relationship of trust 

between the parties, I ensured trustworthiness through "engagement" between the 

researcher and the participants (Sibisi, 2016:69). 

 

1.11 ETHICS CONSIDERATIONS 
Richards and Schwartz (2002:135) in Hlatshwayo (2018:60) allude to ethics as 

recommended guidelines or rules in a specific expert organization that guides the 

conduct of its professionals. For this study, all appropriate bodies had to be consulted, 

and Covid-19 protocols had to be observed. Permission to conduct research was 

requested from the University of the Free State (UFS) and the Free State Department 

of Basic Education (DBE). The researcher adhered to the guidelines set out by these 

organizations. Permission was also sought from the school principal as the study 

involved the school as the research site and teachers as participants. Participating 

teachers gave informed consent to be part of the research. Ethics clearance was 

obtained before the researcher started with data collection.  

Ethics standards such as anonymity and confidentiality were observed. According to 

Coffelt (2017:1), confidentiality refers to the removal of any personal, identifying data 

participants provided from the data, whereas anonymity refers to gathering information 

without collecting any personal, identifying data. In other words, in this study, there is 

an interest and focus on individuals’ experiences and behaviours, rather than in 

exposing individuals.  

Before the research process started, the participants were informed on the research 

and its risks. In this case, there was the risk of triggering anxiety and post-traumatic 



28 
 

stress disorder (PTSD) in participants as they were asked to recount traumatic 

experiences. Participants were not forced to be part of the study; only willing 

participants formed part of the study and they had to sign consent forms. Those who 

were not comfortable with the research and its risks were excused. The participants 

had the right to discontinue participation in the study at any time (Paul & Kumar, 

2015:43). Moreover, it is of paramount significance that participants are protected from 

physical and psychological danger. Participants were not exploited nor given 

incentives to convince them to be part of the study. The dignity of participants must be 

always upheld.  

 

1.12 ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS 
The dissertation is structured as follows:  

 

Chapter 1: Introduction and background of the study  
This chapter addressed the background of the study; statement of the problem; 

rationale of the study; aim of the study; main and secondary research questions; the 

delimitation of the study; the significance of the study; definition of key words; a 

preliminary literature review on school violence; research methodology; and ethics 

considerations. 

 

Chapter 2: Literature Review 
Chapter 2 presents the theoretical framework that informed the study and reviews the 

available literature on school violence by considering its history and prevalence, as 

well as the types of school violence. Furthermore, the chapter addresses the causes 

of violence; teachers’ experiences of school violence; coping strategies for school 

violence; intervention strategies for school violence; implications of the study and 

lastly, the summary of the chapter.  

 

Chapter 3: Research Methodology  
This chapter describes the research paradigm; research approach; research design; 

the site of the study and participants; sampling and sample size; instruments for data 

collection; data collection procedures; data analysis; data trustworthiness; ethics 



29 
 

considerations and offers a chapter summary.  

 

Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Interpretation of the Findings 
The chapter presents the research journey, presents the findings, and offers a chapter 

summary.  

 

Chapter 5: Discussion of Findings and Conclusion 
This chapter discusses the findings of the study and the implications of the study; offers 

recommendations for further studies; and considers the limitations of the study before 

concluding the study.  

 

1.13 CHAPTER SUMMARY 
This chapter revealed the background to the study; stated the problem and highlighted 

the significance of the study. It also presented the rationale of the study, aims of the 

study, research questions and the literature review. The chapter briefly considered 

what school violence is, the types of school violence, causes of school violence, as 

well as strategies that have been used to address learner violence against teachers. 

The research methodology section offered a cursory discussion of the methodology 

used to achieve the aim of the study, such as the nature of the research, the profile of 

the school, sampling and data collection methods, data analysis procedures, data 

trustworthiness and the ethics considerations of the study.  

  



30 
 

CHAPTER 2 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.1 INTRODUCTION  
This chapter reviews the available body of literature on teachers’ lived experiences of 

school violence. The chapter commences by discussing the theoretical framework that 

directs the study; unpacks the various concepts of school violence locally and 

internally; discusses the types of school violence and their causes, as well as how 

teachers have experienced school violence. Furthermore, the chapter explores coping 

and intervention strategies to address school violence, with implications of the study 

and summary at the end. This study aims to explore teachers’ lived experiences of 

school violence.  

 

 

2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 
Routine Activity Theory (RAT) serves as the basis for this study. According to 

Kitteringham and Fennelly (2020:207), Cohen and Felson formulated RAT in 1979 to 

elucidate the contextual factors that influence and shape crime in the world. RAT is 

also known as opportunity theory as “opportunity is the root cause of crime” (Pimple, 

2016:3). Cohen and Felson (1979:604) emphasize that when three factors come 

together in time and space, crime occurs: motivated offenders, suitable targets, and a 

lack of capable guardians. In other words, RAT proposes that the motivation of the 

offender, the vulnerability of the victim, and the absence of capable guardians all 

conspire to cause a crime to occur where both the opportunity and the ability to commit 

it are present (Gotham & Kennedy, 2019:2).  To understand how the RAT theory works, 

the three elements must be unpacked which are the motivated offender, suitable 

targets, and the capable guardian.  

 

2.2.1. Motivated Offender 
A motivated offender, as defined by Turvey and Freeman (2013:143), is one who is 

sufficiently motivated to commit an offence and is motivated by a variety of internal and 

external factors. Turvey (2011:293-294) and Wilcox (2015:772) express that the 

motivated offender goes through a victim determination process. It can either be 



31 
 

targeted (chosen ahead of time explicitly in view of what their identity is, what they are, 

what they know, or what they have) or opportunistic (the victim is unessential, and the 

offender is roused by a craving to commit the offence due to factors such as 

vulnerability, availability, time and location).  

 

2.2.2. Suitable Targets  
Suitable targets are victims that motivated offenders perceive to be vulnerable or 

susceptible to their method of operation in the view of the offender (Cohen & Felson, 

1979:605). According to Cohen and Felson (1979) value, inertia, visibility, and access 

all have an effect on the likelihood that a target will be more or less suitable. Value is 

the actual or symbolic value that the offender sees in the situation; the term "inertia" 

refers to a person's size, weight, shape, or other physical characteristics that prevent 

the offender from seeing it as appropriate; while visibility refers to the exposure of 

targets to attackers or can be defined as the characteristic that identifies the attacker. 

Lastly, there is access to the layout and placement of the site, both of which increase 

the likelihood of an attack or make it simpler to carry it out (Miró, 2014:2-3). These four 

elements essentially define the level of risk of the suitable target to the motivated 

offender.  

 

2.2.3. Capable Guardians  
Turvey and Freeman (2013:143) define capable guardians as people whose presence 

or proximity deters offenders from committing crimes. They can be teachers, private 

security guards, police officers, family members, or regular citizens. Alternatively, 

Hollis-Peel, Reynald, van Bavel, Elffers and Welsh (2011:54) define capable guardians 

as people or groups who have the physical or symbolic presence of someone who acts 

(either intentionally or unintentionally) to prevent a crime from happening. Closed-

circuit television, for instance, is controlled by people who are not physically present at 

the crime scene, a friend or classmate of the offender, place managers such as other 

teachers, managers and others with supervisory responsibility, like general workers. 

The job of capable guardians is to reduce crime by discouragement because there is 

a higher likelihood for external intervention and apprehension. In essence, a potential 

offender could be discouraged by a guardian's presence in a location or by the 



32 
 

guardian's relationship with the offender. However, when they are not present, the 

chances of crime occurring will increase.  

 

Cohen and Felson (1979) maintain that people's routine activities, such as their daily 

work, school, or leisure activities, have increasingly taken them outside of their homes 

and into the public realm since World War II, increasing their risk of being victimized 

(Renzetti & Edleson, 2008:488). RAT highlights the spatial links that exist between 

crime, targets, and the patterns of movement of offenders whose routine activities take 

place in locations where there are higher probabilities of committing crime. The places 

where people spend the most time, such as at school, at home, at work, shopping 

centres, and entertainment areas, as well as the routes that connect them, are 

frequently the locations of the offenders' crimes (Mirò, 2014:5). 

Bock, Shannon, Movahedi and Cukier (2017:139) state that when motivated offenders 

and suitable targets are likely to meet, the frequency of victimization is especially high. 

For instance, Roman (2002:80) established that block-level violent crime rates are 

influenced by variables such as school disorganization and routine activity, as schools 

were found to be generators of crime during the school period (during the afterschool 

period, lunch breaks, blocks near schools characterized by resource deprivation, 

during the morning commute and disorderly blocks in the school). In other words, as 

the number of potential targets increase in the absence of capable guardians, the 

opportunity for victimization increases. On the other hand, Thwala, Okeke and 

Tshotsho (2018:4) found that there is direct relationship between RAT and bullying in 

that low self-esteem and feelings of loneliness of adolescent girls make them more 

prone to being bullied. Additionally, they discovered that girls also experience being 

alone and unprotected in schools, where potential offenders take advantage of their 

isolation. In essence, the low self-esteem, loneliness and isolation of adolescent girls 

motivate the offender, thus making the adolescent girls suitable targets since there is 

no capable guardian present. Lastly, Moon and McCluskey (2020:122) found that 

various types of teacher victimization by students significantly correlated with teachers' 

unsure, supportive, and friendly behaviours towards students, thus making teachers 

suitable targets and learners motivated offenders in sight of no authority or capable 

guardian. The routine activities of both the offender and the victim are included in this 



33 
 

theory (Purpura, 2013:55). Hence, it is important to take into account that typically, 

schoolteachers are viewed as classroom managers and learner guardians. However, 

they can also be suitable targets that need capable guardians to deter offenders from 

committing violent acts (SooHyun & Wilcox, 2018:349).  

Wortley, Seepersad, Mcalla, Singh, Mandon, Greene, Myers and Roswell (2008:14) 

find that “social disorganization and routine activities influence block-level violent crime 

rates, which act as a social setting for violence”. There was a higher rate of violence in 

blocks close to schools characterized by resource deficiency after school than blocks 

close to schools with more resources. This means that the youth who have no 

resources are less supervised, creating more opportunity for offenders. Schreck and 

Fisher (2004:1021) found that students' close families are better able to protect them 

directly and reduce their exposure to motivated offenders. They also say that students 

who hang out with delinquent peers are more likely to be targeted for violence, to be 

under-supervised, and to be exposed to more motivated offenders. Furthermore, 

Moonand McCluskey (2020:122) established those different kinds of teacher 

victimization by learners significantly correlated with teachers' unsure, supportive, and 

friendly behaviours towards students.  

However, some studies have criticized RAT and its general assumptions: Kitteringham 

and Fennelly (2020:208) postulate that RAT assumes that criminals use reason when 

making decisions, they argue that offenders may not use the same logic as the person 

putting security measures in place, may not even be aware of the situational crime 

prevention strategies in place, or may be under the influence of alcohol or drugs or 

may be negligent to not take into consideration the security measures. Renzetti and 

Edleson (2008:490) argue that RAT implies that the likelihood of being a victim of a 

crime decreases the longer a person stays at home and that females are more 

susceptible to being victims than males.  

 

2.2.4 The Importance of the RAT Theory for this Study 
RAT has benefits such as providing an easy-to-understand yet powerful understanding 

of the problems caused by crime. It shows how people interact within a given 

environment because it takes into account the routine activities' spatial and temporal 

structures, which significantly influence the location, type, and quantity of illegal acts 



34 
 

and decrease the interaction of three essential elements: offender, suitable target and 

absence of capable guardian. Additionally, RAT de-emphasizes the offender and 

focuses instead on the target and guardian, and lastly predicts possible future crimes 

through contextual variables it carries (Argun & Dağlar, 2016:1191). According to Mirò 

(2014:5), RAT over the years has prevented crime by reducing opportunity for 

motivated offenders, has altered structures of opportunity of various crimes through 

various methods with the intention of increasing effort, increasing risks, decreasing 

benefits, and eliminating justifications. It also made it possible to analyse the places in 

which crime occurs the most so measures can be put in place as a way of prevention. 

Lastly, RAT predicts how social and economic changes will affect the overall rate of 

crime and victimization (Wortley, 2016:1).  

From the aforementioned, it is evident that RAT is used to understand criminal activity 

trends occurring at any geographical spaces at any given time. In turn, using RAT to 

study school violence is appropriate because all school participants; including 

students, teachers, staff, and administrators, participate in routines, activities, and 

shared interactions that influence and connect them all (Popp & Peguero, 2011:2415). 

This theory formed the basis for this study as the study explores how teachers become 

targets of the offending learners out of the sight of responsible guardians who can 

prevent the convergence of the crime, thus lowering the likelihood of violence occurring 

in schools.  

 

2.3 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE   

2.3.1 The Concept of School Violence  
School-based violence has many dimensions and many different manifestations. The 

setting in which it arises frequently determines how it manifests. Understanding the 

definition of violence as “the intentional use of physical force or power, whether 

threatened or actual—against oneself, another person, or a group or community that 

either causes or may cause injury, death, psychological damage, mal-development, or 

deprivation”, is essential for comprehending school violence. Alternatively, De Wet 

(2007:77-78) refers to school violence as intentional, harmful to the educational 

mission, and harmful to a conducive culture of teaching and learning. The Australian 



35 
 

National Committee on Violence included the characteristic of intentionally causing 

property damage in its definition (De Wet, 2007:249).  

Moving on from the previous assertion, there are multiple ways to define violence in a 

school setting. This is supported by the definition provided by Girmen, Kaya, and Kilic 

(2018:703) of school violence as a multifaceted concept that includes both criminal 

acts and aggressive behaviour in schools, hindering development and learning and 

harming the school climate. Zulu, Urbani, Van der Merwe and Van der Walt (2004:70 

cited in Mncube, 2013:3) define school violence as “any behaviour by students, 

teachers, administrators, or other non-school personnel aimed at causing harm or 

damage to school property”. South African law defines school violence as acts that 

result in either physical and non-physical harm, such as pain, damage or terror (De 

Wet, 2007). 

In its 2015 National School Safety Framework, the Department of Basic Education 

(2015:5) defines school violence as "hostility and victimization that happen in and 

around the classroom, on school terrain, on the way to and from school, as well as 

online and other events" perpetrated against teachers, school security officials, school 

management, students, and by teachers or students. This definition recognizes that 

violent incidents significantly disrupt the normal course of education by affecting school 

climate and culture. According to the Center for the Prevention of School Violence 

(2002:1 cited in Miller & Kraus, 2008:15), school violence is defined as any behaviour 

that violates a school's educational mission or respectable environment or jeopardizes 

the school's goal of being free of hostility against people or property, drugs, weapons, 

disruptions, and disorder. 

Finally, the term "school violence" is currently used to describe the following forms of 

violence worldwide: physical abuse (counting corporal punishment), psychological 

abuse (including verbal abuse), sexual violence (counting assault) and bullying 

(including cyberbullying) (United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization 

(UNESCO), 2017:15). In essence, any activity that has the potential to disrupt an 

educational system is considered school violence. 

 



36 
 

2.3.2. The History and Prevalence of School Violence 
According to Meyer and Chetty (2017:121), the 2013 National School Violence Study 

conducted by the Centre for Justice and Crime Prevention (CJCP) reveals numerous 

instances of school violence in South Africa, and not much has changed since. During 

apartheid, violence was used to oppress people as well as to resist; and the education 

system was used as yet another tool to oppress the majority of South Africans, 

separating black people from white people (Power, 2017:295). Power (2017:296) 

further states that in 1994, South Africa moved towards a democratic constitution 

according to which everyone must be treated with equality, tolerance, respect, dignity 

and non-violence. South Africa made significant attempts in pursuit of these human 

rights, but its continued contact with violence has had a dangerous effect on the school 

system. According to Govender (2018:22), the current violence in South Africa's 

education system must be understood in light of the past political and economic 

disadvantage patterns of inequality. As a result, the various worlds in which South 

Africans live still bear witness to the destructive legacy of the country's past (Jacobs, 

2013:59).  

However, school violence does not just occur in South Africa; it appears to be a global 

issue. It has been documented in the UK since 1927, when Andrew Kehoe detonated 

bombs at a school in Bath. Kehoe committed suicide alongside several others. Paul 

Orgeron killed himself, along with teachers and students, in 1959 when he detonated 

a bomb at a Texas playground. Violence tha