i THE IMPACT OF THE INTERVENTION OF NGOs AND CBOs ON LESOTHO’S GOVERNANCE AN ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF INTERVENTION OF NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS AND COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANISATIONS ON LESOTHO’S GOVERNANCE PROCESSES BY SEEMOLA. S. KOALI Student Number: 2020895450 Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements in respect of the Master of Arts in Governance and Political Transformation in the Faculty of the Humanities at the University of the Free State Supervisor: Dr T Coetzee 2023 ii i DECLARATION I, Seemola Sylvia Koali, declare that this study, The impact of the intervention of NGOs and CBOs on the governance of Lesotho, is my own work. I declare that the master’s mini dissertation for the degree in Governance and Political Transformation at the University of the Free State is my original and independent work that I have not previously submitted for a qualification at another institution of higher education. All citations and references used throughout the study have been acknowledged according. I declare that I am aware that the research may only be published with the Dean’s approval. Signed: Seemola Sylvia Koali (2020895450) ________________Date_________________ I confirm that the work reported in this project was carried out by the above-named candidate under my supervision. Signed: Supervisor: ____________________________ Date: _______________________ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to give praise and thanks to the Holy Trinity, God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Spirit for being my help and my guide throughout this project and in life at large. I can hardly begin to credit by names all the people and life experiences that have helped me to achieve what I have today; I would however like to pay tribute to a few of them: I am very thankful to my supervisor, Dr Tania Coetzee, for her perceptive comments; I cannot imagine how I would have completed this project had it not been for her esteemed supervision. I am truly thankful. I’m very grateful to my family, my two beautiful and supportive sisters, Mahlape and Motseoa Koali, who are my pillars, and my late brother-in-law Reverend Bohlale Phakoe who always motivated me and made me believe that I can be anything I dreamt to be. Thank you very much. May the Almighty God bless and keep you. iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACBF African Capacity Building Foundation ADB Asia Development Bank AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome AGGN African Good Governance Network AJBM African Journal of Business Management AU African Union AUDA African Union Development Agency BOS Bureau of Statistics BTI Bertelsmann Transformation Index CBOs Community-Based Organisations Covid-19 Coronavirus Disease of 2019 CSOs Civil Society Organisations CHAL Christian Health Association of Lesotho CIPFA Chartered Institute of Public Finance and Accountancy CTB Central Tender Board DCEO Directorate on Corruption and Economic Offences DCI Development Cooperation Ireland DfID Department for International Development ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States EDF European Development Fund EIDHR European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights EISA Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific iv EU European Union FBOs Faith-Based Organisations FRM Financial Resource Management GoL Government of Lesotho GTZ German Technical Assistance HDI Human Development Index HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus HRH Human Resources for Health ICS Information and Communication System IFAC International Federation of Accountants IMF International Monetary Fund INGOs International Non-Governmental Organisations IOs International organisations KfW Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau LCN Lesotho Council of NGOs LCS Lesotho Correctional Services LDCs Least Developed Countries LED Local Economic Development LENA Lesotho News Agency LENASO Lesotho Network of AIDS Service Organisations LENEPHWA Lesotho Network of People Living with HIV/AIDS LePHIA Lesotho Population-based HIV Impact Assessment LGs Local Governments LMIC Lower-middle-income country v LUNDAP Lesotho United Nations Development Assistant Plan MCC Millennium Challenge Corporation MDGs Millennium Development Goals MNCs Multinational Corporations MOHSW Ministry of Health Social Welfare NACOSEC National Covid-19 Secretariat NEPAD New Partnership for Africa's Development NPO Non-Profit Organisation NIILM Northern Institute for Integrated Learning in Management NRA National Reforms Authority NSSO National Sample Survey Office OAU Organisation of African Unity OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights PCA Police Complaints Authority PEPFAR President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief PESTEL Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal and Environment PFM Public Financial Management PHC Primary Health Care PPE Personal Protective Equipment PRS Progress Reports PSIRP Public Sector Improvement Reform Programme PVO Private Voluntary Organisations QPRs Quarterly Progress Reports vi RSA Republic of South Africa SACU Southern African Customs Union SADC Southern African Development Community SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SSA Sub-Saharan Africa STI Sexually transmitted disease TB Tuberculosis TI Transparency International TNC Transnational corporation UN United Nations UNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework UNDG United Nations Development Group UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNFPA United Nations Population Fund Activities UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner Refugees UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund US United States USAID United States Agency for International Development WFP World Food Programs WHO World Health Organisation WLSA Women and Law in Southern Africa YMCAs Young Women's Christian Association vii Table of Contents DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... ii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................ iii Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................vii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 MOTIVATION .............................................................................................................. 1 1.2 REASON FOR THE RESEARCH ................................................................................ 3 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................ 4 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES ........................................................... 8 1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................................................. 8 1.5.1 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 8 1.5.2 Methods of collecting qualitative data ................................................................................ 10 1.5.3 Data analysis ........................................................................................................................ 10 1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................. 11 1.6.1 Roles of NGOs and CBOs ...................................................................................................... 11 1.6.2 Development ........................................................................................................................ 11 1.6.3 Service Delivery .................................................................................................................... 12 1.6.4 NGO's relations to governance ............................................................................................ 13 1.6.5 CBOs’ relations to governance ............................................................................................. 14 1.7 RESEARCH LAYOUT ............................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUALISATION AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................... 17 2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 17 2.2 NGOs and CBOs as concepts ................................................................................... 18 2.2.1 The origin of NGOs ............................................................................................................... 18 2.2.2 Definition of NGOs ............................................................................................................... 19 2.2.3 Types of NGOs ...................................................................................................................... 20 2.2.4 Definition of CBOs ................................................................................................................ 20 2.2.5 The purpose of CBOs ............................................................................................................ 21 2.2.6 Types of CBOs....................................................................................................................... 22 2.3 ROLES OF NGOs AND CBOs ..................................................................................................... 23 2.3.1 Social development .............................................................................................................. 23 2.3.2 Sustainable Development .................................................................................................... 24 2.3.3 Sustainable community development ................................................................................. 24 2.4 ROLES OF CBOs ...................................................................................................... 25 2.4.1 Promoting community/citizen participation........................................................................ 25 viii 2.4.2 Sustainable Development .................................................................................................... 25 2.5 THEORIES OF NGOs AND CBOs............................................................................. 26 2.5.1 Development theory ............................................................................................................ 26 2.5.2 Stakeholder theory .............................................................................................................. 27 2.5.3 Collaborative public management theory ........................................................................... 28 2.6 ACCOUNTABILITY AND TRANSPARENCY OF NGOs ............................................ 28 2.6.1 Accountability ...................................................................................................................... 29 2.6.2 Transparency ........................................................................................................................ 30 2.7 MONITORING AND EVALUATION ........................................................................... 31 2.8 EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS ....................................................................... 31 2.9 SERVICE DELIVERY ................................................................................................ 32 2.9.1 Community participation ..................................................................................................... 34 2.9.2 Corruption ............................................................................................................................ 35 2.9.3 Control corruption ............................................................................................................... 36 2.10 DEVELOPMENT ..................................................................................................... 37 2.10.1 Social development ............................................................................................................ 37 2.10.2 Economic development ..................................................................................................... 37 2.10.3 Sustainable human development ...................................................................................... 39 2.11 POVERTY ALLEVIATION........................................................................................ 40 2.12 GOVERNANCE AS A CONCEPT ............................................................................ 42 2.12.1 Good governance ............................................................................................................... 43 2.12.2 The importance of good governance ................................................................................. 44 2.13 THEORIES ON GOOD GOVERNANCE .................................................................. 45 2.13.1 Traditional authority theory .............................................................................................. 46 2.13.2 Network management theory ........................................................................................... 46 2.13.3 Cultural theory ................................................................................................................... 47 2.13.4 Agency theory .................................................................................................................... 48 2.14 ACCOUNTABILITY IN GOVERNANCE ................................................................... 48 2.15 PROMOTING HUMAN RIGHTS – GOOD GOVERNANCE ..................................... 50 2.16 LESS ACTIVE CIVIL SOCIETY ............................................................................... 51 2.17 FIGHTING FOR THE PREVENTION OF CRIMINALISATION OF POLITICS .......... 53 2.18 CONCLUSION ......................................................................................................... 53 CHAPTER THREE: CHALLENGES/CONSTRAINTS FACING NGOs AND CBOs IN PROVIDING SERVICE DELIVERY ............................................................................................................................................... 55 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 55 3.2 Funding for NGOs and CBOs .................................................................................... 57 3.2.1 Accessing donors .................................................................................................................. 58 ix 3.2.2 Funding conditions and limitations ...................................................................................... 59 3.2.3 Corruption and embezzlement of funds .............................................................................. 62 3.3 Dynamics between government and NGOs and service delivery ............................... 64 3.3.1 Service delivery .................................................................................................................... 64 3.3.2 Interaction of government and NGOs.................................................................................. 66 3.4 Dynamics operating within NGOs and CBOs ............................................................ 68 3.4.1 Poor accountability .............................................................................................................. 68 3.4.2 Poor governance .................................................................................................................. 70 3.4.3 Strategic planning ................................................................................................................ 70 3.5 Constraints in monitoring and evaluation in NGOs ..................................................... 72 3.6 Political environment and service delivery ................................................................. 75 3.7 Constraints in implementing....................................................................................... 76 3.7.1 Lack of resources (human and financial) ............................................................................. 77 3.7.2 Dynamics in leadership in NGOs and CBOs .......................................................................... 80 3.8 Poor networking and communication ......................................................................... 83 3.8.1 Networking ........................................................................................................................... 83 3.8.2 Communication .................................................................................................................... 85 3.9 Dynamics of limited capacity ...................................................................................... 87 3.9.1 Capacity building .................................................................................................................. 89 3.10 Summary ................................................................................................................. 91 CHAPTER FOUR: THE IMPACT OF NGOs AND CBOs ON LESOTHO'S GOVERNANCE ............................. 93 4.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 93 4.2 Governance and Good Governance .......................................................................... 95 4.3 ACCOUNTABILITY ................................................................................................... 97 4.3.1 Non-Governmental Organisations ....................................................................................... 98 4.3.2 Community-Based Organisations......................................................................................... 99 4.4 Transparency .......................................................................................................... 100 4.4.1 NGOs .................................................................................................................................. 102 4.4.2 CBOs ................................................................................................................................... 102 4.5 RULE OF LAW ........................................................................................................ 103 4.5.1 NGOs .................................................................................................................................. 104 4.6 PARTICIPATION ..................................................................................................... 106 4.6.1 NGOs .................................................................................................................................. 107 4.6.2 CBOs ................................................................................................................................... 109 4.7 Effectiveness and Efficiency .................................................................................... 110 4.7.1 NGOs .................................................................................................................................. 112 x 4.8 Responsiveness ...................................................................................................... 113 4.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 116 CHAPTER FIVE: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ................................................ 118 5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 118 5.2 Chapter overview ..................................................................................................... 120 5.3 Findings ................................................................................................................... 121 5.3.1 Good governance is the hallmark of governments ............................................................ 121 5.3.2 Effectiveness in the provision of services through NGOs and CBOs .................................. 122 5.3.3 Funding of NGOs a serious challenge ................................................................................ 123 5.3.4 Citizen participation in governance issues enhanced through NGOs and CBOs ............... 124 5.3.5 Corruption in NGOs and CBOs ........................................................................................... 125 5.3.6 NGOs and CBOs improve transparency ............................................................................. 126 5.3.7 The rule of law needs more attention ............................................................................... 127 5.4 Interpretation of the research .............................................................................................. 128 5.4.1 The roles and functions of NGOs and CBOs in government .............................................. 128 5.4.2 How NGOs and CBOs assist the Lesotho Government in service delivery ........................ 130 5.3.3 What actions should be taken in dealing with the challenges faced by NGOs? ................ 131 5.4.4 Determining if NGOs and CBOs have a positive or negative impact on the governance of Lesotho ........................................................................................................................................ 131 5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................... 133 5.5.1 Good governance must be encouraged ............................................................................. 133 5.5.2 Increased funding of NGOs and CBOs ................................................................................ 133 5.5.3 Improving service delivery ................................................................................................. 134 5.5.4 Promoting and strengthening the rule of law, accountability and transparency .............. 134 5.5.5 Monitoring and Evaluation in NGOs must be enhanced ................................................... 135 5.5.6 Public participation must be encouraged .......................................................................... 136 5.5.7 Value of the research ......................................................................................................... 136 5.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 136 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................. 138 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 MOTIVATION Lesotho is a small, mountainous landlocked country, it is land locked by South Africa. t has a population of almost 2.3 million and nominal gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of $1,045.9 in 2022 (World Bank 2023). Like other African countries in its pursuit to strengthen its democracy and reduce poverty, Lesotho became a member and signatory to several sub-regional, regional, and international convention. These organisations include the Southern African Development Communities (SADC), the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), the United Nations (UN), and the African Union (AU). As mechanisms to help in the fight against poverty and global development, many countries introduced Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Community Based Organisations (CBOs) to their governance (processes/structures?) to fill gaps that the government either cannot or do not wish to fulfill. Loise (2017) notes that NGOs are one of the basic elements of democratic societies. It is incontestable that NGOs and CBOs have come to play a prominent role on the African continent, including Lesotho. They are regarded as one of the mechanisms used in poverty reduction initiatives and programmes. The roots of NGOs and CBOs in Africa are found in the arrival of missionaries on the continent who dispensed charity and engaged in the provision of education and health services (Manji and O’Coill 2007: 568). Matthews and Nqaba (2017: 5) argued that while the history of NGOs could be traced back to the colonial period, it was in the 1980s that they were increasingly recognised as important institutions in the broader development aid sectors in Africa, as well as the rest of the world. Khati (2018: iii) observed that the prevalence of NGOs and CBOs in most developing countries is linked to the availability of foreign aid and a modernisation agenda for developed countries to invest in the development of the Global South countries. Khati (2018) states that, for these reasons, the governments of developing countries have embraced the existence and importance of NGOs in the improvement of the livelihoods of poor people within their regions. 2 Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) NGOs can be described as non-governmental and non-profit organisations that operate without the government's control. Lewis and Kanji (2009: 11) define NGOs as agencies that are primarily engaged in work relating to certain areas of development or humanitarian work at a local, national, or international level. While the importance and relevance of the NGO have rightfully been questioned and challenged, their ubiquity and influence in the Lesotho government cannot be denied. Lesotho established an organisation in 1990, popularly known as the Lesotho Council of Non-Governmental Organisations (LCN), which is an umbrella organisation for NGOs in Lesotho. Its main objective is to provide supportive services to the NGO community. LCN’s strategic plan (2014-2019: 10) states that the primary mission of the Council is to stimulate, promote and build capacity within Lesotho NGOs so that they are stable, democratic, transparent, skilled, empowered, sustainable and responsive to their beneficiaries' needs and those of the voiceless and marginalised. Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) CBOs are non-profit, non-governmental, or charitable organisations that represent the community's needs and work to help them. The Firefighter Foundation (n.d.) defines CBOs as not profit-making organisations incorporated for the purpose of providing services or other assistance to economically or socially disadvantaged persons within its designated community. It may be a United Nations agency or an Intergovernmental Organisation. We saw the emergence of CBOs in Lesotho during the early days of the HIV/AIDS crisis, when they were at the frontline of the response. Many of these CBOs began as local support groups for community members living with HIV, which then grew to serve thousands of vulnerable children and families in the community with essential service support (Carleton n.d.). NGOs (and CBOs) are key components of a participatory process that helps to raise the status of vulnerable groups, build confidence, and enhance the ability of people to participate in development (African Development Bank 2006: 25). The African Development Bank (2006: 25) further states that these organisations have a significant role to play in promoting and strengthening good governance in Lesotho. To be able to do this, the organisations themselves must be credible, strong, 3 independent, and be seen to be transparent. CBOs normally are driven by community residents in all aspects of their existence, while professional personnel drive NGOs. NGOs and CBOs make a sincere effort to help the needy, and once they become popular, the funds start rolling in. The Lesotho Government recognised that, together with NGOs, donors, and other sectors of society, it will need to adapt rapidly if the threat of growing poverty is to be minimised and full advantage should be taken of opportunities to improve the welfare of the nation (Lesotho Country Report 2006: ix). Poverty in Lesotho has become a critical issue for the country's government; NGOs are seen to be stepping in to fill the gaps. Caritas Lesotho (2020) emphasises that many international non-profit groups, such as Caritas Lesotho, operate in the country which seek to help individuals escape poverty by teaching them technical skills. Their primary focus is on vulnerable children and teaching them a trade such as farming or woodworking. Through skills and trades, they can make a living and be able to provide for themselves. NGOs in Lesotho also assist in development through joint projects with the government. They also employ a myriad of strategies in their efforts to economically empower Lesotho's unemployed people and the rural poor. The strategies employed by NGOs depend on factors such as the genesis, nature, and agenda of the particular organisation (Hapazari and Hapazari 2019: 77). The results obtained from this research will be valuable to NGOs, CBOs and the Lesotho Government as it will offer suggestions on ways to deal with the challenges faced by the organisations. 1.2 REASON FOR THE RESEARCH The last decades have witnessed extraordinary growth in NGOs in all spheres of human activities worldwide, especially in developing countries (Bromideh 2011: 197). National governments’ responsibilities include economic empowerment and the advancement of economically disadvantaged groups. However, NGOs and CBOs are seen to play fundamental roles in economic empowerment, poverty reduction, and the advancement of disadvantaged groups. Hence, it is worth researching the extent of their intervention and their impact on the governance of Lesotho. Khati (2018: 8) argues that these organisations appear to be 4 promoters of the development process in Lesotho, while the state is increasingly seen as incapable of responding sufficiently to the needs of citizens. It is worth noting that these organisations face challenges in assisting the government. Researching this topic will assist both the government and these organisations to tackle the problems and challenges facing these organisations. When the challenges facing NGOs and CBOs are addressed, efficiency in both entities will be attained. 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT In Africa, NGOs play a leading role in responding to various issues, including in the areas of Health, Education, Child Development, Poverty, Youth Development, Women empowerment, and Peace and Human Rights (FundsforNGOs 2020). Teguru (2016: iii) states that the challenges faced by these organisations include political interference, government policies, political instability, funding, donor priorities changing, community members' participation, and economic instability. These challenges hinder the effective implementation of community development projects, which lead to project failure or the partial success of projects. Funding for NGOs is a source of concern in Lesotho as no formal procedures guide domestic or foreign fundraising and NGOs and CBOs independently source the funding. Lesotho NGOs fear the closure of embassies and donors, not just for their funding, but also for their strategic positioning. With the Danish Embassy closed, the British Embassy’s closure imminent, and the Irish Embassy’s closure, many Lesotho NGOs believe this is due to a lack of confidence in the potential for the country to develop and to strategic position themselves in more lucrative markets in South Africa (archive.globalpolicy.org n.d.). Lack of funding has led to the lacklustre performance of NGOs on set goals. For example, the United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) Lesotho 2020/21 Social Protection Budget Brief stated that protracted delays in the disbursement of promised funds, for instance, observed for the child grant programme in 2020 caused major inconveniences. It also stated that in 2020 extensive delays in disbursing external funds prevented new needy households from receiving cash transfers on time, while the 40 000 households receiving child grants could not receive their promised top-ups. 5 Many projects that Lesotho deals with are HIV/AIDS projects. For these projects to be successful, NGOs need funds. The US Embassy in Lesotho (2020) states that according to the 2020 survey by the Lesotho Population-based HIV Impact Assessment (LePHIA), HIV prevalence stood at 23%, which corresponds to approximately 324 000 adults living with HIV in the country. Lesotho needs donor funding to meet its HIV obligations, although funds are scarce. While the importance and relevance of NGOs have rightfully been questioned and challenged, their ubiquity and influence in the Lesotho government cannot be denied. Matthews and Nqaba (2017: 2) state that while it is evident that the number and influence of NGOs in Africa have grown over the last few decades, it is worth noting that there are some concerns around declining funding for NGOs. When the Covid-19 pandemic hit the world, the Lesotho government was not prepared to deal with a national emergency of the magnitude of the Coronavirus pandemic. The country declared a state of emergency to tackle the pandemic. However, the government was unable to mobilise sufficient resources to fight either the pandemic or the subsequent hunger and economic crises, which resulted from restrictions on people's movement (Lesotho Country Report 2022: 28). In response to the Coronavirus pandemic, NGOs like the Red Cross Society in Lesotho played a critical role in providing essential personal protective equipment to crowded places, like bus terminals, and hard-to-reach rural areas. The Lesotho Chamber of Commerce and Industry also led efforts to mobilise donations from private businesses, which were then distributed to the National Coronavirus Secretariat and others (BTI 2022 Country Report: 17). NGOs have filled the gap that the government is failing to fill due to the social, economic, and political problems in Lesotho. However, NGOs, as an integral part of civil society, are facing challenges in their bid to foster community development (Teguru 2016: iii). Apart from its regulatory role, the government does not seem to play any significant role in how NGOs go about assisting the poor in the country, apart from its provision of grants to those NGOs that look after orphans and elderly people. Civil society (NGOs and CBOs) at all levels has gained recognition. However, it is noted that the lack of a comprehensive legal and policy framework adversely affects 6 the effectiveness of the sector. Moreover, the current government of Lesotho hinders participation and shared views, based on the community they represent; they also threaten CSOs that voice their concerns (Rakhare 2019: 15). According to Kaldor et al. (2012: 19), the number of international NGOs more than doubled between 1989 and 2000. This shows that there is a greater need for NGOs and CBOs in African countries. But the question remains, does the presence of NGOs and CBOs have a positive or negative impact on governance? This study uses a governance framework as a means of identifying the strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities brought about by these organisations in Lesotho. NGOs need good governance for effective functioning. FundsForNGOs (2016) states that the principles of good governance, in the dynamic environment NGOs face today, are accountability, transparency, responsibility, disclosure practices and organisational relationships among the board and stakeholders. A poor governance framework in these organisations can be a hindrance to them delivering the services they aim to provide. Lesotho Governance Governance can be viewed as a system in which organisations are controlled and directed. The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP) (2009) defines governance as the process of decision-making by which decisions are implemented or not implemented. The International Bureau of Education (2016) however states that governance has been defined to refer to structures and processes, which are designed to ensure accountability, transparency, responsiveness, the rule of law, stability, equity and inclusiveness, empowerment, and broad-based participation. This is what many authors and scholars refer to as good governance. Good governance has been extensively promoted by the Bretton Woods Institutions and donor partners for the critical role they play in the development of any state. Lehobo (2017:1) states that the World Bank, being a donor, coined the term ‘good governance’ during the period in which corruption was soaring, aid was ineffective, and there was a lack of commitment to implement reforms by countries that received donations (World Bank 1989). That is when the World Bank and other international agencies made it a precondition for receiving any form of financial assistance. Good 7 governance continues to drive international development policy, as Lehobo (2017) states. The World Bank, together with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and donor countries, influenced the global economic policy by ensuring that good governance was central to any policy framework. Lesotho's governance has been characterised by an unstable democracy, high corruption, and a lack of accountability and transparency. According to Lesotho.un.org (2019), frequent government changes in Lesotho – three in less than five years – reflect governance challenges. The country, therefore, faces several challenges to enhance the framework for good governance (African Development Bank 2006). Firstly, accountability is still a major challenge in Lesotho's governance. UNESCAP (2009) states that accountability is a key requirement of good governance. Not only governmental institutions, but also the private sector and CSOs, must be accountable to the public and their institutional stakeholders (Coursehero.com 2022). The African Development Bank (2006) defines accountability as the obligation to render an account for a conferred responsibility. Considering the three forms of accountability, namely political, financial and administrative accountability, it can be said that Lesotho has failed to be accountable. Isbell and Malephane (2018) point out that the Lesotho government's resistance to accepting a Southern African Development Community Commission of Enquiry Report on the assassination of the former army commander Maaparankoe Mahao (ENCA 2015; Shale 2015) is seen as tantamount to refusing to be accountable to the nation (Southern African Litigation Centre 2016). In Lesotho, corruption usually occurs in the police, the government, and in business administration. Lesotho has seen a rise in corruption since the formation of the fragile coalition governments that normally collapse midway through their term of office. Moletsane (2020) states that coalition politicking has led to an increase in government expenditure, largely because of rampant corruption. He (2020) further states that despite warnings by international financial institutions, the squandering of funds has gone on unabated and, by the Finance Minister's admission, the country does “not have money”. This shows that Lesotho has a long way to go in attaining good governance through being thoroughly accountable. 8 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES 1. What are the roles and functions of NGOs and CBOs in the Lesotho government? 2. How do NGOs and CBOs assist the Lesotho government in service delivery? 3. What actions should be taken in dealing with the challenges faced by NGOs? 4. Are NGOs and CBOs having a positive or negative impact on Lesotho’s governance? AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The primary aim of this study is to indicate whether the intervention of NGOs and CBOs in Lesotho's governance in contributing to the development of the country and reducing poverty. The roles played by these organisations will be outlined and the challenges they face will be identified. Moreover, this research aims to add to the existing literature on the intervention of NGOs and CBOs in Lesotho’s governance in general. The study will use a governance framework as a means of identifying the strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities brought about by these organisations in Lesotho. The main objectives of the study are as follows: 1. To analyse the roles and function of NGOs and CBOs in Lesotho's government; 2. To investigate how NGOs and CBOs assist the government of Lesotho in service delivery; 3. To identify and analyse the challenges faced by these organisations in pursuit of fulfilling their roles; and 4. To determine if NGOs and CBOs have a positive or negative impact on the governance of Lesotho. 1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN 1.5.1 Methodology The purpose of this study is to examine the interventions of NGOs and CBOs in the governance of Lesotho. The research methodology is the manner/way in which the 9 topic will be understood and how the research will be conducted, as well as how the data will be collected using different methods and techniques. Somekh and Lewin (2005: 346) define methodology as both "the collection of methods or rules by which a particular piece of research is undertaken" and the "principles, theories and values that underpin a particular research approach". Hence, the basis of methodology in research is to explain and clarify the methods that the researcher will use and it helps to provide detailed explanations of how the data will be collected and analysed (Silverman 2006: 275). The study will make use of the interpretative research paradigm because this paradigm is concerned with understanding the world as it is from individuals’ subjective experiences. This paradigm uses questioning and observation to uncover a deep and rich understanding of the phenomenon being investigated. The method of data collection and analysis to be employed in this study is the qualitative method. Hilipsen and Vernooij-Dassen (2007: 5-12) define qualitative research as the study of the nature of phenomena, including their qualities, different manifestations, the context in which they appear, or the perspectives from which they can be perceived, but excluding their range, frequency, and place in an objectively determined chain of cause and effect. The qualitative data obtained will provide information on the contributions of NGOs and CBOs to Lesotho's governance. Based on the data accumulated, this study also aims to investigate the challenges these organisations face in fulfilling their roles. Qualitative research also seeks to enquire about subjects in their original settings, which are not enhanced or disturbed. According to Domegan and Fleming (2007: 24), "Qualitative research aims to explore and to discover issues about the problem on hand because very little is known about the problem”. This method employs inductive methods, which emphasise interpretation, which will be more useful to interpret the behaviour of NGOs and CBOs in terms of the Lesotho government. This study will focus on the roles of these organisations in the governance of Lesotho and the challenges they face in delivering services. Creswell (2003) states that in qualitative research, different knowledge claims, inquiry strategies, and data collection methods and analysis are employed. There 10 are different sources of data for qualitative studies, such as questionnaires, interviews, and observation. For this study, the researcher will use desktop data. 1.5.2 Methods of collecting qualitative data This research will use secondary data and observations will be used. For the collection of data, the study will make use of a desktop literature review. Merriam (2002:5) states that the advantage of using a qualitative research method is that "the researcher is the primary instrument for data collection and data analysis”. As understanding is the goal of this research, the human instrument, which is immediately responsive and adaptive, would seem to be the ideal means of collecting and analysing the data. For this study, secondary data will be used. The secondary data will be collected from documented materials such as journal articles, theses and dissertations, and other texts on NGOs and CBOs. The secondary data will be collected to cover every aspect of the study. The secondary data will indicate the roles, contributions, and challenges of these organisations in Lesotho. 1.5.3 Data analysis After the data is collected, it will be analysed. Data analysis is considered as the thoughtful interpretation and explanation of the data collected. Mouton and Babbie (2001: 101) elaborate on the process by stating, “We interpret the collected data to draw conclusions that reflect on the interests, ideas, and theories that initiated the inquiry". Content analysis is used for making sense of the information gathered from texts to articulate and present arguments and reach a logical conclusion. There will be no human participants in the study and the researcher will adhere to the ethical guidelines for research by acknowledging all the sources and avoiding plagiarism, and by also ensuring that the data collection process is not biased. 11 1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW Non-Governmental Organisations In the course of the last 25 years, Africa has witnessed an astounding growth in the number and influence of NGOs (Hearn 2007). Many scholars and authors have attempted to define these organisations. Some definitions, like Vakil’s (1997), have suggested their legal status, economic and/or financial considerations, functional areas, and organisational features. The African Union Report (2013: 1) states that the term ‘NGOs’ cover a large variety of groups ranging from community groups, grassroots activist groups, research organisations and advocacy groups to corporate think-tanks and emergency/humanitarian relief focused groups. It is worth noting that the term is often used loosely, sometimes idealistically and sometimes pejoratively, and at different times interchangeably with names such as civil society, private voluntary organisations, and charity/non-profit institutions (African Union Report 2013: 1). Lewis and Kanji (2009: 11) define NGOs as agencies that are primarily engaged in work relating to areas of development or humanitarian work at a local, national, or international level. Pallipedia.org (2021) defines an NGO as a not-for-profit organisation that is independent of the state or international governmental organisations. They are usually funded by donations, but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers (Pallipedia.org, 2021). 1.6.1 Roles of NGOs and CBOs The existence of NGOs has changed the ways that governments and corporations do business and it has further changed the relationship between the two entities (Khati 2018). Turning to Lesotho, NGOs have a key role to play in promoting and strengthening good governance in the country. The African Development Fund (2013: 25) states that to be able to do this, the organisations must be credible, strong, independent, and seen to be transparent. 1.6.2 Development Across the developing world, states with limited finances and which are riddled by poor governance and corruption have failed to lead to development for all their 12 citizens (Banks and Hulme 2012: 3). Within this context, alternative forms of development have been pursued, and since the 1980s, according to Banks and Hulme (2012: 3), NGOs have increasingly been seen as a means through which the gulf between citizens' needs and existing services could be bridged. Furthermore, NGOs play a crucial role in the development of society in developing countries. Grobman (2008) emphasises that NGOs often play an interesting role in a nation's health, economic or social activities, as well as in assessing and addressing problems in both national and international issues, such as human, political and women's rights, economic development, democratisation, inoculation and immunisation, health care, or the environment. In May 1990, Lesotho established a council of organised NGOs called the Lesotho Council of Non-Governmental Organisations (LCN). The Council's main objective is that of providing supportive services to the NGO community. Its focus is primarily on strengthening civil society, and economic justice and social development. Desai (2002) states that NGOs have played a prominent role in formulating and implementing development policy and they are key agents in the development discourse. There has been heightened collaboration with governments and aid agencies throughout this period due to the growing belief that NGOs offer an alternative to development processes and could play a key role in fostering democratisation. 1.6.3 Service Delivery For many developing countries, they attain efficiency and effectiveness by working together with NGOs to deliver services to their communities. McLennan (2009: 21) states that service delivery is the provision of public goods and services by the state or private organisations to the users who demand them. Major services provided by NGOs in Lesotho are health, food security, and education. For any institution to provide efficient, effective and quality services, Rakhare (2019: 30) states that they should abide by the principles noted in the White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery (1997: 13-22). The principles are the following: • consulting the users of services, • setting the service standards, 13 • increasing access, • ensuring courtesy, • providing more and better information, • increasing openness and transparency, • remedying mistakes and failures, and • obtaining the best value for money (White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery 1997: 15). NGOs provide services by implementing projects that focus on improving health, access to education, and nutrition. In as much as NGOs are commonly understood as voluntary, not-for-profit organisations, independent of government business (Michael 2004), the boundary lines are blurred. Most of these organisations are involved in service provision and development in communities and thus need to work hand-in-hand with the government for sustainable development and service provision. Although Khati (2018: 39) argues that NGOs should have no relations with government organisations, this might not be possible in Lesotho. Considering the degree to which NGOs are involved in the provision of education, the management of health care, and the delivery of social services in Lesotho, it is no wonder that the government and NGOs have found a way to work together. 1.6.4 NGO's relations to governance Good governance motivates better service delivery, enhances and strengthens accountability, and enhances decision making (IFAC, 2013: 2; Mutahaba, 2012: 25). In developing countries, the inferior quality of public services has been attributed to the slow progress of development (Mehrotra, 2005: 263). The growing reputation of NGOs has resulted in a global call for improved accountability of NGOs, This has been encouraged by donors who have increasingly seen NGOs as an additional, if not alternative, resource for national development (Lesotho PVO/NGO Assessment 1993: 60). Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) 14 Community-Based Organisations (CBOs) are considered one of the major institutions involved in community development, apart from state and non- governmental organisations (Mgawanyemba 2008). Many authors have defined CBOs as similar to NGOs. According to Law Insider (n.d.), CBOs are not-for-profit organisations incorporated to provide services or other assistance to economically or socially disadvantaged persons within their designated community. UniversalClass.com (2019) states that CBOs are local non-profit groups that work to generate improvements within a community on the local level. As implied by their name, these are organisations that are found at the community level and they are involved in the developments taking place in the community. Through these organisations, public participation is attained as these organisations operate at community level. As Luvai (2012: 1) puts it, CBOs are presented as a means to mobilise and organise local communities for participation in the development of their communities. CBOs have come up to respond to the many socio-economic and development challenges facing poor communities. Abegunde (2009: 234) states that the mediocre performance of government in meeting the socio-economic quests of citizens has been identified as one of the reasons behind the proliferation of community-based organisations in the new millennium. In 1991, the Lesotho Network of AIDS Services Organisations (LENASO) was established as an umbrella nationally recognised network of CBOs. Its objectives are to support the coordination and management of CBOs implementing HIV and AIDS services and to strengthen community linkages for the uptake of public health care services effectively and efficiently to ensure equity, availability, and accessibility through capacity building, resource mobilisation, networking, information sharing, advocacy and lobby, and monitoring and evaluation at the community level. 1.6.5 CBOs’ relations to governance According to Mule (2001: 73), governance enables public organisations like CBOs to provide public services to their clients in an effective, efficient, transparent, and accountable manner under the rule of law resulting in capable and effective administration and functioning institutions. However, in Lesotho, the government has 15 identified the inadequate involvement of important non-state actors, notably NGOs, Faith-Based Organisations (FBOs) and CBOs, the role of these stakeholder groups, and the need to facilitate them to contribute effectively to national and local development processes (Ministry of Local Government, Chieftainship and Parliamentary Affairs 2014: 8). 1.7 RESEARCH LAYOUT The research consists of five chapters, which will provide an in-depth understanding of NGOs and CBOs and how they interact with and impact the governance of Lesotho. Chapter One: Introduction This chapter introduces the topic, examines the background and the intention of the study, and provides a description of the title. It includes the research problem, the objectives of the study, the research questions, and an overview of the research methodology. Chapter Two: Conceptual frameworks (Governance, good governance, CBOs and NGOs) This chapter will provide detailed theory related to governance, NGOs and CBOs. Governance can be termed good when it effectively facilitates the generation and utilisation of public resources in a manner that secures the human development imperatives of a society. Chapter Three: Challenges facing NGOs and CBOs in providing service delivery in Lesotho This chapter will identify the roles played by NGOs and CBOs in Lesotho and examine the challenges facing them in rendering services to communities in the country. Chapter Four: Assessment of the impact of NGOs and CBOs on Lesotho’s governance 16 This chapter will assess the contribution and impact of NGOs and CBOs on Lesotho’s governance. It will also determine whether the NGOs and CBOs have a positive or negative impact on the governance of Lesotho. Chapter Five: Summary, findings, recommendations and conclusion This chapter will look at the summary, recommendations, and conclusion of the study. It will also discuss the findings of the study. 17 CHAPTER TWO: CONCEPTUALISATION AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 INTRODUCTION The term ‘non-governmental organisation’ first came into currency in 1945 because of the need for the United Nations (UN) to differentiate in its Charter between participation rights for intergovernmental specialised agencies and those for international private organisations. The history of CBOs goes back to the American Civil War, when charity groups were designed to aid those who were displaced, disabled, or impoverished by the war (Wanjohi, 2013). Between the 1980s and the 1990s CBOs expanded to a point that they were referred to as a movement, and the process of community organising expanded into many community organisations. In the 1950s and 1960s, Africa saw the rising prominence of NGOs and CBOs as important features of development (AU 2013). Jinmi (2013) states that it was in the 1970s and 1980s when the activities of these organisations became more noticeable as they began filling gaps that either governments could not or did not wish to fill. However, long before governments came into being, people organised themselves into social groups that drew on community spirit and the need to tackle social problems concerning the rights of people and common property, resources, health, safety, danger, equity, disease, and poverty (Jinmi, 2013). NGOs and CBOs have proven to have had a great impact on the governance of countries through their interventions. Evidence from studies has revealed that these organisations, when allowed to intervene in a country’s governance, could greatly affect the development of the country. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a theoretical framework and conceptualisation of NGOs, CBOs, governance, and good governance. The discussions in the chapter will enable the reader to understand the impact of NGOs’ and CBOs’ intervention in the governance of Lesotho. In this way, the researcher also hopes to clarify the pertinence of these terms in the literature. Moreover, explanations will be provided about the usage of these concepts, as the basic 18 notions of this study. While doing so, the researcher will indicate the characteristics and roles of NGOs and CBOs, which are salient in governance in terms of scale and scope and their potential strengths and weaknesses. This section provides an overview of the impact on governance through the intervention of NGOs and CBOs. At the end of the chapter, the readers will be able to identify the contributions of these organisations to development and service delivery in Lesotho’s governance. Good service delivery is urgently need in communities because through it, poverty could be alleviated. The study further intends to educate the reader on the contribution of NGOs and CBOs to governance. This chapter will provide the context in which NGOs and governments operate. This is important to be able to understand the particular role that the researcher believes NGOs should play in governance. The chapter is divided into two sections: the conceptualisation of NGOs and CBOs, and the theoretical framework of governance and good governance. 2.2 NGOs and CBOs as concepts At the end of this section, the reader will understand the roles, functions, and context in which NGOs and CBOs intervene in governance. However, it is essential to first define the concepts of NGO and CBO. 2.2.1 The origin of NGOs Globalisation, as stated by Boskov and Spire (2011: 2), is a movement that brings unification among states, markets, technology, and firms around the globe. The world is witnessing an increase in the levels of trade and foreign direct investment worldwide a nd we are also seeing a growing interdependence of world economies due to globalisation. This brings an increase in private investment, which introduced NGOs as important providers of aid and development services in low-income economies. NGOs have existed in some form for centuries. As far back as 1850, more than 100 000 private and not-for-profit organizations with an international focus have been 19 founded. Francis (2015) states that many problems within a nation could not be solved. International treaties and international organisations such as the World Trade Organisation were perceived as being too centred on the interests of capitalist enterprises. Some argued that to counterbalance this trend, NGOs developed to emphasise humanitarian issues, developmental aid, and sustainable development (Francis, 2015). 2.2.2 Definition of NGOs Many authors and institutions have attempted to define NGOs. This Organizations have come across as the helping hand of many governments as they are not for profit making but solely for the welfare of the people. The World Bank (1995: 7) defines them as private organisations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interest of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic services, and undertake community development Coppola (2020), in turn, define an NGO as an organisation independent of the government whose primary mission is not commercial and that focuses on social, cultural, environmental, educational, and other issues. There is no generally accepted definition of an NGO, and the term carries different connotations in different circumstances (NGOs for UNESCO Encyclopaedia, 2001). However, there are some fundamental features. Clearly, an NGO must be independent from the direct control of any government. Himanshu (2020) agrees, stating that while the term ‘NGO’ has various interpretations, it is generally accepted to incorporate private organizations that operate without government control, which are non-profit and non-criminal. While NGOs have no fixed or formal definition, they are generally defined as non- profit entities independent of government influence, although at times they may receive government funding. This shows that defining an NGO often underlines its idealistic roots. Hence, an NGO is a full-fledged organisation volunteered by a passionate workforce who work day in and day out for other people's welfare. Kaldor et al. (2003a), amongst others, see the rise of NGOs as a function of the space left by the declining reach of the state, coupled with a growth in globalisation and the emasculation of local political ability. Moreover, the structures of NGOs vary 20 considerably. They can be global hierarchies, with either a relatively strong central authority or a looser federal arrangement or they may be based in a single country and operate transnational. 2.2.3 Types of NGOs Willetts (2001) states that there are different types of NGOs, and they are classified by organisation, geographical location, and main purpose. The World Bank (1995) places NGOs into classes of (i) Operational NGOs, whose primary purpose is the design and implementation of development-related projects, and (ii) Advocacy NGOs, whose primary purpose is to defend or promote a specific cause. The World Bank (1995) further classifies operational NGOs into three main groups: i) CBOs, which serve a specific population in a narrow geographic area; ii) national organisations, which operate in individual developing countries; and iii) international organisations, which are typically headquartered in developed countries and carry out operations in more than one developing country. Maricar R. Chan, Maria Kristina S. Galvez, and Ergilio Ferreira Vicente(2011:9) elaborates on the three types of operational NGOs. CBOs arise out of people’s own initiatives. These can include sports clubs, women’s organisations, neighbourhood organisations, religious or educational organisations. There are a large variety of these, some supported by NGOs, national or international NGOs, or bilateral or international agencies, and others independent on outside help. National NGOs include organisations such as the Red Cross, YMCAs/YWCAs, and professional organisations. Some of these have state branches and assist local NGOs. International NGOs range from secular agencies such as Save the Children, OXFAM, CARE, UNDP, UNICEF and the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations, to religiously motivated groups. Their activities vary from mainly funding local NGOs, institutions and projects, to implementing the projects themselves. Community Based Organisations (CBOs) 2.2.4 Definition of CBOs CBOs are local non-profit groups that work to generate improvements within a community on the local level. They are the community development process in the 21 form of formal organisations. Himanshu (2020) defines them as nonprofit groups who work at an area level to create equality across societies and to enhance the lives of residents in the fields of health care, quality education, and sustainable development. 2.2.5 The purpose of CBOs The primary purpose of CBOs is the improvement of the physical, economic, and social environment of their geographic area of operation. Aideyan (2018) states that they achieve these goals by addressing one or more critical problems in the area – for example, housing, health, education, microfinance, safe water, or sanitation. CBOs are deemed a smaller version of NGOs. CBOs work on common ground, but at a modest level. Moreover, as Himanshu (2020) states, CBOs are typically, and almost necessarily, staffed by local members – community members who experience first-hand the requirements within their neighbourhoods. Governments are increasingly delegating responsibility to CBOs and relying on them to gather local concerns and to develop, plan, and help deliver solutions. CBOs are storehouses and gatekeepers of local information, valuable for their purposes, but this data is also useful to other organisations and government agencies. Hence, the role of CBOs is becoming knowledge management – to compile, sort, store and retrieve local data. The UNHCR Innovation Service (2018) states that in CBOs, members often live within the community, which brings in multiple advantages that are often not afforded to international organisations. These members are familiar with the community they are part of and their services and, therefore, CBOs are better equipped better at communicating appropriately through their existing networks. There is no doubt that NGOs and CBOs can be instrumental in achieving development and reducing poverty in communities. These organisations can do this through promoting participation of poor community members, so that they can be involved in alleviating their own poverty. This concept attaches value to the participation of members of communities who are economically and politically disempowered (Mosweunyane, 2009). Moreover, these organisations should be accountable and transparent to the communities they work with. 22 However, these organisations are not without critics. There are concerns regarding the intervention of NGOs and CBOs in governance. NGOs are seen to play a role in politics, although mainly focused with welfare. Many NGOs operate in unbalanced, dangerous, and conflict-prone communities or collaborate with predatory individuals, such as those who cause political interference or who may abuse the funding or grants allocated for the NGOs for their own benefit (.Abiddin, N.Z., Ibrahim, I. and Aziz, A. 2022: 9). Tortajada (2016) emphasises that many NGOs are as much a part of national and international politics as any other interest group, and their practices and activities are not always in the service of a “good society”, as mentioned by the Centre on Governance at the University of Ottawa (Trent, 2013:page number?). Secondly, the issue of accountability and transparency has been increasingly questioned, mostly in cases where these organisations have falsely claimed to represent the poorest and most deprived, mainly for fundraising purposes (Kaldor 2003). Many NGOs working in developing countries are partly funded by their own governments and have been criticised as being a front for foreign government policy. Critics argue that this makes NGOs accountable to their funders, not the people they work with (Lemmons, 2022:page number?). Numerous studies and practices have demonstrated that NGOs face obstacles, such as political interference, a lack of funding, ineffective networking, and poor governance (Abiddin, Ibrahim and Azziz 2022: 9). This could have a negative impact on governance through NGOs’ interventions. 2.2.6 Types of CBOs Impact of Community-Based Organisations (2019) discusses the four types of CBOs. Firstly, there is Common Interest Groups. These are usually organisations that involve community members who have shared goals and interests. These organisations can be simple and are flexible enough to be modified while still retaining their core structure. Secondly, Micro Finance Institutions are CBOs that focus on financial elements in the community, such as lending and savings. Thirdly, Village Development Committees are CBOs that act as collective governance in villages. They have a set of rules that govern not only the committee’s actions, but the community. Fourth, Faith Based Organisations are CBOs and non-profits with a https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/app5.134#app5134-bib-0028 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/app5.134#app5134-bib-0009 23 religious element to them. They can have similarities to other types of CBO, depending on how they are set up initially. The conclusion is that NGOs and CBOs are driven by the urge to do “good”, without the motive of attaining profits or being politically influenced. For international development, NGOs are viewed as an engine for development and their efficiency in development is drawing positive feedback (Edwards & Hulme 1996: 3). They have also gained popularity in changing mindsets and attitudes towards service delivery (Keck & Sikkink 1998). 2.3 ROLES OF NGOs AND CBOs NGOs and CBOs work on identical grounds and share a common motive: the welfare of society and the people. Their functions can vary widely from service organisations to human rights advocacy and relief groups. NGOs play miscellaneous roles within the societies they operate from; their key objective and underpinning principle is the betterment of the lives of people within their target communities. Banks and Hulme (2012: 3) opined that it was the perceived failures of state-led development approaches throughout the 1970s and 1980s that fueled interest in NGOs as a development alternative, offering innovative and people-centred approaches to service delivery, advocacy, and empowerment. Hapazari and Hapazari (2019:68) state that empowerment as a tool for advancing economically and politically disadvantaged groups is an ongoing process and is not confined to any continent, region, or country. 2.3.1 Social development Social development is about improving the well-being of every individual in society so they can reach their full potential. The success of a society is linked to the well- being of every citizen (Government of New Brunswick, Canada 2009). Additionally, social development means investing in people. It requires the removal of barriers so that all citizens can journey toward their dreams with confidence and dignity (Government of New Brunswick, Canada 2009). Furthermore, it is about refusing to accept that people who live in poverty will always be poor. It is therefore about helping people so that they can move forward on their path to self-sufficiency. 24 Social development further entails the development of a country's human and social capital, which encompasses aspects such as health, education, citizen security, and employment. It is realised by reducing the levels of poverty, inequality, exclusion, isolation, and vulnerability of the groups most in need. The state promotes social development from its different agencies and institutions, which are responsible for implementing social protection policies and programmes to promote inclusion, and which are designed for the benefit of those living in the most precarious conditions (The Black Sheep Community, 2022). NGOs assist in the social development of communities. They play an important role in global social development work, which has helped facilitate achievements in human development, as measured by the UN Human Development Index (HDI) (n.d.). A social development approach needs to be considered by countries to reduce poverty and invest in their people. By investing in people, poverty can be reduced. 2.3.2 Sustainable Development NGOs play an important role in promoting sustainable development. NGOs focus their attention on the social and environmental impacts of business activity, helped in part by advances in information and communications technology. The Government of New Brunswick, Canada (2009) states that many NGOs promote dialogue and other initiatives, which address the needs of minorities, and marginalised and disadvantaged groups. The corresponding outcomes are new or revised policy frameworks, as well as an increased governance capacity to enforce them. This has created improved conditions and creative communities with the clearly defined roles, ethics, and values necessary for sustainable living. 2.3.3 Sustainable community development NGOs have shown leadership in promoting and advancing sustainable community development. Due to their ideology and nature, NGOs are good are reaching out to the poor and remote communities and mobilising these populations. They can also empower communities to regain control of their lives and they can work with and strengthen local organisations. Lastly, NGOs can carry out projects more efficiently 25 and at lower costs than government agencies and, most importantly, promote sustainable development (Nikkhah & Redzuan, 2010: 85). 2.4 ROLES OF CBOs Hussain (2008: 740) states that the purpose of CBOs is to plan, implement and monitor social and economic development programmes, and provide technical and financial help to communities. Moreover, according to Hussain (2008), CBOs positively affect the process of rural change; that is, increases in income and improvements in health, nutrition and the literacy status of populations. CBOs play a key role in the development of marginal communities. Eswarappa (2020: 35) states that CBOs’ presence and participation in the development process could help to minimise the problems of unemployment, poverty, and illiteracy. 2.4.1 Promoting community/citizen participation CBOs are tasked with the role of educating stakeholders and the public about local government decision-making, as well as determining the incorporation of public needs and values into local government decision-making. Silverman (2005) states that CBOs are increasingly the beneficiaries of state and federal grants, and they are charged with implementing publicly-funded programmes at community level. As they are more responsive to grassroots constituencies than institutions traditionally involved in the formulation and implementation of local public policy, this places them in a better position to deal with the community and influence their participation (ibid.). 2.4.2 Sustainable Development CBOs play a significant role in promoting development, especially in rural communities. They have emerged in the contemporary world with better representation of the public voice against injustice and suppression than any other organisations. Miriti (2009: 17) states that CBOs in poor rural communities could influence local governments to be accountable to form coalitions with other social forces and build larger organisations, which could influence regional and national policy in favour of poverty reduction. Miriti (2009) emphasises that with adequate 26 capacity building, rural institutions could make a major contribution to community mobilisation in support of the judicial use of national resources and environmental protection. 2.5 THEORIES OF NGOs AND CBOs Angielczyk (2017) defines a theory as a carefully thought-out explanation for observations of the natural world, which has been constructed using a scientific method, and which brings together many facts and hypotheses. 2.5.1 Development theory The word ‘development’ in the English language connotes ideas such as ‘unfolding’, ‘growth’, ‘the fuller working out of the details of anything’, and ‘bringing out the potential that is latent in something’. Harriss (1992) states that the ability of NGOs to cut across multiple roles and functions is promoted by the need to respond to a plethora of multidimensional challenges facing communities today. Lewis and Kanji (2009: 49) state that to be considered developmental, an organisation should have the ability to ensure desirable change or growth over a significant period. Harriss (1992) further says that development theories are about understanding how the processes of change take place in societies. According to Harriss (1992), scholars from historically less developed parts of Europe and the colonial world contributed to the construction of modern theories of development in the 1940s, stressing the role of the state. Thomas (2000:3) states that this theory examines the ability of organisations to bring significant social and economic changes to communities by employing different approaches and methods to solve existing challenges. In employing these different methods and approaches, the relationship between NGOs and government is regarded as a necessity to achieve significant change in communities (Thomas, 2000). This, in turn, would promote greater cooperation among more stakeholders where service delivery is concerned. 27 2.5.2 Stakeholder theory Stakeholder theory was first described by Dr. F. Edward Freeman, a professor at the University of Virginia, in his landmark book, “Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach” in 1984. Lewis (2001: 202) defines a stakeholder as “any person or group that is able to make a claim on an organisation’s attention, resources, or output or who may be affected by the organisation”. Stakeholder theory addresses business ethics, morals and values when managing stakeholders involved with a project or organisation. It seeks to optimise relations with stakeholders, thereby improving efficiency throughout the project or organisation (Keup, 2022). Jones and Wicks (1999: 21) assert that organisations exist because of their ability to create value and acceptable outcomes for various groups of stakeholders, for example, government or people who have an interest, claim, or stake in the organisation, in what it does, and how well it performs. Basically, stakeholders are motivated to participate in an organisation if they receive incentives that exceed the value of the contributions they are required to make. Freeman (1984) suggests that a company’s stakeholders are "those groups without whose support the organisation would cease to exist". These groups could include customers, employees, suppliers, political action groups, environmental groups, local communities, the media, financial institutions, and governmental groups (Simon, 2016). Employees are however considered major stakeholders in any company. They expect to be compensated fairly and work in safe conditions. If the company does not meet these basic expectations and treats its employees like cogs in a wheel rather than valued team members, it can harm the business in the long run (McAbee, 2022) When the opinions and influence of all stakeholders are used to help shape a project, the project will be better positioned for success. It can be concluded that attention to the contributions of NGOs in their partnership with governments and their employees need to be taken into consideration. This cooperation will ensure maximum outputs and achievements in community development. https://www.amazon.com/Strategic-Management-Stakeholder-Edward-Freeman/dp/0521151740/ref=asap_bc?ie=UTF8 https://www.amazon.com/Strategic-Management-Stakeholder-Edward-Freeman/dp/0521151740/ref=asap_bc?ie=UTF8 https://www.wrike.com/blog/author/editor-7/ 28 2.5.3 Collaborative public management theory According to O’Leary and Vij (2012), the collaborative public management theory refers to a process of facilitating and operating in multi-organisational arrangements to solve problems that cannot be solved or easily solved by single organisations. Collaborative public management theory, as described by McGuire (2006), would be the best theory to describe the nature of the relationship between NGOs and a government. Collaborative, according to McGuire (2006: 33), “means to co-labour, to achieve common goals, often working across boundaries and in multi-sector and multi-actor relationships”. Weisbrod (1975; later 1988) asserted that NGOs are, in part, a response to the limitations of government. A government’s ability is often restricted, and to increase effectiveness and efficiency, the assistance of NGOs is needed to respond to the high demand for goods and services by the voters. Another important reason is provided by McGuire (2006: 34) regarding the nature of social problems that are predominant, and which are crippling vulnerable communities. McGuire (2006) states that these social problems have become so complex and vast in scope and nature that they can no longer be solved by public organisations alone. Public sectors often find themselves in need of others’ support to resolve issues. Hence, they call on the support of other public organisations or even private partnerships. It is important to understand collaborative public management as an additional tool in the toolbox to become better public administrators. In conclusion, an increased collaboration among organisations is required to deal with the complex reality of today’s societies (Pollitt, 2003). The collaboration is not only needed to improve public services, but to also create the capability of solving the contemporary problems of public sector service delivery (Keast & Brown, 2002). 2.6 ACCOUNTABILITY AND TRANSPARENCY OF NGOs NGOs have taken an increasingly prominent role as development assistance implementers in recent years, especially in fragile states where they often provide essential services that are traditionally fall under the responsibility of the public https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719037.2019.1604793 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14719037.2019.1604793 29 sector (Chene 2013: 2). Chene (2013: 2) adds that with the growing influence of the non-profit sector over service delivery, as well as their increased involvement in the development of national and international policies, the transparency and accountability of NGOs have become an area of concern. 2.6.1 Accountability According to Wigmore (2022), accountability is an assurance that an individual or an organisation will be evaluated on their performance or behaviour related to something for which they are responsible. In Walker’s (2002: 63) opinion, accountability has a wide range of definitions. For Srinivas (2015), accountability means empowered and responsible staff and managers who have the authority and responsibility for decision making, can improve the delivery of the NGO's aims and objectives, and can improve the management of human and financial resources. Haque and Ali (2008:6), in turn, define it simply as holding officials responsible for their actions and establishing criteria to measure the performance of officials, as well as the rights and mechanisms to ensure that the standards are met. Srinivas (2015) discusses examples of accountability in NGOs. Firstly, NGOs and CBOs can be accountable to a donor agency for the use of funds received for an intended objective and purpose. Secondly, they are accountable to a government agency in terms of maintaining their non-profit status and providing documentary evidence of their expenditure. Thirdly, they are accountable to their constituencies in terms of delivering on their projects and assisting them in finding solutions to the problems they face. During the past two decades, there has been a substantial discussion to find out a way for how NGOs can be made more accountable to the beneficiaries. Aktar and Masud (2020) noted this extra focus on how to attain unbiased accountability has undermined finding out why imbalances in accountability exist and to find out whether any structural barriers hinder improvement in beneficiary accountability. The African Development Bank (2006: 4) states that public accountability, thus, requires public officials to respond to the requirements of the citizens without prejudice. Finkelstein (2020) discusses the principles of accountability: for remarkable accountability, you must be answerable; and, when someone has a query, you need 30 to be clear and honest in your answer and justification. Clear reasoning for your actions is also vital for accountability. It has been found that many NGOs conceal information; therefore, accountability and transparency are progressively important in the non-profit sectors. Originally, calls for transparency were for governments to show citizens how their tax money was spent, and the purpose was to improve accountability, build trust, and prevent corruption. 2.6.2 Transparency The concept of transparency has attracted several interpretations and meanings because defining it is not as easy as it may seem. Fung (2013: 185) understands transparency as availing information to citizens and accentuates that it should be done fairly and equitably. Porumbescu (2015:2) agrees that transparency is providing information and adds that the latter should be of such a nature that the public could utilise it to hold the government accountable. Moore (2017: 1) states that government institutions should be open to the public and not operate in secrecy. Information should neither be hidden from any person or group, nor shared only with specific persons. Thus, information should reach all citizens, including those in remote areas. Moreover, transparency implies being honest in all communications, transactions, and operations. Institutions should be honest and truthful and they should comply with applicable rules and regulations (Wehmeir and Raaz 2012: 338). Ali (2008: 8) asserts that transparency allows stakeholders to use critical information and, hence, defend their interests. Policies are helpful to both NGOs and donors in the grant cycle. With more information available, NGOs are better equipped to research and submit higher- quality grant applications. Thus, they can more quickly find the right donors and submit tailor-made applications (Alonzi 2018). Alonzi (2018) adds that in the context of international development, transparency typically means being open and honest. This can apply to donor goals and objectives, staff diversity, the application process, and contact information. However, the call for being open and honest is usually about grants to NGOs. https://proposalsforngos.com/proposals/what-is-the-grant-cycle/ https://proposalsforngos.com/people/alta/ https://proposalsforngos.com/people/alta/ 31 2.7 MONITORING AND EVALUATION To meet the growing demands in the world, NGOs are now under greater pressure to demonstrate development success to donors in a clear, comprehensive, compelling, and innovative manner (Toladata 2019). NGOs and CBOs are expected to make their operations as transparent and accountable as possible; hence, monitoring and evaluation practices should be in place in NGOs and CBOs. Monitoring and evaluation are two terms that are closely linked but they mean slightly different activities. Monitoring can be defined as the systematic process of collecting, analysing, and using information to track a programme’s progress toward reaching its objectives and guiding management decisions (UN WOMEN 2010), while evaluation is defined as the systematic assessment of an activity, project, programme, strategy, policy, topic, theme, sector, operational area, or an institution's performance. Evaluation requires an external evaluator to look at whether the allocated resources were used effectively to achieve the desired results (Humanitarian Global 2021). The researcher is of the view that this will curb corruption, which is prevalent in African countries. FundsForNGOs (2013) states that monitoring and evaluation are separate practices dedicated to the assessment of an NGO's overall performance. Governments and NGOs normally set up projects that are run by NGOs. Therefore, to determine that transparency and efficiency are achieved by an NGO, monitoring and evaluation (M&E) practices ought to be in place. As FundsForNGOs (2013) state, M&E practices can be seen as a way to make the activities of an NGO transparent and easy to account for. In addition, well-planned M&E can help a project team to gain a better understanding of a target population's needs (Toladata, 2019). This will lead to effective service delivery. With donors and taxpayers directing significant amounts of funds to help vulnerable populations or to solve some of the most urgent problems in the world, understanding how that money is being used, the results of the programmes, and their impact on stakeholders is very important (Humanitarian Global, 2021). 2.8 EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS https://humanitarianglobal.com/product/online-post-graduate-diploma-in-monitoring-evaluation-accountability-and-learning-meal/ 32 As a part of the third sector, NGOs face issues of trust and accountability (Amagoh 2015: 221). Özbek (2015: 95) states that NGOs should constantly search for ways to work with high efficiency. Britannica Dictionary defines efficiency as the ability to do something or produce something without wasting materials, time, or energy; or the quality or degree of being efficient. Kreitner (2005: 7) suggests that efficiency entails balancing the number of resources used to achieve an objective against what was accomplished. Hence, organisational efficiency can be viewed as achieving an objective concerning cost and time. Thus, NGOs are said to be efficient when they attain project objectives with the minimum costs possible and on time (Ochuodho, 2015: 39). Devon (2019) states that effectiveness refers to how an organisation has achieved full self-awareness due in part to the following: leaders setting well-defined goals for employees and outlining ways to efficiently execute those goals; management implementing clear decision-making processes; communication pipelines; and engaged employees who are carefully selected and fairly compensated producing work that prioritises results. NGOs perform a variety of services and humanitarian functions, bring citizens' concerns to governments, monitor policy and programme implementation, and encourage the participation of civil society stakeholders at the community level (Brown 2009: 3). Furthermore, NGOs are perceived as being more effective at delivering development aid and they are more responsive and flexible than governments (Lenihan & Walsh, 2006: 412); this is because they are generally staffed by hardworking, qualified, and dedicated employees. For NGOs to be perceived as efficient, they should be able to clearly explain their vision, mission, and programmes, and have clear indicators to measure progress towards the achievement of agreed goals. 2.9 SERVICE DELIVERY Service delivery remains a pressing issue to this day throughout Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Many authors have defined it and in most cases definitions are similar. Avis (2016: 15), like other authors, defines the term service delivery as the provision of a https://journals.sagepub.com/action/doSearch?target=default&ContribAuthorStored=Amagoh%2C+Francis https://journals.sagepub.com/action/doSearch?target=default&ContribAuthorStored=Amagoh%2C+Francis 33 sufficient, affordable, and quality basic service. Lovelock and Wright (2002), in turn, define it as the actual delivery of service and products to a customer or client. Hub Knowledge’s (2020) definition is similar to the other two, but it adds that the services are provided by the government (local, municipal and national). These services range from health care and water to education and sanitation licenses. Service delivery is considered a core function of urban governments, meaning governments have the mandate to make sure that all citizens are provided with services to satisfy their basic needs. According to Municipal Service Delivery (2020), these services have a direct and immediate effect on the quality of the lives of the people in a community, as the provision of sufficient, affordable and quality basic services is considered a core function of urban governments (Avis, 2016: 15). According to Foster and Briceno (2010: vii), service delivery in Africa lags significantly behind that of other developing countries and is considerably more expensive than anywhere else. African governments, like most countries in the developing world, face a daunting task in their attempts to provide effective and equitable public services (Kenosi, 2011: 20). Hence, over the past few decades, there has been a major trend toward the private sector taking responsibility for the delivery of public services that have traditionally been provided by governments (e.g., postal services, transportation, waste management). As Odaro (2012: 37) states, in many places in the developing world, a large share of service activity comes from the private sector and community participation. Kenosi (2011: 20) states that poor quality and a lack of the widespread availability of services like electricity, water and sanitation, and roads are common in some SSA countries. Kenosi (2011: 21) adds that the provision of water and other basic services needs to be documented, not just for the ruling party to boast about its service delivery record, but also to allow international bodies like the UN to measure its progress towards the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, in most African governments it is not the case. Many governments have decided to outsource the provision of some services to the private sector, mainly NGOs, as many African governments are characterised by poor service delivery. According to Kalonda and Govender (2021: 1), factors that contribute to poor service delivery in Africa are lack of community participation, lack 34 of leadership, inadequate service delivery, a lack of skills, financial difficulties, corruption, and ineffective strategic management. 2.9.1 Community participation Many development thinkers and practitioners have pondered over community participation for the last few decades (Botes & Van Rensburg 2000: 41). To a large extent, the current decade of social movements, NGOs, and CBOs are a manifestation of organised community participation (Botes & Van Rensburg 2000: 41). Hischimuti (2015) defines community participation as a process by which a community mobilises its resources, initiates and takes responsibility for its development activities, and shares in decision-making for and implementation of all other development programmes for the overall improvement of its health status. The European Union (2005: 177), in turn, defines community participation as the involvement of people in the community in projects to solve their own problems. Participation is one of the means of facilitating inclusive governance, active citizenship, and resilient cities. Avis (2015: 25) states that participation is one means of facilitating inclusive governance, active citizenship, and resilient cities; thus, promoting democracy, as well as checks and balances and the attainment of community-felt needs, and the enhancement of good governance (Abdullahi and Abdullah 2018). Moyo (2012: 16), on the other hand, states that throughout the world community participation is the basic objective of governments and decentralisation is considered as an effective device for achieving such development. UNESCAP and UN-Habitat (2015: 161) are of the view that city managers must be more responsive to communities and civil society groups and involve those affected by changes in policy or planning. This will motivate people to work together to better their own lives. However, most Africans still fail to take part in their communities because of the unfair dist