The moderating effect of gender: Perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms among adolescents by Mchunu Siphesihle Phakamani Praisegod This dissertation (in article format) is submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree MAGISTER ARTIUM (CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY) in the FACULTY OF THE HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE Supervisor: Dr N. F. Tadi November 2023 i Declaration I, Siphesihle Mchunu, declare that this dissertation hereby submitted by me for the Magister Artium degree (Clinical Psychology) at the University of the Free State is my own independent work and has not previously been submitted by me to another university/faculty. I furthermore cede copyright of this dissertation in favour of the University of the Free State. _______________________ _________ Siphesihle Mchunu Date ii Acknowledgements I would like to convey my sincere thanks, appreciation, and gratitude to:  Firstly, I would like to thank God for the strength and perseverance to pursue this journey; had it not been for him, I would not have come this far.  My parents and family at large for supporting me and my dreams  My supervisor, Dr N. F. Tadi, for seeing potential in me; even when I almost gave up, she believed that I could do it  Prof. K. Esterhuyse, for his assistance with the statistical analysis and his patience throughout  The University of the Free State as a whole for allowing me permission to conduct this study  Research colleagues, Zamahlase Sibisi and Kananelo Morakile, for always offering a helping hand in carrying out research tasks, especially at the different schools  The consultants at the Free State Psychiatric Complex Psychology Department for supporting me through this journey  The Free State Department of Education (FDOE) for granting me permission to embark on this study.  The various staff members from the schools at which I collected data – principals, admin clerks, teachers, security guards and school counsellors  My participants and their parents for allowing me to work with them through this process. iii Table of Contents Declaration ................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... ii List of figures ................................................................................................................................ v List of tables……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… v Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... vi Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 Literature Review ......................................................................................................................... 3 Anxiety ........................................................................................................................................ 3 Defining anxiety ........................................................................................................................... 3 Classification of Anxiety Disorders ................................................................................................. 3 Aetiology of anxiety ...................................................................................................................... 4 Adolescence Stage ........................................................................................................................ 6 Definition ..................................................................................................................................... 6 Changes during Adolescence – physical, cognitive, psychosocial ...................................................... 6 Adolescence and Anxiety .............................................................................................................. 8 Gender and Anxiety (Gender prevalence) ....................................................................................... 8 Coping differences and anxiety – gender differences ...................................................................... 9 Parenting Styles and Anxiety ....................................................................................................... 10 Theoretical framework: Parenting Styles ...................................................................................... 11 Conceptual framework................................................................................................................ 14 Research Problem and Objectives ................................................................................................ 15 Research Design and Methodology .............................................................................................. 16 Participants and sampling procedure ........................................................................................... 16 Ethical considerations and Data collection ................................................................................... 17 Characteristics of sample ............................................................................................................ 18 Measuring instruments ............................................................................................................... 21 Data analysis procedure .............................................................................................................. 23 Results ....................................................................................................................................... 24 Discussion .................................................................................................................................. 28 Limitations of the study .............................................................................................................. 30 Recommendations for Future Research ....................................................................................... 31 Contributions of this Study .......................................................................................................... 31 References ................................................................................................................................. 34 APPENDIX A................................................................................................................................ 53 Biographical Questionnaire ......................................................................................................... 54 iv Parental Authority Questionnaire ................................................................................................ 56 Generalized Anxiety Disorder - 7.................................................................................................. 62 APPENDIX B................................................................................................................................ 63 RESEARCH STUDY INFORMATION LEAFLET AND PARENTAL CONSENT FORM .................................. 63 APPENDIX C................................................................................................................................ 69 Approval from the General Human Research Ethics Committee..................................................... 69 APPENDIX D …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….70 Approval from the Free State Department of Education …………………………………………………………………70 APPENDIX E ................................................................................................................................ 72 Proof of Language and APA Editing .............................................................................................. 72 APPENDIX F ................................................................................................................................ 73 Turnitin Report ........................................................................................................................... 73 APPENDIX G……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 74 SUPERVISOR CONSENT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….74 v List of figures Figure 1 Regression lines for the male and female adolescents respectively with authoritative parenting styles as a predictor of anxiety……………………………………………………27 List of tables Table 1 Frequency distribution of biographical variables………………………………19 Table 2 Reliability of Measuring Instruments……………………………………………22 Table 3 Means, Standard Deviations, Skewness and Kurtoses for the Variables………..24 Table 4 Correlations between perceived parenting style scores and anxiety scores for the Total Group (N=153) …………………………………………………………………….25 Table 5 Regression Analysis Predicting Anxiety with Parenting Styles as Independent Variables and Gender as Intervening Variable…………………………………………..26 vi ABSTRACT Persistent anxiety symptoms during adolescence can lead to debilitation with a possible long- term negative impact in adulthood. Hence, reducing the burden of anxiety symptoms is a crucial public health priority. This quantitative study examined the moderating outcome of gender on the association between perceived parenting and anxiety symptoms among adolescents aged 13 to 17. A non-probability convenience sampling method was employed to select a sample of 153 participants between the ages of 13 and 17, comprising adolescent learners (boys and girls) in Grades 8–11 attending English medium schools. The study applied a quantitative, non-experimental and correlational research design. The results of the current study propose that gender may moderate the impact of parenting styles, in particular the authoritative style, with female adolescents displaying lower levels of anxiety symptoms when they perceive their parents’ parenting style as authoritative. By contrast, there would appear to be a slight increase in anxiety symptoms in male adolescents when they perceive their parents as authoritative. This research contributes to an understanding of the nuanced interplay between gender, perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms during adolescence, offering insights that may inform targeted interventions for this vulnerable population. Keywords: gender, perceived parenting styles, anxiety symptoms, adolescent learners 1 Introduction The prevalence of anxiety disorders has steadily increased to become a global concern, affecting various population groups, with a high incidence and prevalence among adolescents (Copeland et al., 2014). Adolescents aged between 13 and 17 have a higher lifetime prevalence rate of 7.7% than adults aged between 18 and 64 at 6.6% (Bandelow & Michaelis, 2022). A prevalence rate of 61.2% for anxiety among 515 adolescents from different schools in Bloemfontein, South Africa, aged 16–18 was reported, with the proportion of mild symptoms reported as 29.0%, and the proportion of moderate to severe symptoms as 32.0% (Strydom et al., 2012). A more recent South African Stress and Health (SASH) study, which examined the lifetime prevalence of common mental disorders in Bloemfontein, discovered that anxiety disorders are the most common category of mental disorders in life at 15.8% (Nel et al., 2018). Adolescents experiencing anxiety problems report severe and predominantly durable psychosocial impairment, which makes the adolescence period an important one to explore (Narmandakh et al., 2021). It is during adolescence that a sense of identity is formed (Blakemore & Mills, 2014). This stage also signifies a point in life where developing a strong sense of gender identity becomes a prominent identity development milestone and a socialising factor (Greene & Patton, 2020). Disjuncture in relationships with parents and the demand to start socialising with different people work together to produce a myriad factors that elicit anxiety (Rath et al., 2020). This is a stage known for the incident of affective disorders (Xie et al., 2021) and most notably the emergence of discrepancies witnessed among different genders with regard to mental health (Steinsbekk et al., 2021). This has led to an understanding that gender contributes to the extent and trajectory of anxiety present in adolescents (Van Droogenbroeck et al., 2018). Research findings have asserted that women experience heightened anxiety compared to men, especially during the childhood and adolescent stages (Vloo et al., 2021). Girls report https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352827321000173#bib22 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352827321000173#bib22 2 substantially elevated degrees of internalised mental health issues during these stages compared to boys. As regards mental health, the gap in gender escalates together with age during adolescence (Kaye-Tzadok et al., 2017). Anxiety-related problems have been overlooked; this despite the adverse effects of anxiety disorders on adolescents. For example, some of the overarching concerns include below-average scholastic performance and relational problems (on different social levels and contexts) such as unstable friendships and family dynamics (de Lijster et al., 2018; Domoney & Nath, 2018). Adolescents’ perceptions regarding parents’ parenting contribute to their psychological and physical development (Ortega et al., 2021). The interaction between parents and their children can have advantages and disadvantages for socialisation. Moreover, among children, psychological well-being is highly influenced by parental behaviours (Ortega et al., 2021). The parental influence on adolescents’ development has a clear link to the anxiety outcomes observed in adolescents (Yap & Jorm, 2015). This has led to some studies hypothesising that gendered parenting may elicit different levels of anxiety among boys and girls (Christiansen et al., 2022; Gao et al., 2022; Wood & Eagly, 2012). The gendered parenting hypothesis about anxiety has not been adequately proven (Endendijk et al., 2016) and there is a palpable lack of literature regarding this gendered issue within the fraternity of family studies (Mastrotheodoros et al., 2019). Therefore, it is in line with this background that the present study aims to explore the link between perceived parenting styles and adolescent anxiety symptoms. In addition, it also examines the moderating effects of gender on anxiety symptoms and perceived parenting styles. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352827321000173#bib28 3 Literature Review Anxiety Defining Anxiety According to Poppleton et al (2019), a sense of anxiety is a psychological reaction characterised by fear, and is based on a perceived or experienced threat or uncertain situation. Additionally, anxiety has been found to manifest cognitively, emotionally and behaviourally as responses to events or stimuli that pose a threat. This response is already at work when a person is still an infant and is pivotal for survival. Classification of Anxiety Disorders The classification of mental disorders is based on two main systems. In order to classify diseases, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) are used. These systems classify anxiety-related disorders in a like manner within the DSM-5 (Roehr, 2013) and ICD-11 (First et al., 2015). Anxiety disorders can be classified into several categories, including selective mutism, specific phobias, separation anxiety disorder, panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, anxiety disorder due to another medical condition, substance/medication-induced anxiety disorder, unspecified anxiety disorder and other specified anxiety disorder (Sadock et al., 2015). Common symptoms of anxiety disorders are indicative of feelings of nervousness, anxiety or feeling edgy, excessive worrying about different things and finding it difficult to relax. Moreover, restlessness, irritability and apprehensive anticipation are also well-known symptoms of anxiety disorders (Rutter & Brown, 2016). These anxiety disorders have an etiological trajectory. 4 Aetiology of Anxiety Disorders The origin of anxiety disorders is multifaceted, with an intricate collaboration between biological factors, environmental influences and psychological underpinnings (Schiele & Domschke, 2017). For instance, a myriad of factors should be taken into consideration when attempting to understand anxiety disorders and their pathogenesis. There are several factors to consider in this regard, including pathophysiology, psychobiology, temperament and personality, as well as environmental factors. Pathophysiology, particularly family genetics, has two quintessential approaches – family studies and twin studies. Based on psychobiology, anxiety disorders can be viewed as the result of differences in neural function among individuals. In fear-conditioning experiments, a neural circuit involving the amygdala is involved in learning to fear a stimulus that was previously perceived as neutral/harmless (Kenwood et al., 2022). Anxiety disorders are strongly associated with vulnerability to temperament and personality traits, for instance neuroticism, behavioural inhibition and trait anxiety. These factors have the propensity to overlap as constructs (Hovenkamp-Hermelink et al., 2021), and are said to be precursor conditions for the manifestation of prototypic anxiety disorders. Environmental factors are an interesting indicator and aetiology of anxiety disorders, looking particularly at childhood adversities, life events and parenting styles. The epidemiology of anxiety disorders has proven the contribution of adverse childhood experiences (e.g. losing parents, parents divorcing, physical or sexual abuse) to the incidence and perpetuation of anxiety-related disorders (Briggs et al., 2021). Anxiety-related disorders, mood-related disorders, addiction disorders, as well as acting-out disorders are all associated with these adversities (Kaminer et al., 2023). Childhood neglect or abuse has also been strongly associated with psychiatric morbidity (e.g. anxiety disorders, depression, substance abuse disorders) (Gardner et al., 2019). A study by Juruena et al. (2020) established that individuals 5 who reported having been victims of sexual abuse in childhood were likely to suffer from mood disorders, anxiety disorder, substance use disorder and conduct disorder, as well as display suicidal behaviour. Moreover, a consistent link between childhood sexual violation and a risk to develop mental illness has been found. Regarding specificity, the birth cohort studies yielded findings linking childhood maltreatment and childhood separation events with generalised anxiety disorder including comorbid anxiety disorders (Brühl et al., 2019; Moffitt et al., 2007; Muris et al., 1998). Other findings emphasise that the impact of adverse childhood events are undoubtedly yet another predictor of anxiety disorders (Miloyan et al., 2018). Additionally, there is evidence that threat events often precede anxiety disorders (Doom et al., 2021; Finlay-Jones & Brown, 1981). Researchers found that parental separation increased the risk for Generalized Anxiety Disorder in female same-sex twins after parental loss before the age of 17 years (Kendler, 1992; van Heijningen et al., 2023). Parenting styles can determine developmental trajectories and child growth outcomes. According to Olofsdotter et al. (2018), parenting styles are a major source of anxiety among adolescents. According to modern theories about anxiety disorders in childhood like Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT), parenting affects the onset and prevalence of anxiety-related disorders (Yousefi et al., 2021). Studies have depicted an association between parenting styles, development and the maintenance (perpetuation) of anxiety-related problems among adolescents (Erozkan, 2012). Two parenting styles, mainly authoritarian parenting and neglectful parenting, are closely linked to anxiety-related problems (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). 6 Adolescence Stage Definition Adolescence is a stage that signifies a shift from childhood into adulthood (Bonnie et al., 2019). Generally, this period spans from 12–18 years of age, roughly coinciding with pubertal onset. The process of puberty involves hormonal changes and the separation of the guardian from the child, which is considered "adulthood" by many countries (Dahl, 2004). Also associated with adolescence is puberty, a biological process that includes changes to muscles, fat and sex characteristics (Spear, 2000). Increased risk-taking and emotional reactivity occur during this period (Casey et al., 2010). It is a period of temporal confinement but not fixation, more of a transitional developmental stage instead of a fixed period, given its highly variable behaviour and development (Casey et al., 2010). A person’s development occurs within the context of behavioural changes induced by external and internal factors. This typically results in changes in response to the environment on the interpersonal and social level. For instance, time spent with parents is reduced as more time is spent with peers, and there is a noticeable sense of independence (Louw & Louw, 2019). Changes during Adolescence: Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial Furthermore, adolescent stage is an essential developmental season that is marked by abrupt changes and new habits. As previously mentioned this is a stage of transition into a period of vulnerability linked to puberty, a complex sequence of neural, hormonal and physical shifts linked to the transition to adulthood (Casey et al, 2008; Spear, 2000). Puberty is linked to changes in fear processes (Spielberg et al., 2014) and proneness to anxiety-related issues (Reardon et al., 2009). In girls, puberty affects fear-related neural systems more than in boys (Bramen et al., 2010). The emotional aspect of adolescents’ development is deemed a complex one, both internally and externally (Guyer et al., 2016). There is a tendency for adolescents to be 7 hypoactive in their emotional control system, which is indicative of their insufficient cognitive control, as well as their immaturity when it comes to fear conditioning. This reflects ineffective processes for the extinction of fear. Additionally, there is a peak in both the reward system and the stress response system. In response to circumstances that pose a threat, abnormal stress regulation occurs as a result of biased motivational processing. These peculiar characteristics of adolescents’ brain function may partly provide an understanding of their susceptibility to anxiety disorders. Psychopathological symptoms of anxiety disorders among adolescents may be influenced by abnormalities in the brain structures related to uncertainty anticipation, fear conditioning, motivational processing, cognitive control and stress regulation (Xie et al., 2020). An association exists between the formation of a child’s temperament, behaviour and anxiety-related disorders (Fox & Pine, 2012). Temperament and parent psychopathology are significant developmental risk factors for anxiety, as well as parent–child relationships (Fox & Pine, 2012), thus reacting to unfamiliar situations by withdrawing and avoiding them, this is called behavioural inhibition. In this respect, a strong relationship has been established between behavioural inhibition in infants and toddlers and the susceptibility to develop anxiety in adolescence (Fox & Pine, 2012). Adolescents who experience dysfunctional psychosocial interactions with parents and caregivers have a vulnerability factor of developing anxiety-related problems. As a result of maladaptive parenting behaviours, overprotection, criticism, rejection and dysfunctional familial interactions such as marital conflict and hostile sibling relationships, children face challenges (Beesdo et al., 2009). Subsequently, the link between parenting and the risk of developing anxiety-related problems becomes more prevalent in females more than in males (Barton & Kirtley, 2012). A need to conform to societal attitudes and expectations can also result in adolescents being more susceptible to developing anxiety (Narmandakh et al., 2020). The more pronounced 8 triggers are found to be sexual development, a quest for self-identity, fear of rejection from others, lack of interpersonal skills, and perceived or real inadequacies regarding psychological well-being. Later in adolescence, the biggest stress factors include academic pursuits and career endeavours (Garcia & O’Neil, 2020). The essential developmental milestone for adolescents is to consolidate a solid identity while ameliorating role confusion. Moreover, they are faced with the milestone of creating meaningful relationships to ensure a sense of belonging (Chen et al., 2007). Adolescents’ ability to achieve identity can be a good indicator of lower expression of psychosomatic and neurotic symptoms (Ragelienė, 2016) and, most importantly, reduced anxiety (Crocetti et al., 2008). Adolescence and Anxiety Anxiety is perceived as a normal aspect of childhood development. Children undergo a myriad of experiences such as feeling fearful, nervous, shy and avoiding contexts and events. This will most often continue despite the intervention of parents, caregivers and teachers (Bhatia & Goyal, 2018). Anxiety disorders are among the fast-growing disorders observed in children and adolescents with a prevalence rate between 4 and 20%. In this age bracket, specific phobias, social phobias, generalised anxiety disorders and separation anxiety disorders are most prevalent with prevalence rates between 2.2 and 3.6%. Agoraphobia stands at 1.5%, indicating a lower prevalence, whereas panic disorders are reported to be relatively rare, below 1% (Bhatia & Goyal, 2018). Gender and Anxiety (Gender Prevalence) A study was conducted among adolescents (1079 participants), and it was observed that girls were more likely to have an acute or chronic diagnosis of anxiety-related disorder than boys (Lewinsohn et al., 1998). During childhood, there is an evident increase in vulnerability 9 to heightened anxiety in girls. At around six years of age, girls are already twice as likely to develop anxiety disorders compared to boys, with enduring symptoms extending into adolescence (Muris & Ollendick, 2002). In adolescence, girls testify about being considerably worried about many things and on many occasions, this is especially indicative of separation anxiety (Poulton et al., 2001). A wide array of etiological factors exists that account for these differences in anxiety levels among adolescents according to gender. Anxiety proneness appears to be influenced by biological factors, particularly genetic factors (Stein et al., 2002). Additionally, other factors of vulnerability include neuroticism. The extent to which anxiety-related susceptibility determinants are heritable is more significant in girls than in boys. Evidence for these findings is based on the premise of individual variability in neuroticism among girls compared to boys (Lake et al., 2000). Biological factors such as hormones and physiological reactivity have a significant etiological base (McLean & Anderson, 2009). The etiological factors of interest in this study will be the influence of gender role socialisation, especially by parents. Parenting is a key socialisation tool that serves to reinforce gender-conforming behaviours. This occurs normally through the encouragement of agency and assertiveness in males and anxious behaviours in females (McLean & Anderson, 2009). According to scientific evidence, parents tolerate withdrawal and inhibitory behaviours in boys less as they get older, whereas in girls it's the opposite. (Stevenson-Hinde & Shouldice, 1993). Coping Differences and Anxiety: Gender Differences A study by Eschenbeck et al. (2007), undertaken among adolescents, found that females had higher scores than males when it comes to seeking social support based on gender differences in coping. For example, findings have deduced that women use active coping strategies more often than men (Hampel & Petermann, 2005). By contrast, adolescent boys 10 have the urge to apply avoidance as a form of coping (Eschenbeck et al., 2007). Studies postulate that females are prone to resort to avoidant coping strategies compared to their male counterparts (Griffith et al., 2000). According to Hampel and Petermann (2005), girls use less distraction/recreation and more aggression to regulate their emotions during adolescence compared to boys. Notably, in response to academic stressors, females more commonly use emotion-focused strategies (Compas et al., 1988). These variations in coping between the different genders may be precursors for anxiety and can have deleterious effects on adolescents (Kelly et al., 2008). Parenting Styles and Anxiety The aetiology of anxiety disorders among adolescents is better explained by a myriad of factors that can inform prevention and treatment (Waite & Creswell, 2014). Theoretically, several family factors are implicated, including genes, adverse childhood events, parent psychopathology and parenting behaviour (Creswell et al. 2011; Rapee et al. 2009). Research proposes that focusing on parenting practices during early development may improve mental health in children and adolescents (Colizzi et al., 2020). For adolescents to have the capacity to adjust, improve academically and experience emotional well-being, early- life interventions aimed at encouraging parents to be warm and sensitive, and monitor children appropriately, along with effective and consistent discipline practices, play a vital role (Hagan et al., 2012). A direct correlation has been found between child anxiety and the relationship between the child and the parent (Wood et al., 2003). Parenting style is a tool for caregiving which determines parent–child behaviours and is characterised by patterns of control, punishment, warmth and responsiveness (Erozkan, 2012). This tool is used by parents and responded to by children in different contexts and dimensions. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10802-015-0005-z#ref-CR11 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10802-015-0005-z#ref-CR43 11 Since parenting styles play an important role in anxiety disorders, understanding how overprotective parenting exacerbates anxiety symptoms is essential (Baldwin et al., 2007). Potential explanations for this relationship can be found in the theories of Chorpita and Barlow (1998) and Rapee (2001). According to Chorpita and Barlow (1998), authoritarian behaviour and overprotectiveness exhibited by parents can affect children’s sense of control and cause them to perceive events to as threatening, resulting in avoidance of situations. According to Rapee (2001), parental overprotection not only increases the risk of anxiety but the risk is largely amplified by behaviours presented by the child, since these behaviours can trigger overprotection from parents, making this link a transactional exchange. Further, parents struggling with anxiety sensitivity may intervene more often if they witness their children exhibiting symptoms of anxiety, judging these symptoms as problematic. The development of psychopathology may be influenced by parenting marked by overprotection and a parental response characterised by inadequate warmth. Research has shown that early parental interactions, particularly anxiety and anxiety sensitivity, are related to later psychopathology (Barlow, 2002). As a result, the link between mothers’ behaviour and anxiety among children is significant because it suggests that the mother's behaviour directly affects the child's anxiety (Turner et al., 2003). Parents who use anxious parenting behaviours may also reinforce their children's anxiety by modelling and/or reinforcing anxious behaviour as well as control and rejection (Rachman, 1977). The anxiety expressed by parents promotes anxiety-related cognitions, behaviours and symptoms in their children (Askew & Field, 2007; Waters et al. 2012). Theoretical Framework: Parenting Styles The types of parental control identified by Baumrind (1966) are authoritarian, authoritative and permissive. In subsequent literature (Baumrind, 1971; Maccoby & Martin, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10802-015-0005-z#ref-CR41 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10802-015-0005-z#ref-CR3 https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10802-015-0005-z#ref-CR62 12 1983), neglect/rejection was introduced as a fourth type of parental control. Parents' parenting styles are characterised by the attitudes and behaviours they exhibit towards their children, as well as the emotional environment in which they do so (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). The concept of parenting styles was used to conceptualise common behaviours parents put in place for controlling and socialising their children (Baumrind, 1991). Baumrind (1989) and Maccoby and Martin (1983) suggested that two dimensions capture parenting styles, namely, demandingness and responsiveness. Subsequently, four classifications of parenting styles have been developed since Baumrind's three parenting styles. Two types of permissive parenting have been distinguished in the classifications: specifically indulgent, where parents are relatively high on responsiveness but low on demandingness, and neglectful, where parents are low both on responsiveness and demandingness (Steinberg et al., 1991; Steinberg et al., 1994). Woolfolk (2010) describes authoritarian parents as cold and controlling. Their demands are high and their responsiveness is low (Couchenour & Chrisman, 2014). Parents with an authoritarian approach are oriented to obedience; setting boundaries with expectations for their children to obey them without providing reasons as to why. In many cases, they are expected to obey without question (Callahan, 2005). Children's mental health and/or well-being can be affected by the environment parents create. Researchers found that adolescents with negative perceptions of their parents' behaviour have a higher propensity to develop anxiety challenges (Platt et al., 2015). In authoritative parents, limits are set, rules are enforced and children’s behaviour is expected to be mature (Woolfolk, 2010). Their children's concerns are heard, rules are explained and democratic decision-making is followed. In addition to being highly responsive, authoritative parents are also highly demanding (Couchenour & Chrisman, 2014). The authoritative parenting style fosters individuality and independence within limits and allows children more freedom with responsibility when compared to the authoritarian parenting style https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01494920802185447 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01494920802185447 13 (Robbins, 2012, p. 226). Furthermore, they strive to develop assertiveness, social responsibility, self-regulation and cooperativeness in their children (Baumrind, 1991). A child with authoritative parents has fewer behavioural problems than a child with an authoritarian or a neglectful parent (Crosser, 2005; Garcia & Gracia, 2009; Querido et al., 2002) Permissive parents tend to interact less with their children than authoritative parents, and when they do, they tend to let their children control the conversation (Baumrind, 1989, 1991). This communication style is characterised by inadequate demands and expectations for the child which may result in poor social bonds between the parent and the child. On the one hand, permissive parenting is renowned for the provision of emotional support, promotion of independence in decision-making, self-emotional regulation and less imposition of strict rules, while on the other hand, it is characterised by avoidance of discipline and confrontation (Baumrind, 1991). Two types of permissive parenting have been identified – a permissive- indulgent and a permissive-indifferent/neglectful parenting style (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Indulgent parenting exhibits less control but leans more on child-centredness, warmth and responsiveness (Crosser, 2005). This style of parenting is also known a permissive parenting style (Pressley & McCormick, 2007). Children reared by indulgent parents are at the disposal of their warmth and nurturance to the extent of exemption from rules and repercussions when rules are broken (Woolfolk, 2010). Their indulgence entails accepting and fulfilling their children’s desires and impulses (Lichtman, 2011). Consequently, these children display aggression and temper tantrums when they do not get their own way, progressing to hostility, selfishness and rebelliousness in adolescence (Crosser, 2005). Neglectful parenting is found to be adult-centred, unresponsive and with an interaction that is characterised by low control (Berg-Cross, 2001; Crosser, 2005; Kay, 2006). At the core of neglectful parenting is a parent-centred lifestyle, where priority is given to the parent's personal needs instead of the children's (Bornstein & Zlotnick, 2009). Parents who are not https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13674676.2019.1594178 14 engaged in the upbringing of their children can have detrimental effects on their children such as a lack of responsibility and purpose in life, low confidence and low self-image. Moreover, these children will experience mood problems, impulsivity, and be defiant and oppositional towards authority (Sclafani, 2004). Problems such as substance abuse, conduct disorder, and a tendency to become gang members and juvenile delinquents may manifest in adolescence (Harmening, 2010). Conceptual framework Independent variable Authoritative Moderating variable Demanding and responsive Gender Controlling but not restrictive Authoritarian Demanding and not responsive The strict control Dependent variable Anxiety disorder Permissive Responsive but not demanding Lack of parental control 15 Conceptual Framework Conceptual frameworks explain how independent and dependent variables are related. In this study, four categories of parenting styles were the independent variables: authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting, permissive parenting, and neglectful parenting. Anxiety among adolescents in secondary schools was the dependent variable. Adolescent gender is hypothesised to influence the link between the independent variable and the dependent variable. Most studies examining the relationship between parental authority and anxiety in youth have been conducted in Western regions (Pereira et al., 2014) and few studies have been conducted to examine this relationship among children in South Africa (Howard et al., 2016). This relationship has also been understudied in terms of the moderating effects of gender (Gorostiaga et al., 2019). To bridge this gap, the aim of this study was to examine the influence of perceived parenting styles on anxiety symptoms among adolescents, looking particularly at the moderating effect of gender. These factors led to the formulation of the research problem and objectives. Research Problem and Objectives This study aimed to explore the relationship between perceived parenting styles and adolescent anxiety symptoms. In addition, it examined the moderating effect of gender in adolescence on anxiety symptoms and perceived parenting styles. In helping to achieve these aims, the following research objectives were identified: Research Objective 1 To examine the relationship between adolescents’ perceived parenting styles and self-reported anxiety symptoms. 16 Research Objective 2 To explore the moderating effect of gender on the relationship between parenting styles and anxiety symptoms of adolescents. Research Questions The following research questions were formulated to assist in achieving these objectives: 1. What is the relationship between perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms? 2. Does gender moderate the relationship between parenting styles and anxiety symptoms? Research Design and Methodology To address the above research objectives and research questions, a quantitative approach with a non-experimental and cross-sectional survey-type research design was applied (Stangor, 2015). A quantitative research method is a scientific approach that permits the statistical, systematic and objective collection of data (Stangor, 2015). It allows for a study using a large sample group whereby results can be generalised and used to make predictions (Brent & Kraska, 2010). Non-experimental research does not control, manipulate or interfere with the variables of the study (Brent & Kraska, 2010; De Vos et al., 2011; Gravetter & Forzano, 2003). In addition, a correlational research design was used since it determines the strength and direction of relationships between variables (Stangor, 2011). Participants and Sampling Procedure A sample of 153 adolescent learners in Grades 8–11, attending English-medium public schools in Mangaung Motheo District, was obtained. Participants were selected using a non- probability convenience sampling method. This means that participants were not selected randomly from a population, but rather on the basis of convenience, that is, their availability 17 (Martínez-Mesa et al., 2016). The inclusion criteria consisted of adolescents aged 13–17, predominantly from the middle-class community in Motheo district, central Bloemfontein. Participants younger than 13 years and older than 17 were excluded from the study. The participants further included all genders and all races. Ethical Considerations and Data Collection Permission to collect the data was granted by the Ethics committee of the Faculty of Humanities (GHREC) at the University of the Free State (UFS-HSD2021/1600/22), the Department of Education in the Free State Province and the principals of the schools. The signed parental consent forms and signed assent forms from the learners were obtained prior to the commencement of data collection. Ethical principles considered included voluntary participation, anonymity, confidentiality, justice, beneficence, non-maleficence and withdrawal (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioural Research, 1979; Varkey, 2021). A letter elucidating the nature and aim of the study, including the risks, was issued to the parents and the participants. Data were collected using standardised questionnaires, which were administered to adolescents attending English medium schools in Motheo district, central Bloemfontein, during break times, free periods and hall periods. The participants were given the opportunity to ask questions regarding the study. According to the Health Professions Council of South Africa (2016), participating in a research study is voluntary and individuals should be allowed to withdraw at any point during the study. Parents were informed that they had the right to decline permission for their children to participate. In like manner, the participants were informed that they had the right to withdraw at any point. Once parental permission for children to participate in the study had been received, the participants were asked to provide written assent. 18 The participants’ anonymity was respected throughout the process by ensuring that no personal information such as names and surnames was documented throughout the research project. Moreover, the names of the schools were not recorded in the questionnaire. The self-administered questionnaires were in English and made available to the participants in paper-based form. The questionnaires took approximately 30 minutes to complete. The researcher was available to clarify and answer any enquiries from participants. Participants were informed that any identifiable information would be held in strictest confidence and that hard copies of their responses would be stored by the researcher in a locked cabinet in the Department of Psychology for future academic purposes for a period of five years. In addition, participants were informed that the electronic information would be stored in a password-protected computer and an encrypted MSWord file. Moreover, the fundamental principles that are relevant to the ethics of research involving human participants, such as the principles of beneficence, respect for individuals and justice, were upheld. In this regard, participants took part in the research study voluntarily and were given sufficient information regarding the study. The research study was conducted in such a way that no physical, psychological, social and economic harm was caused to the participants. To ensure participants’ well-being they were informed that counselling and support services would be available for participants who experienced any emotional distress during the study; they could contact the South African Depression and Anxiety Group (SADAG) at 0800212323, which is a toll-free number for accessing psychological intervention/counselling. Finally, the ethical principle of justice relates to treating participants objectively, fairly and without bias (Varkey, 2021). This principle was upheld by ensuring that all potential participants had an equal chance of being chosen to participate in the study. 19 Characteristics of the Sample The sample consisted of 153 learners in Grades 8–11 attending English medium schools in the Mangaung Motheo District. A non-probability, convenience sampling method was used (Etikan et al., 2016). The biographical variables involved in the study were home language, ethnic group, gender, age and the primary caregiver. These biographical variables were measured on a nominal scale and their frequencies are presented in Table 1. Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Biographical Variables Biographical variables N % Home Language: English 17 11.1 Afrikaans 4 2.6 IsiXhosa 13 8.5 IsiZulu 5 3.3 Sepedi 1 .7 Sesotho 79 51.6 Siswati 1 .7 Tshivenda 1 .7 Xitsonga 1 .7 Setswana 29 19.0 Other 2 1.3 Ethnic group: Asian 1 .7 20 Black/African 136 88.9 Indian 14 9.2 White 1 .7 Other 1 .7 Gender: Male 51 33.3 Female 100 65.4 Non-binary 1 .7 Other 1 .7 Age: 13–14 93 60.8 15–16 58 37.9 17 2 1.3 Primary caregiver: Both parents 83 54.2 Mother 53 34.6 Father 2 1.3 Grandparents 11 7.2 Others 4 2.6 In the total group, the following languages were represented: English (11.1%), Afrikaans (2.6%), isiXhosa (8.5%), IsiZulu (3.3%), Sepedi (.7%), Sesotho (51.6%), Siswati (.7%), Tshivenda (.7%), Xitsonga (.7%), Setswana (19.0%), and other (1.3%). In addition, the following ethic groups were represented by the following percentage proportions: Asian (.7%), Black/African (88.9%), Indian (9.2%), White (.7%), and Other (.7%). Moreover, of the total 21 group, 65.4% consisted of females, 33.3% of males and .7% were non-binary. With regard to age, 15–16 years was the predominant age at 37.9% followed by 60.8% between the age of 13 and 14, and 1.3% aged 17 years. Lastly, most of the sample had both parents as their primary caregivers at 54.2%, followed by the mother at 34.6%, fathers at 1.3%, grandparents at 7.2%, and others at 2.6%. Measuring Instruments The measuring instruments used to measure the aforementioned variables will now be discussed. The Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) This measuring instrument, which was developed by Buri (1991), was used to measure the participants’ perceived parenting styles. It consists of three subscales: permissive (P: items 1, 6, 10, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 24 and 28); authoritarian (A: items 2, 3, 7, 9, 12, 16, 18, 25, 26 and 29); and authoritative (A: items 4, 5, 8, 11, 15, 20, 22, 23, 27, and 30). The instrument comprises 30 items which are rated using a five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 to 5) where 1 denotes agree, 2 strongly agree, 3 neutral, 4 disagree and 5 strongly disagree information is given by the child (Buri, 1991). The highest score on the authoritarian parenting style subscale indicates the greatest perceived authority of a parent or guardian, while the lowest score indicates the lowest perceived presence of the parent or guardian by the adolescent (Buri, 1989). The highest score on authoritative parenting style means that the adolescent perceives their guardian as both controlling and sensitive (Ditsela & Van Dyk, 2011). A low score in authoritative parenting style means adolescents perceive their guardians as more controlling and demanding (Buri, 1991). A high score in permissive parenting style means that adolescents perceive their parents as highly responsive and less controlling, while a low score means that adolescents perceive 22 their parents as controlling (Buri, 1991). South African research by Kritzas and Grobler (2005) with adolescents in Bloemfontein, using the Parenting Authority Questionnaire (PAQ), reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .74. Similarly, a recent South African study found Cronbach’s alpha values of .80, .73, and .63 for authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive styles respectively (Ditsela & Van Dyk, 2011). The Generalised Anxiety Disorder 7 item (GAD-7) Anxiety symptoms were measured using the seven-item self-report Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) (Spitzer et al., 2006). Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 items are rated on a four-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (nearly always). The seven items are summed to generate a total score that ranges between 0 and 21. The range of symptom categories include the following, together with their scores: 0–4 minimal symptoms; 5–9 mild symptoms; 10–14 moderate symptoms; and 15–21 severe symptoms of anxiety. South African research by Kigozi (2021) among adult patients newly diagnosed with drug-susceptible TB reported a Cronbach’s alpha for the full GAD-7 scale as 0.86. The GAD-7 demonstrated sound psychometric properties and moderate discriminant accuracy among adolescents in Ghana (Adjorlo, 2019). A demographic questionnaire was included. This will be useful in the identification of gender. The reliability coefficients of the respective measuring instruments were calculated using Cronbach's  coefficients and the omega coefficient. This is displayed in Table 2. 23 Table 2 Reliability of the Measuring Instruments Measurement scale -coefficient Parental Authority Questionnaire Permissive .657 Authoritarian .795 Flexible .711 Anxiety .823 Reliability coefficients of 0.7 or higher are deemed acceptable in studies within the social sciences context (Lance et al., 2006). From Table 2 it is clear that with the exception of the permissive parenting style, all the scales have acceptable reliability indices above .7. However, the researcher decided to keep the permissive parenting scale in the statistical analyses that follow. Data Analysis Procedure The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 29 (IBM Corporation, 2022) was employed to analyse the results of the study. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were used to investigate the first research objective, while multiple hierarchical regression analyses were performed to investigate the second research objective, specifically the possible moderator role that gender may play in the relationship between parenting styles and the anxiety levels of adolescents. A moderator variable influences the direction and/or strength of the relationship between the predictor and the criterion variables (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Field, 2013). To determine whether the intervening variable(s) appear as a moderator in the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, multiple hierarchical regression procedures were performed. In the first step, the analysis of single variables is handled. One of the parenting style variables is firstly added to the regression equation to 24 determine its unique contribution to anxiety. During step two, both the independent and intervening variables (gender) are added to the equation. In this way, each of the predictor variables' significant proportional contribution to the prediction of the criterion variable (anxiety) is determined. In the third step, the product term (the correlation value between one of the parenting scales scores and gender) is entered into the equation. If the calculated beta coefficient of the product term (step 3, in this case, between parenting style and gender) is significant, it can be deduced that there is a significant interaction, which is then indicative of a moderator effect (Howell, 2013). Both the 1%- as well as 5%-level of significance were used. To determine a significant interaction effect, a lessened p-value of 0.1 was applied (Aiken et al., 1991). Results In this section the results obtained in the study will be presented and discussed. Firstly, the distribution of data for the relevant variables will presented. Table 3 provides more detail on the distribution of data by means of descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, skewness and kurtosis) for the variables that were used in the analyses. Table 3 Means, Standard Deviations, Skewness and Kurtoses for the Variables Variable Mean Sd* Skewness Kurtosis PAQ Permissive 24.70 5.33 -.077 -.652 Authoritarian 35.25 7.67 -.300 -.397 Flexible 33.67 6.69 -.353 -.259 GAD-7 Anxiety 10.87 5.50 -.101 -.905 Note: *standard deviation 25 According to Peat et al. (2008), a range between -1 and +1 indicates slight skewness, while values between -2 and +2 indicate moderate skewness. For kurtosis, a normal distribution is between -3 and +3 (Brown, 1997). From Table 2 it is clear that for all the relevant variables the skewness as well as kurtosis values fall within the normal limits and can therefore be used to investigate the formulated research objectives. Research Objective 1 To investigate the first research question, Pearson's product moment correlation coefficients were utilised to analyse the relationship between perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms in adolescent learners. The correlation coefficients are presented in Table 4 for the total group. Table 4 Correlations between Perceived Parenting Style Scores and Anxiety Scores for the Total Group (N = 153) Variable 1 2 3 4 Permissive (1) - -.36** .35** -.21** Authoritarian (2) - -.42** .14 Authoritative (3) - .-.27** Anxiety (4) - ** p ≤ .01; *p ≤ .05 A significant negative correlation (on the 1% level) was found between permissive parenting style scores and anxiety symptoms scores, as well as between the authoritative parenting style and anxiety scores for the adolescents. According to Cohen (as cited in Aron et al., 2013), correlation coefficients of .10 and above hold a small effect size, .30 and above a medium effect size, and .50 and above a large effect size. The statistically significant relationships tend to show medium effect sizes and are therefore 26 of medium practical significance for the correlation. To answer the first research objective, results depict that the more adolescents perceive their parents to possess permissive and authoritative parenting styles the less they experience anxiety symptoms. On the other hand, the more they perceive their parents to possess authoritarian parenting style, the more they experience anxiety symptoms. Research Objective 2 To investigate the second research objective, multiple hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to determine the possible moderator role of gender on the relationship between perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms in adolescent learners. The results are presented in Table 5. Table 5 Regression Analysis Predicting Anxiety with Parenting Styles as Independent Variables and Gender as Intervening Variable Variables Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Anxiety Symptoms +Permissive -.205 -.076 -.284 +Gender .421** .138 +Permissive x Gender .300 Model R² .042 .202 .205 Model ΔR² .042 .160 .003 Anxiety Symptoms +Authoritarian .129 .130 .072 +Gender .444** .373 +Authoritarian x Gender .093 Model R² .017 .214 .214 Model ΔR² .017 .197 .000 Anxiety Symptoms +Authoritative -.272 -.237 .493 27 +Gender .425** .1.426* +Authoritative x Gender -1.201* Model R² .074 .253 .282 Model ΔR² .074 .179 .029 ** p ≤ 0.01 * p ≤ 0.05 + Standardised beta coefficients are indicated The result in Table 5 indicates that a statistically significant interaction [R² = .282] effect was found at the 5% level [β = -1.201; t = -2.431; p = .016]. It can therefore be concluded that gender does indeed moderate the relationship between authoritative parenting style and anxiety symptoms in adolescent learners. The nature of this moderator effect (gender) was investigated by calculating the strength and direction of the relationship between authoritative style and anxiety symptoms in both male and female adolescent learners. The regression lines for these two gender groups are represented in Figure 1. [Note: the frequencies for non-binary and other were too low and thus were not included in the analysis.] Figure 1 Regression Lines for the Male and Female Adolescents Respectively, with Authoritative Parenting Style as a Predictor of Anxiety Symptoms 5 10 15 20 20 30 40 A n x ie ty Authoritative style Male Female 28 For the female adolescents, their levels of anxiety symptoms decreased significantly when they perceived their parents parenting style to be authoritative. A significant negative correlation (r = -.366; p = .001) was identified for the female adolescents between authoritative parenting style scores and their anxiety symptoms scores. However, for the male adolescents a very slight increase in anxiety was identified with an increase in their perception of a parenting style which is authoritative. In this case, no statistical significant relationship (r = .091; p = .531) was identified. Thus, only in the case of female adolescents does it appear that an increase in authoritative parenting style will tend to decrease their levels of anxiety symptoms. Discussion The overarching aim of this study was to explore the relationship between perceived parenting styles and adolescent anxiety symptoms. Further, the aim was to explore the moderating effects of adolescent gender on anxiety symptoms elicited by perceived parenting styles. Perceived parenting styles as the predictor variable, anxiety symptoms as the outcome variable, and gender as the moderating variable were measured by means of the Parental Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) (Buri, 1991) and the Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-Item scale (GAD-7) (Spitzer et al., 2006). The reliability score (internal consistency) for these scales and subscales has been proven to be acceptable in studies conducted within a social science context (refer to Table 2) (Lance et al., 2006). Moreover, all variables, skewness and kurtosis (see Table 3) values fell within normal limits. To address the first objective, in the present study correlations were calculated between the various variables in order to ascertain whether a relationship exists between parenting styles as perceived by adolescents and self-reported anxiety symptoms (see 29 Table 4). As hypothesised, the results indicated that a perceived authoritarian parenting style showed a significantly positive relationship with anxiety symptoms. In other words, the more adolescent learners perceive parents as possessing an authoritarian parenting style, the more likely they are to experience anxiety symptoms. Likewise, the more adolescent learners perceive their parents as possessing a permissive or authoritative parenting style, the less likely they are to experience anxiety symptoms. The results concur with a study by Romero-Acosta et al. (2021) which discovered that an authoritarian parenting style positively correlated with anxiety symptoms, whereas authoritative and permissive parenting styles correlated negatively with anxiety symptoms. In an attempt to elucidate these results, we look at Scharf et al. (2016) who asserted that moderately high levels of internalising symptoms (e.g. anxiety and withdrawal) are linked to a parenting style that is characterised by harshness. In this regard, harshness is said to be one of the main characteristics of an authoritarian parenting style, along with scolding, shouting and shaming (Smetana, 2017). Therefore, being exposed to parental verbal aggression has been linked to increased levels of anxiety symptoms (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018; Polcari et al., 2014). By contrast, authoritative parenting has been linked to decreased levels of anxiety symptoms due to its characteristics of warmth and responsiveness (Erozkan, 2012; Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2018). To address the second objective, this study sought to explore the possible effect of gender on the relationship between parenting style and anxiety symptoms in adolescents. The findings were significant, as a significant negative correlation was identified for the female adolescents between authoritative parenting style scores and their anxiety symptoms scores (see Table 5). Conversely, for the male adolescents, only a very slight increase in anxiety was identified with an increase in their perception of a parenting 30 style that is authoritative. In this case, no statistical significant relationship was identified. The findings resonate with Romero-Acosta et al.’s (2021) study where males reported higher anxiety compared to their female counterparts based on the parenting style, particularly authoritative parenting. Gender biased parenting could better explain these results since parents have varying gender based socialization goals (Chao, 2020). Girls mostly perceive their parents to be treating them with warmth, nurturance and responsiveness (authoritative parenting). These are naturally elicited by girls by virtue of their nurturing and warm nature as child bearers, primary sources of attachment and nurturers. This perception is further perpetuated by the socialization and societal expectations. Thus less anxiety would be expected from girls who perceive their parents as authoritative since this is a normal (mainly elicited by girls themselves) way of raising a girl child. On the other hand, boys normally perceive their parents to be treating them with harshness, discipline and less responsiveness (authoritarian parenting). This is normally a way of cultivating manhood and protectiveness in boy children. This is also further perpetuated by socialization and societal expectations. It can then be asserted that when boys experience parents as authoritative, it could elicit an unfamiliar response, in this case increased anxiety because it would be in contrary with the normal or expected way of parenting a boy child (Vyas et al., 2016; Lungarini, 2015). Limitations of the Study The study was shown to have somewhat achieved the aims; however, there were some limitations which will be indicated. The following limitations were identified: Firstly, the sample size of the study was limiting in terms of meeting the full extent of the research objectives. Accordingly, the results of the study are not generalisable to the larger population of South Africa. 31 Secondly, a non-probability, convenience sampling method was applied, thus not allowing an equal chance for everyone in the population to be selected. Thirdly, this research comprised a quantitative, correlational study and causality could not be determined. Because the temporality of association is a strong criterion for causality, cross-sectional studies do not prove causality; however, they do assist in generating causal hypotheses (Makhubela, 2020). Fourthly, all variables were measured using self-report questionnaires completed by the participants, which may have introduced the possibility of bias in the results, given the inherent intentions of the participants. The researcher tried to mitigate this effect by assisting the participants by answering questions together with an assistant who was familiar with the languages used by the participants. Fifthly, participants may have made socially conforming statements that may not actually have reflected their perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms, even though attempts were made to rule this out. Recommendations for Future Research To address the limitations, it is suggested that a larger sample size could yield robust findings that could be generalised to a larger population within the South African context. A larger sample size in a study provides results that are stronger and more reliable because they have smaller margins of error and lower standard deviations. Additionally, larger sample sizes allow for controlling the risk of reporting false negative or false positive findings. Thus, the precision of the results can be ensured by making sample sizes larger. Moreover, a mixed method approach that includes qualitative interviews and the analysis thereof could yield an in-depth experience of the perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms. Finally, longitudinal research studies could be 32 included to explore the lifetime/long-term effects of perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms. By measuring and analysing changes in variables over time, impactful results may be obtained. Contributions of this Study Despite the abovementioned limitations, this study contributes to the existing knowledge base concerning perceived parenting styles and anxiety symptoms among adolescents and the impact of gender on these variables. This research could assist in forming a better understanding of the implications that parenting styles may have for anxiety symptoms. It may also contribute to practice and policy in the following manner: Provide informed interventions. Such interventions should address specific patterns in how anxiety symptoms are influenced by perceived parenting styles. This information can guide the development of more targeted and effective interventions for individuals based on their gender-related vulnerabilities. Tailored parenting programmes. Such programmes should provide insights for designing parenting programmes that are tailored to the needs of both genders. Understanding how parenting styles affect anxiety differently in boys and girls can inform educational initiatives for parents, promoting more adaptive parenting practices. Clinical strategies. Such strategies should inform mental health practitioners about gender-specific considerations in treating anxiety symptoms. Tailored therapeutic approaches that recognise the role of parenting styles can enhance the effectiveness of interventions. 33 Educational policies. Educational policies should emphasise the integration of gender- sensitive mental health education in school curricula. This could raise awareness among students, teachers and parents on mental health, fostering a supportive environment. Parenting support programmes. These programmes should advocate for the development of parenting support programmes within the community. 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