Emerging Adults’ Lived Experiences of the Journey of Spiritual Identity Development 

 

by 

 

Corlia Buys 

 

 

This thesis is submitted in fulfilment of the requirements in respect of the 

PhD qualification in Psychology 

in the 

Department of Psychology 

of the 

Faculty of the Humanities 

at the 

University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 

 

 

Date of submission: November 2021 

 

Supervisor: Prof. L. Naudé 

  



 

ii 

Declaration 

I, Corlia Buys, declare that the doctoral degree thesis that I herewith submit for the Doctoral 

Degree qualification in Psychology at the University of the Free State is my autonomous effort. 

I have not formerly presented this thesis for a qualification at another university.  

I, Corlia Buys, am aware that the copyright of this thesis is held by the University of the Free 

State. 

 

  November 2021 

Corlia Buys  Date 

  



 

iii 

Permission to Submit 

 
 
 
 
 

Reference:  Prof L. Naudé  
    Psychology Building, Room 111  
    University of the Free State  
    BLOEMFONTEIN  
    9301  
Telephone:  051 401 2189  
Email: naudel@ufs.ac.za  
 
 
November 2021  
 

PERMISSION TO SUBMIT  
 
Student: JC Buys 

Student number: 2017559465 

Degree: PhD 

Department: Psychology 

Title: Emerging Adults’ Lived Experiences of the Journey of Spiritual 
IdentityDevelopment  

I hereby provide permission that this dissertation be submitted for examination - in 
fulfilment of the requirements for a PhD in Psychology, in the Department of Psychology, 
Faculty of the Humanities, at the University of the Free State.  
 
I approve the submission for assessment and that the submitted work has not previously, 
either in part or in its entirety, been submitted to the examiners or moderators.  
  
Please see additional information attached.  
 
Kind regards  
 

  
  
Prof L Naudé Promoter  

  
Department of Psychology / Departement Sielkunde 
 Nelson Mandela Drive/Rylaan, Park West/Parkwes, Bloemfontein 9301, South Africa/Suid-Afrika  
PO Box/Posbus 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa/Suid-Afrika, T: +27(0)51 401 2187, www.ufs.ac.za  



 

iv 

Statement by Language Editor 

 P.O. Box 955  
  Oudtshoorn  
  6620  
  Tel (h): (044) 2725099  
  Cell: 0784693727  
  E-mail: dsteyl@polka.co.za  
  
  14 October 2021  
  
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN  
  
STATEMENT WITH REGARD TO LANGUAGE EDITING OF DISSERTATION  
  
Hereby I, Jacob Daniël Theunis De Bruyn STEYL (I.D. 5702225041082), a language 
practitioner accredited with the South African Translators' Institute (SATI), confirm that I have 
edited the language and the technical aspects of the following dissertation:  
  
Title of dissertation: Emerging adults’ lived experiences of the journey of spiritual identity 
development  
  
Author:  Ms Corlia Buys  
  
Yours faithfully  
  
  
  
J.D.T.D. STEYL  
PATran (SATI)  
SATI REGISTRATION NUMBER: 1000219  
 

  



 

v 

Acknowledgements 

I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation to the following persons:  

 My husband, Lourens, and my children: Hannes, Clari, Wilco, and Human. Thank you 

for loving me and encouraging me in fulfilling this dream.  

 My dear mothers, Kotie and Marie, thank you for your prayers.  

 My beloved family and wonderful friends, thank you for your support on this journey.  

 My supervisor, Prof Luzelle Naudé. I shall always be in wonder, thinking about your 

outstanding guidance. It was a wonderful honour to work with you.  

 The participants, who allowed me to walk along barefoot on their spiritual journey for a 

while.  

 Danie Steyl, for the language and technical editing. 

 Our Heavenly Father, the Light and Creator of our meaning. 

  



 

vi 

Abstract 

The aim of the study was to explore and describe emerging adults’ lived experiences of 

spiritual identity development in South Africa. To capture the active, intimate experience of the 

journey, the study focused on the processes involved in forming a spiritual identity. 

Developmental psychologists claim that emerging adulthood is the time in the life span (18-29 

years) when decisions regarding beliefs and values are inevitable. During this developmental 

stage, the reconstruction of the past and imagination of the future provide individuals with a 

sense of the interwoven fibres of meaning.  

A conceptual framework for spiritual identity, consisting of three moral ethics (Shweder 

et al., 1997) were of vital importance. The ethic of autonomy, community, and divinity suggests 

a formulation of the unique ways in which people of various cultures and communities may 

form believes and values. The importance of a cultural-developmental approach (Jensen, 2008) 

alludes to the need for a study in the South African context, marked by both its diversity in 

terms of religions and cultures, and a strong emphasis on scriptural authority as a religious 

country. A South-African study on the identity-divinity link nested in the life stories of 

emerging adults shed light on the authentic experiences regarding autonomy, community, and 

divinity of South African emerging adults, especially against the background of the strong 

religiosity of the country.  

A qualitative research approach rooted in a phenomenological paradigm was undertaken, 

to explore the identity-divinity link in emerging adults in South Africa. An interpretative 

phenomenological approach enabled the researcher to search for the understanding of and 

aspects relating to the experiences of the participants. Seven emerging adults known to be 

dedicated spiritually were selected to participate: five white, one black, and one Indian. Data 

were collected by means of three interviews, using the life story interview and the two questions 

known for assessing moral views: “When you get toward the end of your life, what would you 

like to be able to say about your life, looking back on it?” and “What values or beliefs do you 

think are the most important to pass on to the next generation?” The narratives of the 

participants were analysed and interpreted by means of interpretative phenomenological 

analysis. The focus of the study was the distinct meaning and the significance of the experience 

of the spiritual journey for the specific participant. The interpretative approach required 

understanding of an experience from within. Nested in a distinctive semantic, cultural, and 

relational space, the participants’ relatedness to the world and the essential meaning as it was 



 

vii 

experienced, was important. Inductive interpretation processes were prioritised, and Shweder’s 

ethics of autonomy, community, and divinity served as sensitising concepts.  

With regard to the ethic of autonomy, it was found in this study that spiritual identity 

unfolds within the opportunity to voice a life story. Looking inside and narrating a life story is 

an individualistic act but also calls on the ethic of divinity as a spiritual identity emerges from 

the meaning making and the establishing of a narrative identity. During the process of forming 

a life story, a narrative identity develops. A question like “What are my beliefs” leads to the 

development of a religious or spiritual identity, which manifests “as a persistent sense of self 

that addresses ultimate questions about the nature, purpose, and meaning of life” (Kiesling et 

al., 2006). 

Secondly. it was also clear that spiritual identity grows while emerging adults become 

self-sufficient. The belief that self-sufficiency and independence should be reached before adult 

commitments (Arnett, 2015b) calls on the ethic of autonomy; however, in this study, this belief 

was accompanied by the ethic of divinity. Standing on their own feet and becoming self-

sufficient were going along with the underlying reassurance of being dependent on God. 

Relying on God to help with decision making and becoming independent, these two aspects 

were interwoven. While they were becoming independent, living in a relationship of reliance 

and trust on a deity was typical of the emerging adults in this study.  

Thirdly, determination to find a work becomes an expression of spiritual identity nestled 

in a vocation. The underlying belief is that work and identity should complement each other 

(Arnett, 2015b). The ethic of autonomy is at the root of this belief. In this study, work, calling, 

and identity are inseparable. The participants explained who they were, how God had created 

them to be, and the work or occupation they would be doing, which would be in line with what 

God intended them to be doing. The ethic of divinity is the moral vein underlying this belief. 

Feenstra and Brouwer (2008) found that secure spiritual attachment and greater spiritual vitality 

and commitment were related to greater understanding of vocation.  

Lastly, during emerging adulthood, leisure and enjoyment can be an illustration of 

spiritual identity. The belief that self-focused fun and leisure are vital during this life stage 

(Arnett, 2015b) is underscored by the ethic of autonomy, which was true for most of the 

participants in the study. However, in this study, it was found that enjoyment and leisure are 

also part of how God is. He is joy, and a person experiences joy because of Him. The fruit of 

the Spirit of God is in a person, and it is becoming a person’s identity.  



 

viii 

With regard to the ethic of community, it was found in this study that 1) spiritual identity 

unfolds within a sense of belonging. During emerging adulthood, the importance of being 

embedded in a net of relationships becomes a profound realisation. The imprinting of spiritual 

identity in a relational world has the ethic of community and the ethic of divinity at its heart. 

Secondly, it was found that the finding of a soulmate can enhance spiritual identity 

development. The belief that the basis of marriage should be romantic love (Arnett, 2015b) can 

be informed by the ethic of autonomy or community, but for the participants in this study, 

marriage was also the covenant and safe space for dedicated worshipping and love for the Lord. 

Marriage is seen as a trio or triangle, where God is an important part of the covenant. The ethic 

of divinity is the moral vein underlying this belief. Thirdly starting a family expands spiritual 

identity development. Being a member of a little group and having commitments and 

obligations, responsibilities, and roles in a family call on the ethic of community (Shweder et 

al., 1997; Jensen, 2008), but experiencing the birth of a child as a gift and wonder from a deity 

calls on the ethic of divinity. Lastly, support and guidance on the journey enhance growth. The 

experience of the importance of relational connectedness calls on the ethic of community, but 

the search for existential meaning and the human potential dealing with ultimate purpose calls 

on the ethic of divinity. 

With regard to the ethic of divinity, it was found in this study that spiritual identity is 

imprinted while growing up. Emerging adults start living what they have been taught (Barry et 

al., 2018), especially as it was observed in this study with regard to spirituality – “when it comes 

to the presence of a relationship with a higher power that affects the way in which one operates 

in the world” (Zinnbauer & Pargament, 2005, p. 23). Secondly, suffering becomes meaningful 

within a spiritual identity. Personal growth in their life stories, difficult life experiences as being 

transformative, and the move from suffering to an enhanced state formed the redemptive script 

of their stories (McAdams et al., 2006). Thirdly, faithfulness, humbleness, and awe were part 

of the journey, and were initiated when they were confronted with major life events. Gutierrez 

and Park (2015) found that emerging adults’ belief in God remained stable and suggested that 

emerging adults refine their basic understanding of fundamental worldview constructions when 

they are confronted with major life events. Finally, purpose and meaning are the ultimate part 

of spiritual identity. Culver and Lundquist Denton (2017) also found that perceived closeness 

(attachment) to God was linked to the sense of life purpose in emerging adults. 

This study contributes to the literature on spiritual identity, especially with regard to the 

ethics of autonomy, community, and divinity. Rich contextual information regarding spiritual 



 

ix 

identity was provided. The ethics of autonomy, community, and divinity suggest a formulation 

of the unique ways in which people of various cultures and communities may form beliefs and 

values (Jensen, 2011; Shweder et al., 1997). The South African context is unique in terms of 

religiosity, and the identity-divinity link is prevalent in the spiritual identity journey of 

emerging adults.  

Keywords: emerging adulthood, divinity, spiritual identity, meaning making, South 

African emerging adults 

  



 

x 

Table of Contents 

Declaration ................................................................................................................................. ii 

Permission to Submit ................................................................................................................ iii 

Statement by Language Editor .................................................................................................. iv 

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... v 

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... vi 

List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... xiv 

List of Figures .......................................................................................................................... xv 

Chapter 1: Context of the Study ................................................................................................. 1 

1.1  Setting and Rationale of the Research Study ............................................................... 2 

1.2  Theoretical Perspectives Underpinning the Study ....................................................... 4 

1.3  Overview of Research Design and Methods ................................................................ 6 

1.4  Delineation of Chapters ............................................................................................... 6 

1.5  Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 7 

Chapter 2: Theoretical Grounding of the Study ......................................................................... 8 

2.1  A Developmental Perspective on the Third Decade of Life ........................................ 8 

2.1.1  Understanding Emerging Adulthood .................................................................... 8 

2.1.2  Becoming the Authors of their Lives .................................................................. 13 

2.1.3  The Development of a Philosophy or Meaning in Life ...................................... 14 

2.2  Identity ....................................................................................................................... 17 

2.2.1  Understanding Identity ........................................................................................ 17 

2.2.2  Theoretical Foundation of Identity ..................................................................... 18 

2.2.3  Identity in the Third Decade of Life: Emerging Adulthood ............................... 24 

2.3  Narrative Identity ....................................................................................................... 26 

2.3.1  Understanding Narrative Identity........................................................................ 27 

2.3.2  The Development of a Narrative Identity ........................................................... 28 



 

xi 

2.3.3  Key Concepts of a Narrative Identity ................................................................. 29 

2.3.4  Narrative Identity in Third Decade of Life: Emerging Adulthood ..................... 33 

2.4  Spiritual Identity ........................................................................................................ 34 

2.4.1  Understanding Spiritual Identity ......................................................................... 34 

2.4.2  Theories on Spiritual Identity ............................................................................. 39 

2.4.3  Spiritual Identity in Third Decade of Life: Emerging Adulthood ...................... 44 

2.4.4  The Ultimate Outcome of Spiritual Identity ....................................................... 48 

2.5  Summary of Chapter .................................................................................................. 51 

Chapter 3: Methodology ........................................................................................................... 53 

3.1  Research Rationale, Aim and Questions .................................................................... 53 

3.2  Paradigm, Approach and Design ............................................................................... 53 

3.3  Research Participants and Sampling Procedures ....................................................... 58 

3.4  Procedures of Data Collection ................................................................................... 59 

3.5  Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 63 

3.6  Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................... 65 

3.7  Issues of Trustworthiness ........................................................................................... 67 

3.7.1  Credibility ........................................................................................................... 67 

3.7.2  Transferability ..................................................................................................... 68 

3.7.3  Dependability ...................................................................................................... 68 

3.7.4  Confirmability ..................................................................................................... 69 

3.7.5  Researcher Reflexivity ........................................................................................ 69 

3.8  Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 71 

Chapter 4: Results .................................................................................................................... 72 

4.1  Individual Narratives .................................................................................................. 72 

4.1.1  Elizabeth.............................................................................................................. 72 

4.1.2  Matthew .............................................................................................................. 78 



 

xii 

4.1.3  Paul ..................................................................................................................... 83 

4.1.4  Celia .................................................................................................................... 89 

4.1.5  Annie ................................................................................................................... 94 

4.1.6  David ................................................................................................................. 100 

4.1.7  Kaleb ................................................................................................................. 105 

4.2  Themes Emerged from the Cross-Case Analysis ..................................................... 110 

4.2.1  Looking Within ................................................................................................. 111 

4.2.2  Meaning Making Within Connectedness .......................................................... 116 

4.2.3  Looking up and Reaching out to God ............................................................... 121 

4.3  Summary of Chapter ................................................................................................ 123 

Chapter 5: Discussion ............................................................................................................. 125 

5.1 The Spiritual Identity Journey Described and Explored ............................................. 125 

5.1.1  Spiritual Identity Development Within the Ethic of Autonomy ....................... 127 

5.1.2  Spiritual Identity Development Within the Ethic of Community ..................... 131 

5.1.3  Spiritual Identity Development Within the Ethic of Divinity ........................... 136 

5.2  Summary of Chapter ................................................................................................ 142 

Chapter 6: Key findings, Limitations, and Recommendations .............................................. 143 

6.1  Summary of the Most Notable Findings of the Study ............................................. 143 

6.2  Limitations of the Current Study ............................................................................. 146 

6.3  Recommendations for Future Research ................................................................... 148 

6.4  Summary of the Chapter .......................................................................................... 151 

Reference List ........................................................................................................................ 152 

Appendix A: Interview Questions .......................................................................................... 176 

Appendix B: Informed Consent ............................................................................................. 178 

Appendix C: Participants’ Interviews Transcribed ................................................................ 180 

Appendix D:Title Registration Approval ............................................................................... 307 



 

xiii 

Appendix E: Proof of Ethical Clearance ................................................................................ 308 

Appendix F: Biographic Details ............................................................................................. 309 

Appendix G: Turn it in Report ............................................................................................... 310 

 

 



 

xiv 

List of Tables 

Table 1 Psychosocial Development (Erikson, 1968) ............................................................ 19 

Table 2 Identity Status Model (Kroger & Marcia, 2011) ..................................................... 21 

Table 3 Participants in the Study .......................................................................................... 59 

 

  



 

xv 

List of Figures 

Figure 1 Cultural-Development Template (Jensen, 2008) ................................................ 41 

Figure 2 The Developmental Trajectory of Standards (Erikson, 1935-1985) ................... 49 

Figure 3 Elizabeth’s Spiritual Journey .............................................................................. 73 

Figure 4 Matthew’s Spiritual Journey ............................................................................... 80 

Figure 5 Paul’s Spiritual Journey ...................................................................................... 85 

Figure 6 Celia’s Spiritual Journey ..................................................................................... 90 

Figure 7 Annie’s Spiritual Journey ................................................................................... 95 

Figure 8 David’s Spiritual Journey ................................................................................. 101 

Figure 9 Kaleb’s Spiritual Journey .................................................................................. 106 

Figure 10 Three Themes from the Cross-Case Analysis ................................................... 111 

Figure 11 Looking Within ................................................................................................. 112 

Figure 12 Meaning Making Within Connectedness .......................................................... 116 

Figure 13 Looking up and Reaching out for Meaning ...................................................... 121 

Figure 14 The Three Moral Ethics .................................................................................... 126 

Figure 15 Spiritual Identity Development Within the Ethic of Autonomy ....................... 127 

Figure 16 Spiritual Identity Development Within the Ethic of Community ..................... 132 

Figure 17 Spiritual Identity Development Within the Ethic of Divinity ........................... 137 

 



 

1 

Chapter 1: Context of the Study 

There is a brilliant creation of light out there, but here as well, within. The divine becomes 

visible in human reality in an inherent sacredness. A landscape of light beyond existence but 

inside of being might be mystifying. The combination of spirituality and identity in one concept 

invites further exploration. A journey is an undertaking that involves a path or a way and refers 

to transformation, meaning, and commitment, from one point to another, while experiencing all 

the ups and downs of life. A journey supposes excitement, joy, hardships, and extraordinary 

moments. The journey of spiritual identity development encompasses experiences of human 

beings and the notion of an inner life, meaning, purpose, connectedness, and transcendence. 

The description of this journey takes the route to the finale and ultimate development of the 

human being who becomes progressively mindful, alert, intuitive, and responsible to and for 

others. The destiny echoes a meaningful existence. The trajectory of development encompasses 

beautiful milestones, and along the way, individuals call on fundamental cultural beliefs. 

A momentous part of the journey of spiritual identity is going through a distinct 

landscape. Erikson (1964) defines this landscape as a moral-aesthetic plane, and the passing is 

during young adulthood (Hoare, 2009). Emerging adulthood is a time during life span 

development when the search for significance in life becomes prominent (Arnett et al., 2001). 

Spiritual identity as a “way of being and experiencing that comes about through awareness of 

a transcendent dimension in that is characterized by certain identifiable values in regard to self, 

life, and whatever one considers to be the Ultimate” (Negru & Mustea, 2009, p. 54) becomes 

eminent. A web of relationships informs spiritual identity development through the typical ‘rise 

and fall’ of life (King et al., 2017; Ray & McFadden, 2001). The journey entails the steering 

through tough times and meaning making processes relying on religious beliefs and principles, 

while coping with loss and disappointments (Abo-Zena & King, 2021). The aim of this study 

was to explore and describe South African emerging adults’ experiences of spiritual identity 

development.  

The foyer of a building often urges further exploration. The goal of this chapter is to offer 

an outline of this qualitative research to invite the reader into this study. The context and 

rationale of the study are discussed, followed by a description of the theoretical perspectives 

supporting the study. Subsequently, the research design and methodology are dealt with. 

Finally, the chapters in this study are presented, giving a clear framework of what to expect in 

the following chapters. 



 

2 

1.1 Setting and Rationale of the Research Study 

This study is situated in the South-African context. South Africa is known as a deeply 

religious country and harbours various unique cultural settings for development. A study on 

how these settings affect development will enable us to understand differences and similarities 

with other settings (Abubakar & Van de Vijver, 2017). Spirituality nestles in the South African 

life philosophy. The need for a deeper meaning of life and for a Supreme Being is eminent in 

the lives of the people of South Africa (Masango, 2006). Cilliers (2008) postulates that African 

spirituality is based on social and philosophical African concepts, namely ubuntu (community), 

ubunye (holism), and amandla (vitality). The heart of ‘ubuntu’ declines the distinction between 

the spiritual and the material, the sacred and the secular, and defines life as sacred. A person 

being a person through other persons is the exact interpretation of ‘ubuntu’. Ubunye refers to 

the holistic idea in the words “we are one” and relates to the family or the group brought 

together through religious and cultural phenomena. Amandla means power, energy, and life, 

and in the African spirituality, it is connected to divine power. This divine power has an image 

of a supreme, powerful God. The interconnectedness of the person, the group, and the cosmos, 

with their sovereign God provides the basis for a peaceful life in African spirituality.  

The Christian tradition in South Africa echoes some of the ideas of the African spirituality 

in the concepts of koinonia, kingdom of God, and God. The notion of koinonia refers to a divine 

hospitality, the love for strangers, and a body of community. A system of relationships or a 

body of people exists on a ‘transcendental’ level. The people are one body because of Christ in 

their midst. In the kingdom of God, all of life is important and meaningful. Spirituality is not 

something far away, but very near in the Christian tradition. The kingdom of God dwells in 

every fibre of being. In the Christian understanding, God is powerful but compassionate and 

showed his vulnerability by giving up his power (in the crucifixion of Jesus) (Cilliers, 2008).  

Spirituality in the Islamic religion is demonstrated in the actions of the individual through 

trust in God. The awareness of the origin of the universe, humility, worshipping, and seeking 

the satisfaction of a deity is part of Islam spirituality. The presence of a relationhip with Allah 

that affects the individual’s self worth, sense of meaning, and connectedness with others define 

spirituality (Ruhhaniyyat) in Islam. The relational quality of spirituality is understood in Islam 

to be a core theme that comprises beliefs, rituals, daily living behaviours and knowledge 

(Hussain, 2020).  



 

3 

The association between the person, the group, the cosmos, and their sovereign God 

provides the basis for a peaceful life in spirituality in South Africa. The tangent points between 

African spirituality, Christianity, and Islamic spirituality provide a fascinating space for 

understanding spirituality in South Africa.  

Spirituality is defined as the search for meaning, purpose, value, hope, love, and for some 

God (Swinton et al. 2011). On the one hand is the notion of meaning making and value 

orientation. On the other is a transcendental relationship. Mayer and Walach (2018) explain 

spirituality as part of human experience in an embodied sense and not just a product of thoughts, 

attitudes, or cognition. Spirituality influences physical embodiment, emotions, and cognition. 

For some, the transcending element of spirituality entails transcendence as an outreach into 

nature or the community, and for others, towards a reality “beyond”. For some, it is a deity or 

a personal god, and for others a philosophical notion of reality. In both the African, the Islam 

and the Christian spirituality, the search for meaning and purpose and the relationship with a 

deity are interwoven. Exploring and describing the experiences of South African emerging 

adults’ spiritual identity development will cast light on spirituality on the southern end of 

Africa.  

Developmental psychologists claim that emerging adulthood is the time in the life span 

(18-29 years) when decisions regarding beliefs and values are inevitable (Arnett et al., 2014; 

Arnett et al., 2001). Around the world, emerging adults share similarities demographically and 

developmentally. They enter established adult roles in their late twenties and focus on identity 

explorations, but their experiences are likely to vary by cultural context (Arnett & Tanner, 

2011). In many fields of psychology, research on emerging adulthood has taken place in the 

United States (Arnett & Brody, 2008). In developing countries, a great opportunity exists for 

research to find the distinctive features of emerging adulthood, especially by using qualitative 

methods. The expectation is that there are many forms that the experience of this life stage can 

take depending on culture, social class, and religion (Arnett, 2015b). It is important to explore 

and describe this deviation (Arnett, 2006, 2007). Emerging adults’ transition can be seen as a 

‘recentring’ away from supported dependence and facing the developmental challenge of 

becoming guides for themselves (Arnett & Tanner, 2011).  

Understanding the meaning making processes of emerging adults in the South African 

context is imperative. During this developmental stage, the reconstruction of the past and 

imagination of the future provide individuals with a sense of the interwoven fibres of meaning 



 

4 

in life (McAdams & McLean, 2013). This internalised, integrative, and ever unfolding story of 

the self, starts forming a pattern of consistency through time, from past to present to future, 

resulting in a narrative identity (McAdams, 2008a; McAdams & McLean, 2013). This study 

followed the development route of emerging adults, through the development of a narrative 

identity and meaning making to the unfolding of a spiritual identity.  

1.2 Theoretical Perspectives Underpinning the Study 

The ultimate goal of a spiritual journey is the experience of being connected to or part of 

what is divine and pure (Jensen, 2011). According to Sinnott (2002), spirituality describes “the 

personal relation to the sacred or transcendent, [it] informs other relationships and the meaning 

of one’s own life” (p. 199). Spiritual identity is formed in the existential search for utmost 

meaning and purpose through a distinctive understanding of the sacred (Wink & Dillon, 2002). 

Erikson (1968) regards spirituality as an important aspect of establishing a mature identity 

(Russo-Netzer & Mayseless, 2014). He refers to the transcendent values of hope, purpose, 

loyalty, love, and wisdom as the spiritual and ethical centre of the self; essential to the 

favourable resolution of the crises of various life stages (Kiesling & Sorell, 2009).  

The journey of spiritual identity development includes patterns of change and turning 

points, but also of continuity and consistency. Finding meaning is often a product of losing 

meaning. A turning point or awakening can redirect a person’s spiritual development, and times 

of hardship and pain or striking realisations can influence spiritual development deeply 

(Klenke, 2007). Poll and Smith (2003) developed a four-stage model in which spiritual identity 

develops across the life span through the integration of spiritual experiences, from pre-

awareness to awakening to recognition and, finally, integration. Kiesling et al. (2006) focus on 

important moments in the development of a spiritual identity and emphasise the importance of 

a deep sense of connection with a deity, the profound role of significant others (a community) 

in meaning making, as well as the intentional nurturing and protection of a spiritual identity 

through day-to-day practices (Kiesling et al., 2006). 

Shweder et al. (1997) developed a conceptual framework for spiritual identity, consisting 

of three moral ethics of crucial importance: autonomy, community and divinity. The ethic of 

autonomy focuses on people as individuals (being a person), and values are developed around 

the well-being of the individual. Responsibility for oneself is the important key. The ethic of 

community focuses on loyalty and respect toward others. The concern for the group is the key 

in decision-making. The fulfilment of duties and the protection of the social group is the moral 



 

5 

goal (Jensen, 2011). The ethic of divinity describes a person as a spiritual being. Beliefs and 

values are hinged on conventional religious authorities, and guidance comes from religious 

texts. The moral orientation is to attain purity and become connected to or part of the divine 

(Jensen, 2011; Mustea et al., 2010). Awe, humility, and faithfulness are key virtues in the 

Divinity-oriented code (Jensen, 2008; Jensen, 2011). The ethics of autonomy, community and 

divinity suggest a formulation of the unique ways in which people of various cultures and 

communities may form beliefs and values (Jensen, 2011; Shweder et al., 1997). Social class, 

education, and age determine the employment of the three ethics (Mustea et al., 2010). The 

three ethics model was used in studies in Brazil, Israel, Japan, New Zeeland, the United 

Kingdom, Denmark, Finland, Philippines, India, and the United States (Arnett & Jensen, 2015; 

Jensen, 2011). While the use of the three ethics is universal, the prominence differs in diverse 

societies (Jensen, 2011). Jensen (2008) emphasises the importance of a cultural-developmental 

approach. This alludes to the need for a study in the South African context, marked by both its 

diversity in terms of religions and cultures, and a strong emphasis on scriptural authority in a 

religious country (where, for example, in the 2013 South African general household survey, 

84% of South Africans reported to be Christian). A South African study on the identity-divinity 

link, nested in the life stories of emerging adults, can shed light on the authentic experiences 

regarding autonomy, community and divinity of South African emerging adults, especially 

against the background of the strong religiosity of the country. 

Arnett (2015b) identified four beliefs that are significant as a basis of the life stage of 

emerging adulthood: the belief that self-sufficiency and independence should be reached before 

adult commitments; the belief that the basis of marriage should be romantic love; the belief that 

work and identity should complement each other; and the belief that self-focused fun and leisure 

are vital during this life stage. The individualistic nature of the four beliefs falls under the ethic 

of autonomy (Jensen, 2008; Arnett, 2015b). The ethic of autonomy is most noticeable in the 

United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zeeland (Arnett, 2015b). In 

the Asian countries of Japan and South Korea, the interest and well-being of the group take 

preference over the interest of the individual (Arnett, 2015b). The question is which beliefs will 

be present in South Africa? Is emerging adulthood a time to learn to stand alone and accept 

responsibility for themselves, or do they stay with their parents and rely on them for decision 

making? Do emerging adults in South Africa have a soulmate ideal of marriage? Is the idea of 

marriage to find love, or is there a higher plan? Do people live for the ideal of finding a job they 

love and link it with their identity, or do they see their work as a calling from above? Are they 



 

6 

focused on duties and obligations, or do they see this time of life as fun and exciting? Is there 

a moral of autonomy underneath their beliefs, or perhaps the ethic of divinity? 

1.3 Overview of Research Design and Methods 

Postmodern perspectives and narrative approaches view identity as dynamic and question 

the notion of a stable, consistent identity (Russo-Netzer & Mayseless, 2014). To capture the 

active, intimate experience of the journey of developing spiritual identity, this study focused on 

the processes involved in forming a spiritual identity. Thus, the aim of this study was to explore 

and describe South African emerging adults’ experiences of spiritual identity development. The 

following research questions guided the process:  

 How is spiritual identity formed?  

 What are the contributing factors in the process?  

 What does a spiritual identity look like?  

The developmental phase of emerging adulthood offers a window period to access some of this 

processes. South Africa with its strong religiosity provides a playfield and rich material to 

describe and understand the courses of action on this journey.  

1.4 Delineation of Chapters 

This research study is organised as follows:  

In Chapter 2, the reader is accompanied through the academic world. A theoretical 

grounding of the study is offered. A life span perspective was followed in this study; therefore, 

the reader will encounter firstly a developmental perspective on the third decade of life. The 

context in which the developmental stage of emerging adulthood is understood is reviewed, and 

the focus is specifically on emerging adults as the authors of their lives as well as the intricacy 

of developing a philosophy or meaning in life during this phase. Secondly, the focus is on 

identity, the theoretical foundation of identity, and identity in the third decade of life. Thirdly, 

narrative identity is investigated by providing key concepts of narrative identity and narrative 

identity in the third decade of life. The beauty of looking back on life, looking forward, and 

finding meaning peaks in the last part of this chapter. Spiritual identity is explored by 

considering theories on spiritual identity as well as spiritual identity in the third decade of life. 

The ultimate outcome of spiritual identity completes the chapter.  



 

7 

Chapter 3 unfolds into a comprehensive discussion of the research rationale, aim, and 

questions. This is followed by the paradigm, approach, and design. The loom, the fibre, and the 

design are arranged for the weaving process. Research participants and sampling procedures 

are explained, followed by an examination of procedures of data collection and data analysis. 

Lastly, trustworthiness and more specifically credibility, transferability, dependability, 

confirmability, and researcher reflexivity are addressed. Everything is set up to detect the 

mystery of a sense of the interwoven fibres of meaning in life (McAdams & McLean, 2013).  

In Chapter 4, the results of the study are presented in a unique display. Firstly, the 

individual narratives are discussed. For each narrative, a brief description of the participant is 

followed by a reflection of the researcher, and next, the themes identified are discussed. The 

chapter concludes with a comparison of commonalities and differences in the themes, and the 

noteworthy themes across the cases are presented.  

Chapter 5 offers a discussion of the themes identified in the cross-case analysis by 

referring to existing literature. The findings of the study are understood and interpreted through 

standing literature based on spiritual identity. The present study nestles in the existing world of 

academic findings.  

As a grand finale, the most significant findings of this study, together with the limitations 

of the study and recommendations for future research, are presented in Chapter 6.  

1.5 Chapter Summary 

The aim of this chapter was to offer a short and general introduction as an invitation to 

the reading of this research study. The context and theoretical perspectives underpinning the 

study were mentioned briefly. The research design, methods, and ethical considerations were 

introduced. The chapter concluded with an outline of the chapters to encourage the reader for 

the expedition. The following chapter is an entering into the academic world and the exploration 

of existing literature as a theoretical grounding for the study.  

 

 

  



 

8 

Chapter 2: Theoretical Grounding of the Study 

This chapter provides an academic foundation for the study. The focus will be on the third 

decade of life. During this developmental phase, the forming of an identity, specifically a 

narrative identity as well as a religious or spiritual identity, becomes evident. Understanding 

the thoughts on identity and narrative identity and especially the development of the constructs 

during emerging adulthood years will culminate in an understanding of spiritual identity and 

the importance of this very personal and unique part of human development during this 

developmental stage. 

2.1 A Developmental Perspective on the Third Decade of Life 

In the following section, a conceptualisation of emerging adulthood is provided first, by 

unpacking these years. Secondly, the focus is on how identity is formed during the third decade 

of life, focusing on the identity markers like the authorship of emerging adults by telling their 

own unique stories and becoming the authors of their lives. Meaning is made, and finally, the 

focus is on spirituality. First, the aim is to understand the concept of emerging adulthood.  

2.1.1 Understanding Emerging Adulthood 

“Within the life span, the third decade represent what one author has called ‘the stem cell 

of human development, the pluripotent moment when any of several outcomes is possible’. It 

is an important moment in which beliefs, perspectives, and habits are being etched within the 

soft wax of life” (Setran & Kiesling, 2013, p. 10).  

Emerging adulthood is described as a segment in the growth proses to maturity that is of 

uttermost importance, especially with regard to the forming of spiritual development. 

Psychologist Jeffrey Jensen Arnett (2000) proposed a new theory of development from the late 

teens through the twenties as emerging adulthood. Neither adolescence nor young adulthood, 

he described emerging adulthood as theoretical and empirically different. Relative 

independence from social responsibilities and normative anticipations marks this period in life. 

Arnett (2000) describes the late teens through the mid-twenties as the period in life when the 

cognitive process by which the individual decides on and commits to a particular course of 

action – a purposive striving – is most evident. It is a time of significant change and importance 

(Arnett, 2000).  



 

9 

At first, emerging adulthood was described as the developmental period from late 

adolescence throughout the twenties, from the age of 18 to 25 years (Arnett, 2000). Since the 

end of adolescence (around 18 years) and the entry to adulthood in high-income countries tend 

to be so long, the new life stage between that of adolescence and of young adulthood – emerging 

adulthood – now described as from the age of 18 years to about the age of 29 years (Arnett et 

al., 2014) came to being. The changeover to adulthood is longer and not only a fleeting 

transition. Traditional milestones, for example entering a secure work and settling into marriage 

and parenthood, are reached later in life (Arnett, 2014). Emerging adulthood is now defined as 

a marked phase of development and is not merely an intermediary period in life (Arnett, 2007). 

Exploration and experimentation of a variety of opportunities in life are characteristic of this 

time in life (Arnett et al. 2001).  

The theory of emerging adulthood was based on a series of interviews with people aged 

18-29 years in the USA in 1998. Arnett (2016) proposed five features or themes distinct to this 

life stage: instability (changing plans, residences, partners, etc.); self-focus (attending largely 

to one’s own wants, needs, and pleasures); possibilities or optimism (an optimistic and wide 

open view of one’s future); feeling ‘in between’ (knowing that one is no longer an adolescent, 

but not yet feeling like an adult); and identity explorations (figuring out what one wants to do 

with one’s life).  

Growing through adolescence and completing high school emerging adults attain physical 

and sexual maturity and undertake different educational and occupational arrangements. Work, 

study, and a combination of work and study are typical of this life stage. Not yet settled, most 

of them understand themselves to be in a phase of life that is experimental, free, not final, and 

quite liberated. On the road to independence, they are heading to stand on their own two feet 

(Setran & Kiesling, 2013, Arnett, 2015b). Emerging adults experience a series of love 

relationships and job changes before making long-lasting decisions. Considering the five 

features described by Arnett (2000) is one way of understanding emerging adulthood.  

Firstly, it is a period of heightened instability, changing jobs, moving, and rewriting life 

plans (Arnett et al., 2014). The need for educational and geographical flexibility exists, and 

choices serve as gateways to future lifestyle, meaning, and mission (Setran & Kiesling, 2013). 

They live a life of instability and may experience a string of love relationships (Arnett, 2000). 

The time of transition and uncertainty is potentially stressful (Barry et al., 2010). The need for 

guides to direct and encourage their faith journeys and support their growth exists. They tend 



 

10 

to be passionate and idealistic. During this developmental phase of opportunities and challenges 

variability and unpredictability appeal for permanence and solidity.  

Self-focus is the second feature of emerging adulthood. It is a time when people have the 

fewest social responsibilities, roles and obligations to others; therefore, they are inclined to be 

self-focused and wrapped up in themselves. Commitment and obligations to the romantic 

partner or employer comes in the long-term occupation and partnership (Arnett et al., 2014).  

Thirdly, they have a feeling of being in-between. Emerging adults have transcended 

adolescence and have not yet arrived in the adult world. They experience themselves as being 

on the way to adulthood but not there yet. The markers of ‘accepting responsibilities for oneself’ 

and ‘making independent decisions’ are not achieved. Slowly and progressively, they are 

becoming adults (Arnett et al., 2014).  

The fourth feature is the number of possibilities in emerging adulthood: The ability to 

consider life’s countless possibilities is greater than it will be at any other stage (Arnett, 2000). 

Choices and options with regard to careers, health, leisure, relationships, and politics can appear 

bewildering and opposing or can be faced with boundless optimism. It can be a time of potential 

vulnerability, mixed emotions and struggle, as young adults are gradually more subjected to 

new challenges and life experiences (Webster et al., 2018). Without clear direction, emerging 

adults can experience fear and depression, and some may seek distraction and relief from 

realities especially by seeking entertainment in addiction or by engaging in fantasy. The 

pressure of developing a life plan in the absence of support can be overwhelming. A growing 

incidence of mental health conditions like substance abuse and major depression is noted during 

this time (Nelson & Padilla-Walker, 2013). The necessity to manage stress can bring them back 

to their spirituality and religiosity (Barry et al., 2010). Determining their own beliefs and values 

is most important to emerging adults in demonstrating their changeover to adulthood, more 

important than role transitions such as completing education and entering into marriage (Arnett 

et al., 2001).  

The fifth and last feature is the notion that emerging adulthood is a developmental phase 

for identity explorations: Exploring and investigating, together with experimenting and trying 

out, are significant parts of emerging adulthood in work and in caring for others, but may also 

be fundamental to the development of wisdom during emerging adulthood (Webster et al., 

2018). Erikson (1950, 1968) regarded the development of a philosophy or worldview as 

interwoven with identity development and exploration (Arnett et al., 2001). Initially, 



 

11 

experimentation and exploration might occur in adolescence, but today it arises mainly during 

the developmental phase of emerging adulthood (Arnett & Jensen, 2002). Marcia (1966) 

describes exploration as part of identity formation in adolescence. The focus of exploration 

during emerging adulthood tends to be on self-improvement and becoming autonomous (Arnett 

& Jensen, 2002). During emerging adulthood, they try out a variety of probabilities of what 

kind of person to be and what kind of life to live. They are enthusiastically occupied in forming 

an identity and exploring personal meaning (Arnett & Jensen, 2002). Intensified self-

exploration regarding beliefs and values, as well as those regarding religiosity and spirituality, 

is experienced during emerging adulthood (Barry et al., 2010). 

Being in between childhood and adulthood also brings a sense of uncertainty during wide 

possibilities for the future. The need to settle on a coherent sense of ‘who I am’ depends on 

different social and cultural settings. Erikson (1968) reasoned that modern societies offer an 

extended period (psychosocial moratorium) for the discovery of different identity choices for 

young people, without fundamental outcomes for making cautious and changing patterns of 

commitment (Pratt & Matsuba, 2018). Arnett (2007) argues that this sort of lenience may have 

its costs, but it can also be beneficial to an individual’s growth and development (Pratt & 

Matsuba, 2018).  

Although Arnett (2000) focused on opportunities for growth and not on potential 

inabilities to settle down into adult roles, alternative understandings of the time between the 

late teens through the twenties emerged. Critique against the proposed emerging adulthood 

conception of development for this period comes from Côté (2014), who argues that the concept 

lacks universality. Côté (2014) argues that this conception of emerging adulthood may be 

applied only to higher socio-economic status samples in modern cultures that have 

opportunities to choose an extended moratorium in exploring identity development. Although 

some parts in a society may explore, this does not characterise early adulthood for the majority 

in any cultural context (Côté & Bynner, 2008). Large parts of the population in all countries go 

to work for economic reasons immediately after completing secondary education. Self-focus 

and possibilities are individualistic features, reflecting Western values for independence and 

autonomy. Syed and Mitchell (2013) found that cultural norms in large parts of Latin America, 

the Caribbean, the Middle East, and Asia encourage young people to obey their parents’ wishes 

well into adulthood. The experience of emerging adulthood in these cultural contexts reflects 

behaviour that is not normative and development that is not universal in some non-Western 

cultures. Although most of the research on emerging adulthood took place on Americans, Arnett 



 

12 

(2015b) envisions the importance of research worldwide to investigate the application of 

cultural beliefs to emerging adults and to investigate the universality of the developmental 

phase. 

Critiques regarding the delay in development focus on the darker picture of the dangerous 

behaviours that are most prevalent during these years (Arnett, 2016). Job availability has 

declined and lengthened the transition to adulthood for many young people (MacMillan, 2007). 

Young people may be lost and trapped in a no man’s land between adolescence and adulthood, 

and risky behaviours may remain prevalent further into the life span. Risky behaviour such as 

drug and alcohol abuse, casual sexual encounters, and dangerous driving peak between the ages 

of 18 and 25 (Bogle, 2008, Fell et al., 2010). For Arnett (2016), the unique features of emerging 

adulthood centre around identity, and a practical and consistent sense of identity can protect 

against risky behaviours (Schwartz et al., 2011). A sense of self-direction and an ‘inner 

compass’ is needed for the emerging adult to make effective choices in the absence of external 

guidance (MacMillan, 2007).  

Barry and Abo-Zena (2014) warn their readers to keep the diversity of experiences among 

individuals during emerging adulthood in mind. Emerging adulthood is regarded as a time in 

the life span that is full of diverse pathways of successes and struggles. The existence of a life 

stage, leading to an implicit treatment of people in this period as a homogenous group will be 

inaccurate, hence the magnificent diversity of experiences (Barry & Abo-Zena, 2014).  

In South Africa, a developing country, the diversity of socio-economic backgrounds and 

cultures presented a colourful spectrum, and the current study casts light on the importance and 

need of the conception of emerging adulthood in this country. South Africa houses individuals 

from unique socio-economic, cultural and linguistic contexts. With 11 official languages, most 

of the people are English second language speakers. High levels of poverty and unemployment 

are prevalent. Until now, historic and economic ties with Europe have signified a unique blend 

of linguistic and cultural diversity. Most of the South African population belongs to cultures 

and linguistic and socio-economic circumstances that are unique. During apartheid, black 

children were constrained by limited resources. Since 1994, new educational policies and fairer 

allocation of resources allow black and Indian youth better opportunities. South African has 

experienced considerable socio-economic transformations over the last 26 years. Young men 

and women in South Africa are positioning themselves in the world of identity development 

against a background of cultural diversity and change, collective guilt about Apartheid, and 



 

13 

leaning towards Western values and beliefs. In high-income countries, the transition from 

adolescence to adulthood changes from events such as leaving home to the accomplishment of 

psychological pointers such as accountability for oneself and making autonomous decisions. It 

is important to describe the prime psychological challenges of becoming the authors of the 

South African emerging adults’ lives within the wide spectrum of diversity.  

2.1.2 Becoming the Authors of their Lives 

Emerging adulthood is a life stage in which identity development deepens during the 

important psychological challenge, as emerging adults become the authors of their lives. 

Emerging adulthood provides the first-in-a-lifetime opportunity to create an integrative story 

for one’s life (McAdams, 2013). Erikson (1958) suggests that the search for identity is 

particularly evident during these years in the human life span as evident in his psychobiography 

on Martin Luther, where he describes Luther’s identity-defining time roughly between the ages 

of 20 and 30 (McAdams, 2013).  

The life story model of identity states that people find unity and purpose by constructing 

internalized and evolving narratives of the self (McAdams et al., 2001). Setran and Kiesling 

(2013) describe emerging adulthood as an important ‘hinge’ moment. Thinking about past, 

present, and future experiences can provide a holistic sense for the emerging adult. 

Remembering, attending, and envisioning are also used as the cornerstones of a proposed 

framework in the mentoring relationship with emerging adults, as emerging adults are 

constructing life stories and finding their identities. The way in which they have made sense of 

the different experiences and ‘turning points’ (critical moments, high and low points) of which 

the life story is composed and the overall comprehensibility and valence that describe the 

distinctive nature of the story are valuable in understanding the unique person. Interpretation of 

critical moments or turning point events, particularly of events of loss and trauma, serves as an 

index of the person’s growth. The skill to present a negative memory as a positive turning point 

or learning experience is associated closely with well-being and with being happy with one’s 

life (McAdams et al., 2001). Turning points that are framed in terms of overcoming obstacles, 

self-direction, and personal growth tend to be linked with higher levels of psychological well-

being (Bauer & McAdams, 2004). Benefit finding is like sense making and is a type of meaning-

focused coping whereby positive emotions create positive meaning (Folkman, 2008). In the 

process of benefit finding, individuals re-evaluate the experience and try to identify the 

significance of the negative events (Gao et al., 2014). The story about who they are, how they 



 

14 

came to be, and where they are going next is defined as their narrative identity. The effort of 

the emerging adult to construct a meaningful story for life constructs a sense of identity 

(McAdams, 2013). In the process, they develop meaning and a philosophy in life.  

2.1.3 The Development of a Philosophy or Meaning in Life  

The search for meaning in life in emerging adulthood is in contrast with the presence of 

meaning in life in later life stages (Stegar et al., 2009). The search for meaning is a most 

important developmental task for emerging adults (Mayseless & Keren, 2014). Major life 

transitions that are prominent in emerging adulthood (changing of networks, schools, locations) 

are often experienced as stressful and involve questioning of values and beliefs. Meaning is 

formed in relation to highly significant life events. The meaning-making process stems out of 

the fundamental need for self-integration. Answering questions like “What does this event mean 

to me in the overall context of my life-story?” and “Does it influence my goals and on the 

process of developing a sense of who I am?” leads to deeper understanding of the self and 

greater wisdom. The development of wisdom during major changes in the developmental phase 

of emerging adulthood requires the questioning of values and beliefs, is often demanding, and 

brings about the process of meaning making (Webster et al., 2018). Emerging adults have an 

increased ability to make meaning, and the diversity and non-homogeneous experiences of 

individuals serve as an invitation to more studies on their religiosity and spirituality (Hertzog, 

2015).  

Wisdom is needed in making meaningful choices and in the commitment to core beliefs 

and values in a time of great life changes. The building blocks for wisdom are developed during 

adolescence and young adulthood (Richardson & Pasupathi, 2005). Emerging adulthood is 

described as fertilised soil for wisdom-related characteristics and the foundation for wisdom-

related knowledge to emerge (Webster et al., 2018). With regard to cognition, experience-based 

knowledge, abstract reasoning, and self-reflective thinking are developed now. With regard to 

personality, comfort with uncertainty, openness to experience, and identity develop. With 

regard to cognition-personality, perspective taking and moral reasoning are developed now 

(Webster et al., 2018).  

Physiological processes and development during emerging development prepare the way 

for meaning making and the development of a philosophy in life. Developmental processes 

linked with emerging adulthood enable a new level of engagement with religiousness and 

spirituality. These processes are the increased ability for abstract thinking, meta-cognition, and 



 

15 

internalisation. The brain matures to a notably large extent over the course of adolescence into 

the early twenties. Myelination of the prefrontal cortex and changes in the limbic system result 

in a developmental inclination. The physiological development occurs at the same time as 

distance grow from parental guidance and engagement in various situations (Barry et al., 2010). 

Myelination, the process of forming a myelin sheath around a nerve to allow nerve impulses to 

move more quickly, begins in the brain stem and cerebellum before birth, but is not completed 

in the frontal cortex until late in adolescence. The prefrontal cortex is responsible for higher-

order thinking such as planning and awareness and understanding of one’s own thought 

processes. Abstract thinking, the ability to be interested in the deeper meaning of things and the 

bigger picture, and the cognitive ability to think about ideas, principles, and objects that are not 

physically present are functions of the prefrontal cortex. The capacity to think about God and 

his existence is now finely developed. The limbic system of the brain is a system that lies within 

reach of the temporal lobes and functions as a medium for emotions that plays a pivotal role in 

religious, spiritual, and mystical experiences (Kyriacou, 2018). During this developmental 

phase, change within parts of the limbic system, together with changing hormonal levels, result 

in more emotional responsiveness (Barry et al., 2010). The maturation of the brain and the 

ability for abstract thinking resulting in an interest for deeper meaning. The individual is now 

ready for meaning making due to the emotional responsiveness and a capacity for spiritual and 

mystical experiences. Despite the physiological development, there may be an unconnectedness 

between religiosity and spirituality.   

Emerging adults withdraw temporarily from formal religious participation and show a 

decreased in religious involvement and practice (Arnett, 2004; Hadad & Schachter, 2011). They 

are not uninterested in religious issues; they prefer to observe beliefs in the privacy of their own 

hearts (Arnett & Jensen, 2002). Emerging adults question religiosity and explore their 

spirituality to develop a more complex understanding of themselves and their beliefs 

(Braskamp, 2008). It is only when the individual is getting married and having children that a 

higher likelihood of religious participation occurs (Arnett, 2004).  

Setran and Kiesling (2013) describe traits among emerging adults, including compassion 

for the broken, embracing traditional liturgical forms or strict moral dogmas by professionals, 

and seeking mentors to guide them on their faith journeys. While emerging adults in the study 

of Hadad & Schachter (2011) wanted to be described as ‘religious lite’, Setran and Kiesling 

(2013) define emerging adults as idealistic, energetic, and passionate, bringing renewal to the 

church and the world. Barry and Abo Zena (2014) found an overall drop in outward religious 



 

16 

practices while emerging adults are forming their independent religious identities and rate 

religious faith as important in their lives. It seems that the understanding of religious identity 

can be paradoxical and complex. By understanding the unique experiences of emerging adults, 

the connection between religion and spirituality might be clearer.  

Major life events influence and shape emerging adults’ fluid sense of identity (Gutierrez 

& Park, 2015). A deeper sense of spirituality, meaning and purpose in life, and increased self-

worth can be nurtured by positive life experiences (Roepke, 2013). Negative events can cause 

harm, destroy an individual’s world views, and increase beliefs in personal vulnerability, but it 

can also have a positive outcome and rekindle posttraumatic growth (spiritual change and 

appreciation of life). Gutierrez and Park (2015) found that emerging adults’ belief in God stayed 

unchanged, despite negative events. Emerging adults, when confronted with major life events, 

have to refine their basic understanding of fundamental world view interpretations.  

Pre-event world views determine how they are affected by life events. The desire to 

maintain ties with familial faith systems can cause emerging adults who explored their 

spirituality with ambivalent feelings toward inherited religious beliefs, to reconcile their 

reservations about religious doctrine (Gutierrez & Park, 2015). World views and familial faith 

systems, together with major life events reguire an amalgamation of solutions and reactions. 

During the developmental phase of instability, feeling ‘in-between’, being self-focused, 

surrounded by vast possibilities and the search for an identity, the emerging adult search for 

meaning and a philosophy, while becoming the author of his own life. Composing the tough 

trials and great opportunities in story-form, at the backdrop of a sense of calling and life purpose 

culminates in a personal identity and contentment (Setran & Kiesling, 2013). 

Identity, narrative identity, and spiritual identity progressively developing, will be 

discussed now. Identity as a clear sense of ‘who I am’ is a vital psychosocial task for young 

people (Schwartz et al., 2013). It open up through interlinked doors of affect (feeling ‘this is 

me’), behaviour (acting as ‘me’), and cognition (thinking ‘this is me’). During the process of 

forming a life story, a narrative identity develops. The individual links the past and present to 

culminate in a desired future (Ashforth & Schinoff, 2016). When confronted with a question 

like “What are my beliefs?” the individual gets access to a religious or spiritual identity that 

manifests as an enduring sense of self that attend to fundamental questions about the meaning 

and purpose of life (Kiesling et al., 2006). In the rest of this section, identity, narrative identity, 

and spiritual identity are the focal points.  



 

17 

First, personal identity is discussed. 

2.2 Identity 

A sense of personal identity is a fundamental psychosocial task beginning in the early 

teens and is deepened in the transition to adulthood (Schwartz et al., 2013). Arnett (2016) states 

that in a time of challenges and opportunities, emerging adults with a clear sense of identity are 

better positioned to take advantage of the freedom to create a path into adulthood. In the next 

paragraph, the focus will be on development of identity.  

2.2.1 Understanding Identity 

Young people need to decide on what is important, what they stand for, with whom they 

want to share their lives, and what their life’s work will be (Schwartz et al., 2012). Identity 

provides one’s life with a sense of purpose and direction while dealing with the demands of an 

intricate world (Côté, 1996). Selecting life alternatives that fit with the sense of self that one 

wishes to develop (Schwartz et al., 2012), young people imagine new and altered potentials for 

themselves as they develop the ability for abstract ideas such as who and what they could be 

(Schwartz et al., 2013). Understanding identity entails understanding of how young people 

develop an integrated sense of self. Identity refers to a sense of who one is as a person and as a 

contributor to society (Hoare, 2002), a fundamental subjective sense of continuity (Côté, 1996). 

Thinking about the past, remembering and visiting memories, and imagining themselves 

in the future become a new possibility. Erikson (1994) uses the metaphor of a bridge from past 

to future when writing on identity: "The young adult gains an assured sense of inner continuity 

and social sameness which will bridge what he was as a child and what he is about to become" 

(Erikson, 1994, p. 111). Identity is a "sense of continuity and invigorating sameness" (Erikson, 

1968, p. 19). It is a consistency and soundness through time, social change, and different role 

requirements (Sokol, 2009). His definition has also a social-contextual dimension: "The style 

of one’s individuality coincides with the sameness and continuity of one’s meaning for others 

in the immediate community" (Erikson, 1994, p. 50). Erikson connects the conceptual boundary 

between intrapsychic focus adopted by psychology and the environmental focus adopted by 

sociology. The 'culture-identity link' frames macro-sociological factors through micro-

interactional ones to psychological factors (Côté, 1996). Identity ensures the individual of his 

or her place in the world (Hoare, 2002). A sense of well-being, of being at home in one’s body, 

of direction, and of mattering to those who count is all part of identity (Erikson, 1968).  



 

18 

2.2.2 Theoretical Foundation of Identity 

In the next paragraphs, the theoretical understanding of identity will be discussed. Erikson 

is described as the architect of identity (Friedman, 2000). Erikson’s theory on psychosocial 

development will be described. His work grew into the identity status model of Marcia (1966), 

the process identity model of Crocetti et al. (2008), the five structural dimensions of Luyckx, 

Schwartz, Berzonsky et al. (2008) and the identity style model of Berzonsky (1989).  

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development (1968). For Erikson, the word identity 

had an intensely personal as well as intangible significance (Friedman, 2000). In the biography 

of Erik H. Erikson, Friedman highlights the relationship between his personal life and his work 

on identity. He describes how Erikson decided to travel after finishing high school level 

education for some time to come to terms with his sense of self and purpose. Erikson hiked, 

read, and visited the great Italian cities, especially Florence, which he loved, and by the age of 

25, he was living back in Karlsruhe without any clear sense of the life direction he wanted. His 

culture and environment provided considerable space for exploring possibilities and did not 

turn his searching or uncertainty into a ‘problem’. For a while, he was a wandering artist before 

he became a writer and architect of identity (Friedman, 2000). 

Erikson’s (1958) psychobiography, Young man Luther: A study in psychoanalysis and 

history, revealed his insights on the identity crisis of the Protestant Reformation and Martin 

Luther. Luther’s search for identity and the consequences of his personal transformation for 

psychological theory as well as for understanding the heart of the divine were remarkable. 

While he was in the developmental phase, known today as emerging adulthood, he became a 

church reformer, from being a monk. The transition included intense changes in his 

understanding of himself and the world, including new insights into the significances of 

Christian writings and practices (McAdams, 2013). The task of identity development features 

also in his biography on Mohandas Gandhi (Erikson, 1969). 

Erikson’s (1968) ground-breaking work defines psychosocial development across the life 

span. He describes the development of the individual with a series of crises throughout the 

individual’s life span. Each stage of life has a crisis that is related in some way to an element 

in society. The term crisis refers to a turning point or a vital period of increased vulnerability 

(Sokol, 2009). Erikson conceptualized eight stages across the life span. Each stage has a 

successful and unsuccessful outcome (e.g., identity vs. identity confusion).  



 

19 

Erikson pointed to the importance of sociocultural factors of the individual’s transition 

through a psychosocial crisis. The social context is important in understanding the individual; 

it strongly influences development (Sokol, 2009). The question is if the infant receives enough 

care and trust from the environment. The table below provides a summary of Erikson's theory.  

Table 1  

Psychosocial Development (Erikson, 1968) 

Stage/Crisis  Age Human Relationships Desired outcome 
of crisis 

Trust vs. mistrust 0-1 Parents/caretaker  Hope 

Autonomy vs. doubt 1-3 Parents/caretaker Will 

Initiative vs. guilt 3-5 Family Purpose 

Industry vs. inferiority 6-11 Neighbourhood/school Competence 

Identity vs. role confusion Adolescence Peer group  Fidelity 

Intimacy vs. isolation  Young 
adulthood 

Friends/ Spouse Love 

Generativity vs. self-
absorption 

Middle 
adulthood 

Family interaction/job 
acquaintances 

Care 

Integrity vs. despair Old age All people Wisdom 

  

A sequence of challenges across the life span needs to be resolved at a certain age. 

Answering the question, 'Who Am I?' is the primary developmental task of adolescence and 

young adulthood. Formal operational thinking and new abilities for perception forming mark 

advanced cognitive abilities and an intensified experience of vulnerability. It is a time to 

transform beliefs and values during feelings of exposure and vulnerability. The amendment of 

beliefs tests identity. If a person changes his beliefs, he becomes a different person. Erikson 

believes that alteration of perspectives and beliefs embedded in the feelings of vulnerability set 

the stage for identity exploration. Intellectualising about their current and past selves brings a 

sense of ownership of their lives and they select commitments that is in pace with the thoughts 

about themselves (Erikson, 1994, in McLean & Pasupathi (2012).  

Erikson (1968) theorises identity as a lively interplay between identity synthesis and 

identity confusion. A coherent and internally consistent sense of self over time and across 



 

20 

situations will be understood as identity synthesis, and a fragmented or fractional sense of self 

that does not support self-directed decision making will be described as identity confusion. The 

predictability of behaviour across contexts and based on commitments – or a sense of self-

sameness and continuity – points to identity synthesis (McLean & Pasupathi, 2012; Schwartz 

et al., 2013). Identity confusion causes questioning of one’s authenticity, one’s view of oneself, 

and the perceived view of others. Doubt regarding the purpose and meaning of one’s life leads 

to a sense of loss and confusion (Sokol, 2009). 

Erikson (1968) refers to the time of reflection when young people are given opportunities 

to reflect on who they are, what kind of romantic relationships they would enter, and what 

values and beliefs they would hold, as the psychosocial moratorium (Schwartz et al., 2012). 

"Through free role experimentation, (the individual) may find a niche in some section of his 

society" (Erikson, 1994, p. 111), a ‘psychosocial moratorium’. Erikson spoke of an ideal space 

for identity exploration. Dealing with this crisis is an important touchstone for one’s 

developmental course (McLean & Pratt, 2006). Erikson proposed that identity exploration is 

linked with changes in perspectives and beliefs coupled with felt vulnerability. A person’s 

approach to this identity 'crises' influences one’s own developmental course (McLean & Pratt, 

2006). 

Inspired by the formative work of Erikson, an immense amount of literature addressing 

the issue of identity formation has been generated. Erikson wrote on identity development using 

clinical studies, biographies, and complex psychoanalytic concepts (Schwartz et al., 2012). 

Marcia (1966) expanded Erikson’s theory by focusing on the cognitive-behavioural markers of 

the identity formation process (Crocetti et al., 2008). Marcia’s identity status model has inspired 

numerous publications. Two prominent neo-Eriksonian identity models relate to identity status 

– identity style and narrative identity. Identity status and style have appeared as a quantitatively 

approach. Narrative identity has emerged as a qualitative complement to these quantitative 

traditions (Schwartz et al., 2013). First, Marcia's status approach model will be discussed.  

Marcia’s Status Approach Model. Fundamental markers on the pathway of establishing 

a stable identity is the exploration of various alternatives and the choice to become committed 

to one of the available possibilities according to Marcia's (1966) status model. The central 

contribution of this approach lies in the “development, measurement and partial validation of 

the identity statuses as individual styles of coping with the psychosocial task of forming an ego 

identity” (Marcia, 1966, p. 558). 



 

21 

Identity Status Model (Marcia, 1966). For Erikson, identity is created through 

connections between individuals and their social context. The identity status model pays little 

attention to context and edge the identity development process as a set of individual choices 

(Schwartz et al., 2013). The identity status approach describes identity in terms of decisions 

made in specific life domains. In Marcia’s (1966) study, crisis and commitment were described, 

measured, and validated in the domains of occupation and ideology. The identity status reflects 

a pattern of consistency across responses in different life experiences and domains (Alisat & 

Pratt, 2012).  

Two components, namely exploration and commitment, are conceptualised. Prior to 

deciding regarding beliefs, values, and where one is going, active questioning and consideration 

of different identity alternatives outlines exploration. Making the choice about an identity and 

then participating in activities to apply the choice is commitment to the identity domain (Alisat 

& Pratt, 2012; McLean & Pasupathi, 2012). “Status approaches observe whether the person 

struggled with or explored his or her identity (the crises) and whether the individual has then 

committed to an identity (the resolution)” (McLean & Pratt, 2006, p. 16). Exploration is defined 

as examining different identity possibilities to which one might commit, and commitment is 

defined as having assumed an identity. 

Table 2 

Identity Status Model (Kroger & Marcia, 2011) 

 Commitment 

 Absent Present 

Exploration/crises Absent  Identity diffusion  Identity foreclosure 

 Present  Identity moratorium  Identity achievement 

 

Exploration points to organising various potential identity alternatives. Commitment 

refers to selecting one or more alternatives to which to hold. Marcia divided exploration and 

commitment into ‘present’ and ‘absent’ levels. Four statuses can result from the groupings of 

exploration and commitment. Achievement represents a set of commitments enacted following 

a period of exploration. Moratorium represents a state of active exploration and a few 

commitments. Foreclosure represents a set of commitments enacted without prior exploration. 

Diffusion represents an absence of commitments coupled with a lack of interest in exploration 



 

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(Schwartz et al., 2013). Personality characteristics are associated with each status respectively: 

achievement with balanced thinking and mature relationships; moratorium with openness and 

curiosity, but also with anxiety, depression, and poor well-being; foreclosure with self-

satisfaction and low levels of internalizing symptoms; and diffusion with low self-esteem and 

with absence of self-direction and agency. The most inventive is identity achievement – those 

who have explored their potential ideological options and have chosen ideologies. Those who 

have not yet reached commitment and are still exploring are in the moratorium status, whereas 

those who commit to ideals without a process of exploration are in foreclosure. Finally, those 

who have neither explored nor committed, and are not engaged in the process of identity 

formation, are in diffusion (McLean & Pasupathi, pp.10-11).  

Thinking about one’s experiences and options in life, is a key constituent to healthy 

identity development. For status researchers, the construct of identity is the gathering (or lack) 

of thought and active (or lack of) decisions about restricted areas of one’s life (McLean & Pratt, 

2006).  

Identity processes operate in content domains (Schwartz, 2001). Life domains, such as 

career choice, romantic relationships, religious faith, political participation, and gender roles 

are fields or areas where identity is explored and developed. Schwartz et al. (2013) explain how 

changes may occur. Young people may choose to stay single or live with a partner, rather than 

marry. In the religion and spiritual domain, young people are more likely to engage in 

individualised spiritual activities like prayer or meditating, instead of participating in organised 

faith activities. In the domain of gender and sexuality, non-traditional sexual identities and 

orientations have been accepted increasingly since the late 1990s. Identity processes are 

undertaken in content domains and have been changing during the 20th and the beginning of 

the 21st century. Domain clusters were introduced. Three domain clusters were identified: 

psychological, interactional, and social-structural. The psychological domain cluster contains 

intrapersonal content areas such as career choice and sense of self. The interactional domain 

cluster contains interpersonal content areas such as friendships and dating. The social-structural 

domain cluster contains areas such as politics and morality. Ethnic identity has been added for 

ethnic and racial minority individuals (Schwartz, 2001).  

Contemporary Models Based on the Status Approach Model. Luyckx et al. (2006) 

unpack identity exploration into two separate processes: exploration in breadth, and exploration 

in depth; and commitment into two separate processes: commitment making and identification 



 

23 

with commitment. Thus, they explained four structural dimensions, namely commitment 

making, identification with commitment, exploration in depth, and exploration in breadth. 

Exploration in depth and identification with commitment represent the dimensions by which 

existing commitments are re-evaluated and revised continually, which means that a progressive 

developmental trend in identity development exists (Meeus, 1996). The extent to which that 

commitment fits with one’s overall sense of self is evaluated. Exploration in breadth is 

described as the degree to which persons explore diverse options with respect to their 

objectives, values, and beliefs before making commitments. Commitment making states the act 

of committing to a series of beliefs and goals and deciding what direction to take. Identification 

with commitment refers to embracing one’s commitments and integrating them with one’s 

sense of self to derive self-esteem from one’s values and beliefs. Through this model, Luyckx 

and colleagues cast identity development as a dynamic and iterative process, where 

commitments are formed through exploring alternatives in breadth and committing to one or 

more of the alternatives considered; commitments are then evaluated by exploring in depth and 

then integrated with the self-concept (Schwartz et al., 2012). Luyckx, Schwartz, Berzonsky et 

al. (2008) divided exploration into reflective and ruminative components, of which the latter is 

a maladaptive exploratory process. They argue that it is possible to have difficulties in the 

exploration process, to keep on dwelling over the various alternatives at hand, and to experience 

substantial difficulty arriving at firm or fully validated identity commitments (Schwartz et al., 

2005). This may be because of maladaptive conscientiousness, idealistic expectations, and fear 

of making an improper choice (Schwartz et al., 2013). Luyckx, Schwartz, Berzonsky et al. 

(2008) extended the four-dimensional model by including ruminative exploration as an 

additional identity dimension. Openness and curiosity are part of identity exploration, but the 

process is also associated with anxiety and depression. Therefore, exploration can be 

subdivided into reflective versus ruminative components (Luyckx, Schwartz, Berzonsky et al., 

2008). The dual-cycle model acknowledges exploration and commitment as processes and 

identity; therefore, as a fluid and dynamic process, as Erikson described it (Schwartz et al., 

2013).  

Crocetti et al. (2007) suggest a process identity model or three-factor model of identity 

(the certainty-uncertainty model). Their model consists of three identity dimensions or 

processes: commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment. Although 

adolescents make commitments (the choice made in areas relevant to identity), they might 

reflect on it and gather information regarding these commitments. Validating commitments by 



 

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further exploration is significant. This model captures the dynamic of forming and 

consolidating identity commitments by which young people form and maintain identity over 

time. They conclude that a stable identity is linked with the adolescent's psychosocial 

functioning and well-being (Crocetti et al., 2008). Most young people internalise commitments 

by parents. Some of these commitments will be explored in depth and will be remembered or 

reassessed (Meeus, 1996). Commitment and reconsideration represent certainty and uncertainty 

in the process of identity development. Commitment is linked with emotional security and a 

coherent sense of self, and reconsideration is linked with internalising symptoms and a 

fragmented sense of self (Schwartz et al., 2013). Armet (2009) differentiates between external 

and internal commitment in relation to strictly religious adolescents. External commitment is 

involuntary. The individual complies with religious norms; for example, confession of faith. If 

the commitment was made without exploration, the commitment making was external. Internal 

commitment will be deep-rooted, inherent, and made intentionally (De Bruin-Wassinkmaat et 

al., 2019).  

Identity style arose as a process-based expansion of the identity status model. It is a 

conception of the decision-making processes that lie beneath identity development (Berzonsky, 

1989). Three styles were proposed: informational, which signifies a positive, open-minded, and 

bendable method of attending to life choices; normative, which signifies following the 

expectations and norms established by others (including cultural as well as familial guidelines; 

and diffuse avoidant, which signifies procrastination and attempting not to deal with significant 

life decisions (Schwartz et al., 2013). An informational style is linked with an active approach 

to constructing a sense of self, self-direction, autonomy, and agency. An informational style 

tends to be most effective culturally and in families where exploration and autonomous decision 

making are encouraged. A normative style is linked with a more passive approach and most 

effective in contexts where compliance and respect are expected and valued. The normative 

style is associated with solid commitments. A diffuse-avoidant style is negatively related with 

all the purposes that identity is postulated to serve, namely personal objectives, self-structure, 

reasonably expected future, and a sense of personal control over one’s life (Schwartz et al., 

2013).  

2.2.3 Identity in the Third Decade of Life: Emerging Adulthood 

Nestled between adolescence and young adulthood, the period of emerging adulthood 

encompasses a persistent discovery of one’s identity in society (Syed & Azmitia, 2008). From 



 

25 

the theoretical background identity is formed in the connections between the individual and the 

social context, in the crises within intimacy and isolation (Erikson, 1968) and developed 

through a set of individual choices (Kroger & Marcia, 2011). It is becoming clearer in content 

domains. Identity development in emerging adulthood will briefly be explored in content 

domains for example, ethnicity, and prosocial behaviour, religion, the interpersonal domain, 

vocational concerns and occupation as a domain. 

Emerging adults use an ethnic lens to remember and interpret their experiences in the 

ethnicity content domain (Syed & Azmitia, 2008). The formation of an ethnic identity is an 

important undertaking of emerging adults because of their increased cognitive capacities, new 

experiences, and the important role of peers. Developmentally and contextually emerging adults 

are situated in an ideal space for exploring and constructing their ethnic identities. Across ethnic 

groups, they apply agentic capacities to varying degrees. The degree of agency used is related 

directly to the coherence of the emerging adult’s identity (Schwartz et al., 2005).  

Prosocial behaviour tendencies are defined as behavioural tendencies meant to benefit 

another. The content domain of prosocial behaviour, together with the internalisation of values 

and religiosity, is an indication of the potential fundamental to beliefs that support positive 

behaviour. A focus on the self is characteristic of emerging adulthood (Arnett, 2000). The 

findings of Padilla-Walker et al., (2008) suggest that this time is definitely not a selfish time, 

as emerging adults are actively orientated toward prosocial behaviour like social responsibility 

and an emphasis on bearing in mind the desires and wishes of others. Staying persistent to their 

prosocial values implicates a change from an external foundation of motivation to an internal 

basis (Nelson et al., 2007). Although emerging adults are participating in experimentation with 

risk behaviours, this is also a time characterised by the exploration and experimentation of 

positive roles and orientations, as research showed higher levels of value internalisation (Nelson 

et al., 2007).  

Religion as a content domain shows higher levels of exploration concerning beliefs and 

lower levels of religious participation, distinctive during emerging adult years (Arnett & Jensen, 

2002). Commitment adopted without much prior exploration is related to high levels of 

religiosity. The absence of family conflict enables eagerness to be mingled in their parents’ 

values and beliefs (Nelson et al., 2007). 

 In a study of McLean et al., (2016) the question of the researchers was: “Where are 

emerging adults exploring their identities?” The interpersonal domain was the most common 



 

26 

domain where emerging adults explored their identity. Dating, friendship, and family 

(interpersonal) are an important content of emerging adults’ identity exploration (Padilla-

Walker et al., 2008). Committed love relationships correspond with general identity 

development (Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens et al., 2008). 

Vocational concerns and occupation can be a content domain where identity exploration 

takes place. The life span approach to career development underlines the idea that the ability to 

master career developmental tasks in emerging adulthood results in effective functioning and 

the ability to address future developmental tasks. In everyday work with emerging adults, it 

may be imperative to keep the developmental courses of identity in mind, including following 

identity work throughout the university years. The searcher class (those for whom commitment 

made does not help to alleviate identity confusion) will need direct counselling and intervention. 

Helping students to perform identity-related commitment may help to break the cycle of distress 

that accompanies endless identity exploration. Career development corresponds with general 

identity development (Luyckx, Schwartz, Goossens et al., 2008). 

The status approaches focus on identity development, and a key component is thinking 

about and reflecting on one’s experiences and options in life. A collection of thoughts and active 

decisions, or a lack of thought and decisions, forms identity through a status approach. The 

bridge to the narrative approach is also in the region of thoughts and reflecting, but in the 

narrative approach, the focus is the story (McLean & Pratt, 2006). In the narrative approach, 

identity is a life story (McAdams, 1993). 

The narrative approach highlights individuals’ personal assessment of their individual 

experiences and their stories about them (McAdams, 2013). It involves the integration and the 

continuity of the self through time from the past, to the present, to the future (Alisat & Pratt, 

2012). Both models (the status approaches and the narrative) focus on making sense of the self 

through time and context, and both are important in Erikson’s theory. Each helps to provide a 

sense of unity and organisation to the mature self. Identity statuses as discussed above have 

predominantly considered existing conceptions of exploration that seemingly lead to future 

commitments. Narrative identity theorists have focused mainly on reconstructions of past 

events (Alisat & Pratt, 2012). 

2.3 Narrative Identity 



 

27 

“Narrative identity is a subjective recollection of the personal past, which serves to 

integrate a life” (McLean & Syed, 2019, p.1). The gift of integration is unwrapped in 

discovering a narrative identity. It is a careful, subjective description and explanation of how a 

person came to be and currently is (Singer, 2004).  

The narrative approach grew out of Erikson’s emphasis on life span development and 

psychobiography. The developmental task of identity versus role confusion is described as a 

time when individuals try to define and to know who they are and find a sense of integration. 

The personal life stories of Gandhi and Luther revealed the importance of understanding the 

self with regard to later tasks of adult development, such as developing intimate relationships 

and finding one’s purpose (McLean & Syed, 2019). Narrative identity research focuses on 

persons’ life stories, how they make sense of the various experiences and ‘turning points’ that 

comprise those life stories, and the overall meaning, coherence, and valence that characterise 

the stories (McAdams, 2011).  

2.3.1 Understanding Narrative Identity 

Identity is a life story and takes the form of a story with settings, scenes, characters, plots, 

and themes (McAdams, 2003). From this viewpoint, narrative is not only methodology, but a 

construct. The self is not assessed by reviewing stories; the self is a story (McLean & Pratt, 

2006). The life story is a thorough reconstruction of the autobiographical past and a narrative 

anticipation of the imagined future that assists to clarify, for the self and others, how the person 

came to be and where his or her life may be going. People begin to put their lives together into 

narrative identities in their late-adolescent and young-adult years (Bluck & Habermas, 2000), 

but the process of narrative identity development endures across the life course. Cultural norms, 

themes, and metaphors that run through the narratives they encounter in their social lives are 

used in the forming of their self-defining stories (McAdams, 2011). The internalised, 

integrative, and ever unfolding story of the self begins forming a pattern of consistency through 

time, from the past, to the present, and to the future, resulting in a narrative identity (McAdams, 

2008a; McAdams & McLean, 2013).  

Con