Wetenskaplike artikels • Research articles Gated communities in South Africa: Tensions between the planning ideal and practice Karina Landman and influenced by numerous socio- Peer reviewed and revised political processes in practice, which has resulted in many lively and often Abstract contentious debates. These debates range from academic discussions in Gated communities are considered by many South Africans as a necessity – a place to multidisciplinary journals to everyday stay in a safer environment in the context of high crime rates. At the same time, these practice that directly influence the developments can also challenge planning and development goals towards greater lives of people (for example, in public integration and accessibility. This article considers the views of planning masters’ students hearings). Through the transformation related to gated communities and the inherent tensions and presence of inconsistent of space, gated communities represent attitudes prevailing within the students. This reflects the growing dichotomy between the a re-ordering of micro-society and of planning ideal and practice in South Africa and raises a number of questions for planning education. With reference to the different roles of planning theory, the discusion explores space, as well as a reorganisation of different ways to read and interpret these tensions and attitudes and redirect planning rules, norms and customs that affect the education not only to reflect this, but also to effectively utilise it in an attempt to bridge the allocation of shared goods and services gap between normative visions and contextual realities. (Roitman, Webster & Landman, 2009: 13). Therefore, whether in academia or in practice and as a result of and GESLOTE GEMEENSKAPPE IN SUID-AFRIKA: SPANNING TUSSEN DIE depending on the interpretation of this BEPLANNING-IDEAAL EN DIE PRAKTYK process of reorganisation, the develop- ment of gated communities has elicited Geslote gemeenskappe word deur baie Suid-Afrikaners as nodig bestempel – ‘n woonplek a varied and opposing debate present- in ‘n veiliger omgewing gesien in die konteks van die hoë misdaadrekords. Terselfdertyd, kan hierdie ontwikkelings ‘n uitdaging bied vir beplanning- en ontwikkelingsdoelwitte van ing different sides to the issue of whether groter integrasie en toegang. Hierdie artikel ondersoek die standpunte van meestersgraad- gated communities are a solution to beplanningstudente oor geslote gemeenskappe en die inherente spanning en current problems of increased aliena- teenwoordigheid van niekonstante houdings algemeen onder studente. Dit reflekteer die tion and insecurity in cities worldwide or toenemende tweeledigheid tussen die beplanningsideaal en die praktyk in Suid-Afrika a new form of development that fosters en lig ‘n aantal vrae vir beplanningsonderrig. Met verwysing na die verskillende rolle exclusion and segregation. van beplanningsteorie, verwys die bespreking na verskeie maniere om die spanning en houdings te lees en te intrepreteer en rig beplanningsonderrig nie net om dit te reflekteer This is especially pertinent in South Africa nie, maar ook om dit dit effektief te gebruik in ‘n poging om die gaping tussen normatiewe where the debate is taking place within beskouings en kontekstuele realiteite te oorbrug. a broader socio-political context that adds fuel to both sides of the argument. In practice, gated communities in South METSE E KOETSOENG HARA AFRIKA BOROA: BOTHATA MAHARENG A Africa are regarded and justified as a MERERO EA MERALO LE HO PHETHAHATSA SE REROENG way to prevent crime and relieve the fear of crime in the country (Lipman & Ma Afrika Boroa a mangata a bona metse e koetsoeng e le ntho e bohlokoa ebile e Harris, 1999; Landman & Schönteich, hlokahala ka ha e fana ka sebaka se sereletsehileng sa ho dula le ho phela hara boshodu bo bongata ka hara naha. Ka nako e le ngoe, tswelopele tsena di bontsha diphephetso tse 2002; Lemanski, 2004; Jüergens & etsang hore meralo le dintlha tsa tswelopele di se ke tsa fihla phihlelong tse phahameng. Landman, 2005; Landman, 2007; Atekele ena e bontsha dichebisano tsa baithuti ba mangolo a phahameng (Masters) a Durington, 2006; Fabiyi, 2006; Harrison & meralo. Dichebisano tsena ke tsa metse e koalletsoeng le hohlano tse tebileng le maikutlo Mabin, 2006; Kruger & Landman, 2008). a fapaneng ka taba ena mahareng a baithuti bana. Sena se bontsha ho hanyetsana hoo Many people in South African cities matla mahareng a merero ea meralo le phethahatso ea se reroeng ka hare ho naha ea consider fortified enclaves or so-called Afrika Boroa, ebile e phahamisa dipotso ka thuto ea meralo. Ho ipapisitsoe le dikarolo tsa gated communities as their only option tsebo ea meralo, mosebetsi ona o sheba mekhoa e fapaneng ea ho bala le ho utloisisa towards a safer living place. This admits dikhohlano le maikutlo ana, ebe mekhoa ena e kenyeletsoa dithutong tsa meralo, hore growing fear and insecurity in the con- e se ka tsebahala fela, empa e be e sebeletse hore e mpe e leke ho koala phahla e text of high levels of crime and violence mahareng a pono tse tloaelehileng le nnete e bonahalang. (Mistry, 2004; Roberts, 2008). 1. INTRODUCTION At the same time, almost all of the urban planning and development Gated communities transform urban space from open space to enclosed space policies and legislation1 of the post- where access is restricted and entrance is controlled. This is facilitated by means apartheid or democratic period of walls and fences with controlled access gates. This process is closely linked to, (post-1994) have one strong theme 1 These include the Development Facilitation Act (1995), the Urban Development Framework (1997), and the White Paper on Spatial Planning and Land-Use Management (2001) at national level, and the Municipal Structures Act (1998) and Municipal Systems Act (2000) at local level. Dr Karina Landman, Department of Town and Regional Planning, Building 8, South Campus, University of Pretoria, 0002, South Africa. Phone: +27 12 420 6379, Fax: +27 12 420 3531, e-mail: . 1 SSB/TRP/MDM 2012 (61) in common, namely that of greater students enrolled for the module “Safer a security guard. This type can include integration. This includes a focus on Design” at the University of Pretoria. large luxury estates, gated townhouse spatial, social and institutional integra- This postgraduate module is offered as clusters/complexes and gated apart- tion within South African cities. Spatial part of a coursework masters’ degree ment complexes, which are predomi- integration promotes the integration of presented on a part-time basis to nantly residential. New security devel- previously marginalised neighbourhoods individuals who work in planning-related opments can, however, also include with the better-performing areas of the fields. These individuals vary from young gated office parks and gated mixed city, the provision of facilities in under- planners who recently graduated use developments (Landman, 2012). developed areas and infill development to senior practitioners with extensive to facilitate greater access to socio- experience in the public sector. Many As mentioned earlier, the main driver economic opportunities. Social integra- of these practising planners also occupy behind the growth of gated communi- tion is concerned with the integration positions of considerable profesional ties in South Africa is insecurity, espe- of different age, ethnic and income and managerial responsibility in various cially related to crime and the fear of groups in different urban areas to allow spheres of goverenment. The article ex- crime. A recent report from the Institute for greater social interaction and diver- plores their views regarding gated com- for Security Studies confirmed that sity; hence, towards a more inclusive munities in South Africa and identifies the latest release of crime statistics is city. Institutional integration refers to the prevalence of cognitive disonance indeed cause for concern. The statistics coordinated efforts between different among students and practitioners. The for the 2009/10 period released by the government spheres and departments discussion then considers the implica- South African Police Services show an and with local communities to ensure tions thereof for planning education overall increase in crime at national more effective provision of services and and the relevance of planning and level, driven by increases in crime in increased efficiency. Gated com- crime-prevention theories to offer useful five categories, namely shoplifting, munities in South Africa have, however, guidance in this regard. Although the commercial crime, residential and busi- been criticised for entrenching existing tensions between the planning ideal ness burglaries, and theft from motor patterns of socio-spatial segregation and practice, or between normative vehicles (Burger, Gould & Newham, in cities at the expense of the poor planning guidance and practical 2010: 3). Gated communities offer a (for example, Jüergens, Gnad & Bhar, realities have been addressed in the physical response to deal with the last 2003; Bremner, 2004; Lemanski, 2004; past, this has not been done in terms of three mentioned categories. Therefore, Durington, 2006). the challenges related to the growth even within the lower middle-income of gated communities. The planning groups and within affordable housing Within this context, it is therefore not and development of South African projects, inhabitants are starting to surprising that the debate has also cities, in particular, raises specific moral demand gates and fences for security entered the classroom, raising many questions that need to be considered reasons (Landman, 2012; Landman & questions among planning students in relation to past developments and Badenhorst, 2012). regarding the nature, appropriateness future goals, in terms of both planning and relevance of gated communities, Insecurity, however, also trancends education and its implications for plan- in general, but more specifically within issues of crime and sometimes relates ning practice. the South African context. The fears to financial and other broader socio- are also prevalent within practising political insecurities (Lemanski, 2004; planners and students, raising interesting 2. CONTEXTUALISING AND Landman, 2005). Jürgens & Gnad (2002: questions regarding the relevance of CONCEPTUALISING THE DEBATE 339) point out that gated communities planning theory, in general, and crime in South Africa are a response to the prevention through environmental 2.1 Gated communities as a paranoia of personal insecurity and design, in particular, to guide planning reflection of a much broader political uncertainty, as well as the education and the practice of critical socio-political process development of various construction thinking among planning students measures designed to protect citizens and practitioners. Should planning Gated communities in South Africa can in predominantly White cities; thus, in education and policy development broadly be divided into two groups, response to the insecurities and changes favour normative planning theory to namely enclosed neighbourhoods and within the post-apartheid city (Lemanski, promote value-based guidance, or new security developments. Enclosed 2004). Other writers share this viewpoint. should it rather justify particular planning neighbourhoods refer to existing neigh- With the fall of apartheid, residents of responses within certain restrictive and bourhoods that have been fenced traditionally White neighbourhoods challenging contexts? According to off or walled in and where access is within the City of Johannesburg felt Cambell & Marshall (1998: 118), the controlled or prohibited by means of threatened by the new political system complexity of the socio-political world, gates or booms erected across existing and uncertain about their future and in which planning practice is embed- roads. The roads within these neighbour- what it may hold. In reaction, many ded, and the actions required from hoods were previously, or still are, public started neighbourhood associations, of- planners suggest that planning theory property, depending on the model ten combined with physical neighbour- could offer some guidance. However, used within different local authorities hood closures (Fabiyi, 2006; Dirsuweit they further maintain that this insight is (Landman, 2003). New security devel- & Wafer, 2006). This ensured that the likely to remain limited, unless informed opments are private developments in residents maintained power over their by daily practice and the experience of which the entire area is developed by neighbourhoods and resulted in the aspiring and practising planners. a private developer. These areas/build- residents distancing themselves from ings are physically walled or fenced the “new” political agendas, focusing This article is based on a survey distrib- off and usually have a security gate or their energy on creating new identities uted to a group of planning masters’ controlled access point, with or without within the enclosed space (Dirsuweit & 2 Landman • Gated communities in South Africa: Tensions between the planning ideal and practice Wafer, 2006). It has also been reported Students are incorporated and inte- questions, was distributed to a group that residents enclose their neighbour- grated into an education system and of planning masters’ students enrolled hoods in response to local government’s specific programme with beliefs and for the module “Safer Design” in both inability to supply proper services and personal attitudes that have been years. The module is based on the safety to the neighbourhoods (Landman, acquired throughout life (Chabrak notion that opportunities for crime and 2006). The same logic occurred in luxury & Graig, 2011: 4). Yet, education as violence can be enhanced or reduced estates, where these neighbourhoods such also has an important role to by the nature of the built environment, have referred to micro-governance and play in moulding and shaping beliefs. and deals with planning, design and try to exist autonomously with their own The education system has a tacit management principles, strategies and rules and by-laws, resulting in residents delegation to convey knowledge, skills specific types of physical interventions becoming impermeable to debates on and qualifications to students within a aimed at reducing the opportunities city planning and restructuring of the “social contract”. Students are “socially for crime and the fear thereof. This city (Hook & Vrdoljak, 2002; Ballard, 2005; engaged” and implicitly recognise the includes a discussion of the interna- Lemanski, Landman & Durrington, 2008). authority of pedagogic actions con- tional theories of Crime Prevention However, in other instances, it may only ditioning their perception and mental through Environmental Design (CPTED), reflect a search for nostalgia, style and schemes (Bourdieu & Passeron, cited in Situational Crime Prevention and proximity to nature (Bremner, 1999), a Chabrak & Graig, 2011: 4). Place-specific Crime Prevention. The place of “rustic escapes” and “a prom- As long as it is transformative, cognitive module also highlights the importance ise of a lifestyle increasingly divorced dissonance can play a positive role. of considering CPTED and situational from reality” (Hook & Vrodljak 2001: 7). However, in a situation of extreme crime-prevention approaches as part This highlights the different sides of the discomfort, it can provoke a state of of broader crime-prevention strategies debate and some of the key arguments crisis. Therefore, if universities remain and in cooperation with other law en- that are associated with the spread of fixed on the promotion of “accept- forcement and social crime-prevention gated communities in South Africa. able ways of thinking and speaking initiatives. Finally, it recognises the … which rejects heretical remarks as limitations of CPTED with regard to the 2.2 Cognitive disonance blasphemies” (Bourdieu, 1977: 169) prevention of certain types of crime and its relation to the and do not make provision for a variety that will have to be addressed by either education system of expressions and discourses of the law enforcement or social crime- world, due to the domination of only prevention initiatives.Cognitive disonance is a psychological term that refers to “the state of hav- one authorised discourse, it is likely to After discussing the theory of crime ing inconsistent thoughts, beliefs or contribute to cognitive dissonance that prevention through environmental attitudes” (Stevenson, 1999: 278). It is not transformative. Given this, the design and its relation to other crime- is, therefore, a state that gives rise to “role of educators is to prevent any ide- prevention initiatives as well as broader an unpleasant inherent tension, due ology from becoming an unquestioned planning interventions, numerous studies to the presence of two cognitions taken-for-granted-truth” (Chabrak are presented to highlight the impact that are inconsistent or discordant. A & Graig, 2011: 4). Educators should and implications of urban fortification cognition is consonant if it supports therefore encourage critical discourse internationally and in South Africa. This the other and dissonant if it involves and help students escape from any discussion also highlights the challenges or supports the opposite of the other official discourse of ordained curricula of urban fortification for contemporary cognition or thought. In order to restore or modules that tend to constrain lateral planning in South Africa in terms of consonance, a person will then have to thinking due to educational virtue or integration and inclusion. Following modify one of the opposing cognitions purism (Chabrak & Graig, 2011: 4). The these discussions, the planning students (Chabrak & Graig, 2011: 2). next section illustrates the influences of were asked to complete a short contradictory processes inherent within 2 Cognitive dissonance within indi- questionnaire about gated communi-the South African context and their viduals can lead to differing responses. ties to ascertain their views and support impact on the development of gated Individuals can either modify their thereof in South Africa. Completion of communities as reflected through the cognition to cope with new facts, the questionnaire was voluntary, and presence of cognitive dissonance within integrate new facts to avoid conflicting 22 students responded in each of the planning students/practitioners. thoughts, or select information and two years. change their behaviour according to new facts. The last response gives rise to 3. PERCEPTIONS OF URBAN 3.2 Discussion of findings a reorganisation of values and a new PLANNING STUDENTS ON The responses included the views of a state of consonance. In general, those GATED COMMUNITIES varied age group, ranging between experiencing cognitive dissonance try IN SOUTH AFRICA 25 and 54 years in 2010 and between to change their personal attitudes in 23 and 48 in 2011, giving a good order to restore coherence. The greater 3.1 Study background representation of the views of different the external pressure, the less disso- generations of planners on gated com- nance is usually present within individu- The study is based on two small surveys munities. It also represents a multiracial als (Chabrak & Graig, 2011: 3). conducted in October 2010 and class with predominantly Black students The education system can also facilitate 2011 at the University of Pretoria. A (almost 90%) in both years, but also or bring about cognitive dissonance. short questionnaire, consisting of nine including Coloured, Indian and White 2 The questionnaire only dealt with eight questions, including the age and gender of respondents; their opinion on gated communities and whether they considered them to be necessary in South Africa; whether they currently lived in a gated community and, if so, in which type [4 options were provided], and whether they felt safer living inside these developments. Finally, they were then asked whether they had friends living in a gated community and in which type [the same 4 options were provided]. 3 SSB/TRP/MDM 2012 (61) students. This could imply that the these responses, relating to the issue of criminals away. The entrance of people choice of staying in a gated community greater or lesser safety within these de- is controlled; thereby controlling the is not necessarily linked to a specific velopments; the general feeling about opportunities/causes for crime” (Male racial choice or reaction of a specific gated communities; the implications of respondent, aged 26, 2010). race group, but rather linked to other gated communities for urban planning, influencing factors. It would also ques- Many respondents tried to justify the and future or alternative crime-preven- tion the generalisation of findings by, for need for gated communities, due to tion interventions. These themes also example, Dirsuweit (2002) and Ballard the fact that crime is out of control or start to reveal the strong indications of (2005) that the “fear of other” and the severe and that the police and state, in cognitive dissonance present within the fear of the poor present in residents general, cannot or is not doing enough planning students and practitioners. As from gated communities is often to address the situation. For example, could be expected, safety and security equated with the fear of the “Black”. In a young male (aged 28) stated “that were the dominant themes. Most of addition, the responses from the survey police are unable to address the issue the respondents in both years offered also represented a fair gender balance, of house related crimes; as a result, a a view on the relation between gated with just more than 50% being male in response to dealing with the problem communities and safety and security. 2010 and 63% in 2011. is gated communities to reduce the For some respondents, gated com- chances for perpetrators”. Another Of the 22 respondents in 2010, 12 indi- munities “reduce crime” or “minimise respondent linked it more to the inability cated that they did not currently reside social crime”; contribute to “greater of the state to ensure security: in gated communities. One respondent safety inside” and “crime prevention”, from 2010 mentioned that the com- in general, and “safer communities” Given the inability (currently) of central munity in which he is staying is currently and “city safety”. Gated communities government to control crime, local busy with the application process to have also been equated with “making communities are left to provide for their establish an enclosed neighbourhood. people feel safer”. This is directly related own safety in the most applicable way. Of the 10 respondents residing in gated to the nature of the gated community, One such strategy is through gated communities, only one indicated that as one respondent stated that “[gated communities (Male respondent, aged he did not feel safer inside the gated communities] keep intruders and 41, 2011). community. There were an equal number of respondents staying in large 10 estates and gated townhouse clusters 9 (Figure 1). Compared to 2010, 10 of the 87 22 respondents in 2011 indicated that 6 they do not live in a gated community, 5 4 of which only one person did not feel 3 safer inside. Of the 12 respondents stay- 2 No in 2010 ing in a gated community, most were 1 0 residing in a gated townhouse complex, No in 2011 with one person in each of the other types. This shows that almost half of the respondents from each year group are staying in some type of a gated community and that almost all of them equate that with feeling safer. In addition, 20 out of the 22 respondents Figure 1: Number of respondents staying in different types of gated communities in 2010 and all 22 respondents in 2011 in- dicated that they currently have friends residing in gated communities in South 14 Africa. These friends stayed in a variety 12 of types, with many indicating that they 10 have friends residing in more than one 8 type (Figure 2). Most of the respondents 6 mentioned that these friends were residing in gated townhouse clusters/ 4 complexes. In spite of the small survey, 2 No in 2010 this starts to indicate that the choice 0 No in 2011 to stay in gated communities is not a limited or exclusive phenomenon, especially among middle- and upper- income residents. The one open question related to the opinion of respondents on gated com- munities and whether they considered them to be necessary in South Africa. Figure 2: Number of respondents with friends staying in different types of A few main themes emerged from gated communities 4 Enclosed neighbourhood Enclosed neighbourhood Large estate Large estate Gated townhouse... Gated townhouse... Gated apartment complex Gated apartment complex Landman • Gated communities in South Africa: Tensions between the planning ideal and practice This could possibly also be interpreted surveillance (Female respondent, aged regarding the necessity for gated com- as a reflection of the failure of the 25, 2010). munities in the country. It also clearly state to provide safety and secu- highlights the contradiction between These responses reveal contradictory rity to its citizens, as one respondent the need for greater safety and security views within many respondents and remarked in terms of the necessity for and the need for integration and ac-present clear patterns of cognitive gated communities: cessibility. It, therefore, remains an dissonance. Interestingly, the first of the “unending debate”, due to the seem- Yes, [gated communities are necessary] above respondents is currently staying ingly irreconcilable cognitions present considering the failure of the state to in an area that has applied to close off within many respondents, and possibly protect people. However, there should the neighbourhood for security purpos- also within other members of the public, be a comprehensive strategy to deal es, while the second is staying in a large although one cannot generalise from with crime in a long term to do away security estate. This illustrates that peo- such a small survey. with gated communities as they shift ple staying in gated communities may crime to other places and isolate peo- often feel uneasy about the impact of These feelings of cognitive dissonance ple (Male respondent, aged 38, 2010). these developments on the larger city are also exacerbated by strong reac- in terms of either crime displacement – tions from fellow students during class Consequently, communities need “move crime to the less fortunate” – or debates. Some of these students are to take initiative themselves: “I think the increased or perceived vulnerability much more explicit about the possible crime in South Africa is so out of hand. in open, non-barricaded urban spaces. negative impact of gated communities, We as citizens need to take matters in They, therefore, experience inconsistent not only with regard to the effect on our hands and therefore gated com- thoughts about gated communities. In crime reduction and feelings of safety, munities” (Female respondent, aged another instance, the respondent, who but also with regard to the conse- 32, 2010). stays in a gated townhouse cluster/ quences for the city as a whole. This complex, openly acknowledged the relates to issues of urban segregation This reflects some reservations, where presence of incoherent attitudes: and exclusion, for example: respondents start to acknowledge that gated communities may not provide I have both opinions. They are a safer No, [gated communities are not the only solution to crime prevention environment in Gauteng due to the necessary], instead they will contribute and that there is a need to seek high crime rate and a densified city, towards disintegration of society (Male alternative crime-prevention ap- create minimal crime. Also they attract respondent, aged 45, 2011) proaches and interventions. In another more aggressive and violent crime example, a respondent maintained because criminal events aggressive They [gated communities] are a that “gated communities are not when opportuned to access (Male contradiction of the ethos of inclusive necessarily ensuring safer environment, respondent, aged 30, 2010). community and very elitist. I can understand their presence in the current they only provide target hardening for Other feelings of incongruance relates face of crime in South Africa, but would petty crime such as stealing of garden to the impact of gated communities argue that they contribute to new ways tools lying around in the yard. But has on the form and function of the city. of committing property crime (Male little or no impact on organised crime” Given the nature of the gated com- respondent, aged 25, 2010). (Male, aged 45, 2011). Others take a munity – physically separated from its much stronger stance and are of the surroundings – and the exclusive use of One respondent even went so far opinion that gated communities are not well-developed facilities, the develop- as to equate gated communities really addressing the issue of safety, as ment of these types of housing areas with apartheid planning and the they often contribute to a false sense also starts to raise questions about some exclusion of certain groups from using of security; place too much emphasis of the planning and development goals certain facilities, as reflected in the on the role of security guards, and that promote integration and acces- following excerpt: contribute to greater insecurity outside sibility in South Africa. This dilemma has The principle of gated communities the gated communities. This is reflected also been recognised by some of the is not different from the whole ideal in the following excerpts: planners who respondend: of apartheid planning as it creates a Gated communities conflict the plan- buffer on its edges and also restrict[s] It might contribute to safer communi- ning principles and complement consti- people from using shared facilities such ties but I feel it is not really necessary. I am of the opinion that it creates the tutional principle of a safe environment. as open space, etc. (Male respondent, Until such a time that crime is reduced aged 27, 2010).wrong impression, moves crime to the less fortunate and could create a false and prevented the response will be YES Given these concerns, many questions sense of security. I also do not trust the and NO – generating unending debate are raised regarding the future of gated … private security sector [that] benefit (Male respondent, aged 29, 2010). communities. Should one type of need from crime. We need a mindshift as a Gated communities will always have a (for example, safety) be considered country on crime (Male respondent, place in SA – this will never go away!! above another essential need such as aged 42, 2010). Even with some problems it creates, it accessibility? Or should gated com- To a certain extent it [gated com- is still the lesser of the two evils, safety munities be actively promoted as a at the cost of access (Male, aged legitimate way to address the present munities] ensures safety within. It makes 26, 2011). challenges related to high levels of resident vulnerable outside because of crime or be phased out, due to the poor relation of the complex with the As in the previous cases, these negative impact that many types may street. One can be a victim outside the excerpts clearly illustrate the inconsist- have on the larger city and society as complex because it does not promote ent thoughts within the respondents a whole? A few respondents raised this 5 SSB/TRP/MDM 2012 (61) issue, highlighting that, although gated provide adequate protection, others of planning practice (describing the developments may be necessary at maintained that these developments ‘what is’), the second tends to be more present – only as a “temporary meas- can contribute to a false sense of secu- philosophically orientated (debatting ure” – there is a need to consider the rity inside and greater insecurity outside the ‘what should be’). type of gated community, as not all are these developments. As a result, they appropriate, as well as the longer term may contribute to crime displacement All of these roles were reflected in impact and look for alternative crime- and hamper initiatives towards more the views of the planning students, prevention strategies. inclusive and integrated communities albeit to a greater or lesser extent. in South Africa where different social The proliferation of gated communities I think from a long term viewpoint, I’m groups can share public space. These was explained in the light of growing against it – mostly due to economic and opposing views were not only restricted levels of crime and insecurity. Closely social segregation. It may be a short to two groups of respondents, but were related to this, was the notion that, due term (2-5 years) solution till the policy often present within the same person. to the inability of the state and agents and legislation against gated communi- of the state (for example, the police) to ties is in place. Meanwhile government This, therefore, highlights the inherent sufficiently address this challenge, many should work towards incerasing educa- tensions within many planners between planners were of the opinion that gated tion, cohesion … (Male respondent, their personal needs for greater security communities are necessary and likely to aged 27, 2011). and the goals of national planning be around for some time to come. This policies and legislation for greater I detest gated complexes. I feel like reflects the state of practice and why integration. While it ultimately remains in a prison in my complex. I wake up this is so, while simultanously starting to the personal decision of each plan- and look out of the window and see give some indication of future practices; ner where s/he would like to stay, it electrical fences and barbed wire - but hence, incorporating both explanatory does raise issues regarding the issue they are needed in this point of South and predictive uses of planning theory.of the professional responsibility of city Africa’s development. I understand planners and the planning profession, On the other hand, there were some them totally as a temporary measure in general, regarding the promotion of notions of why we should plan and until South African society stabilises the public good, as well as the imple- strong views of what this should entail. economically. Then we may enjoy mentation of current national and local Although perhaps not stated directly, it living in REAL urban communities (Male planning policies and legislation. It also was implied that planning should also respondent, aged 26, 2010). questions the role of planning educa- consider the city as a whole and the Again, both these respondents indi- tion to deal with these tensions and public interest and, hence, the impact cated that they currently reside within emerging cognitive dissonance within of specific types of urban development, a gated community as a matter of planners. The presence of cognitive dis- such as gated communities, on the necessity and one even longed for sonance has, for example, been noted function and daily use patterns of resi- “real urban communities”, although among nursing students with relation to dents. This is directly in line with planning it is not clear what is meant by this. the habits and health effects of smoking policy which promotes planning for the This, therefore, clearly illustrates the (Pericas, Gonzalez, Bennasar, De Pedro, public good. However, for some urban inconsistencies present within many Aguilo & Bauza, 2009), and accounting planners, this creates an inherent incon- planning students and practitioners. students in terms of wholeheartedly sistency, posing a dilemma in terms of The question is whether these patterns having to embrace the capitalistic how to reconcile personal preferences of cognitive dissonance could be system and its quest for profits (Charbrak with public interest; in others words, a considered transformative or whether & Graig, 2011). Similarly, it is important matter of how do they justify planning they are likely to provoke a state of crisis to consider the implications thereof for the public good if many planners and to what extent planning education within planning students and the role of stay within gated communities and, at should start to address or facilitate these planning education in this regard. the same time, gated communities are emergent dissonances. considered by many, including some of One way to start framing these tensions the planners staying in gated communi- and their implications for planning ties, as a negation of the public good? 4. RELEVANCE AND IMPLICATIONS education is by turning to the roles This is also closely related to the norma- FOR PLANNING EDUCATION of planning theory. Neuman (2005) tive use of planning theory and the identifies four roles for city planning nature of the built environment to which 4.1 Cognitive dissonance, theory, namely explanatory, predic- planners should aim to contribute. Many planning education and the tive, justificatory and normative. The of the current policy documents give di- relevance of planning theory explanatory use of planning theory is rection on this, including principles such to offer guidance aimed at describing and interpreting as integration, accessibility, equity, and what planners do in practice, while sustainability. Depending on the type, The discussion has revealed the views the predictive use, closely linked to the size and operation of the gated com- of a number of city planning students/ previous role, seeks to decribe why they munity, many may, in fact, challenge practitioners on gated communities in do this in practice. The justificatory use the achievement of these principles South Africa, indicating a lack of agree- of planning theory tries to motivate why within the broader city (Lemanski, 2004; ment as to whether they address safety planners should plan or, in a broader Landman, 2006, 2007; Landman & Du and security. While many maintained sense, the need for planning in general, Plessis, 2007). that gated communities contribute to while the normative use of city planning increased safety and are playing an im- theory unravels how planners should What does this mean for planning edu- portant role in the context of high crime plan (Neuman, 2005). Therefore, while cation? According to Neuman (2005), rates and the inability of the police to the first two uses are more reflective urban planning theory of, for example, 6 Landman • Gated communities in South Africa: Tensions between the planning ideal and practice what would constitute a well-function- example, one way is through the context, such as is presented by South ing and sustainable city can and should development of gated communities. African cities. play an important role in preparing Planning faculties, on the other hand, planners to engage sufficiently with the must meet their pedagogic responsibili- 4.2 Implications for planning realities of practice. This includes both ties to provide a foundation of knowl- practice and ethics normative city-planning theory and edge (Edwards & Bates, 2011: 172), explanatory theory. Normative city- for example, theories of what would This article only focused on the views planning theory is useful for practitioners constitute inclusive and sustainable of planning students regarding gated as a guide to good practice. However, urban environments and how certain communities and in relation to where it is not sufficient to be able to describe types of developments may influence they stay. It has not yet engaged and explain practice as explanatory this in practice. This should also include with the issue of planning ethics and theory does well. Explanatory theory, an elaboration of the different streams morals. The present discussion revealed especially when critical, may highlight of CPTED in practice, namely those deep-seated patterns of cognitive dis- certain practice-related hazards or iniatives that support interventions sonance within the planning students/ context-specific challenges. Yet it does that emphasise the strengthening of practitioners which could potentially not point out what ethical practice physical boundaries and the separation influence decisisons regarding future is according to social, legal, or other of areas in the urban environment to developments of gated communities. norms, or typically ‘what should be’. It, reduce opportunities for conflict and/ It is, therefore, important that future therefore, does not mention whether or friction, including gated communities research should take this further and the aim was good or bad. Explanatory and those interventions that support the specifically probe to what extent these theory does, however, measure perfor- establishment of an open, incorporating opposing notions and contradictions mance and can, therefore, indicate and assimilating urban environment to are likely to influence the assesment of how effective or appropriate practice is reduce conflict through association and planning applications and the develop- and how to enhance its effectiveness or cooperation (Landman, 2009). Exposing ment of spatial planning policies. One relevance (Neuman, 2005: 137). students to these different approaches should then be able to assess to what will simultaneously link CPTED theories to extent the development of gated The discussion highlights the dilemma the broader roles of planning theory, in communities in South Africa would pose for planning education in South Africa the sense that it will explain the growth a moral dilemma for planners. Finally, in terms of, first, the acknowledgement of developments such as gated com- it is important that such an investiga- of context-specific realities such as munities and offer alternative normative tion related to planning ethics would very high levels of crime and violence, principles to guide intervention towards need to consider the issue in terms of even in people’s homes and, secondly, more integrated environments. This both a potential conflict of interests the responsibility to evaluate current could then offer an opportunity to prac- and a conflict of principles (Cambell & development practices in the light of tising planners to, first, transform and Marshall, 1998: 2), which again would what should be implemented to ensure resolve their own cognitive dissonance relate it back to the different roles of well-functioning and sustainable cities in and, secondly, establish a platform to planning theory. South Africa. In this instance, reference evaluate existing developments and to all four roles of planning, including guide responsible decision-making both normative and explanatory theory, 5. CONCLUSIONregarding planning applications and can start to provide a foundation for the development of different types of Gated communities represent a practising planners and planning stu- gated communities. re-ordering of micro-society, as well as dents to understand and work with the neighbourhood and city space. They inherent contradictions and cognitive Development planning has ventured also lead to a reconsideration and dissonance facing them. beyond the technical expert model often perhaps a disagreement of the and includes a focus on the collabora- It may also start to outline a way for- norms, values and rules that affect or tive process skills where development ward for planning educators in terms of should affect the organisation of urban planners are joining the larger profes- dealing with difficult issues such as the space and the distribution of facilities sional tide towards the model of reflec- development of gated communities in and services within the city. As a result, tive practitioner (Wilson, 1997: 750). high-crime areas and to bridge the gap the outcome of these developments Therefore, just as it is argued that there between the theoretical knowledge gives rise to the presence of cognitive is a changing role for development pro- of the planning academic and the dissonance within many planners in fessionals regarding a necessary focus practical realities facing planning prac- terms of contradictory thoughts regard-on promoting stakeholder participation titioners in South Africa. According to ing the need for safety and the need (Wilson, 1997: 750), it is argued that Edwards & Bates (2011: 172), the tension for greater integration in South African planning educators should also recon- between the planning practitioner and cities. It also leads to inconsistent sider more traditional methods of teach the planning academic is apparent in - thoughts regarding planning for public the discussion of what knowledge, skills, ing to facilitate action-based learning interest, which could potentially include and methods are essential in planning and student participation. In this both of these needs. education. Planning practitioners define way, students can engage with both The discussion also raised a number the scope of practice based on their normative and explanatory theory (also everyday experiences in confronting enriched by their own personal experi- of issues for planning education and ence) and use this to refine their own practising planners in terms of having planning challenges (Edwards & Bates, to deal with these contradictions in 2011: 172), such as the need to create approach towards enhancing quality, the lecture hall and in local authori- safer environments and knowledge effectiveness and sustainability of urban ties. It raised questions as to whether based on those experiences. 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