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Universiteit Vrystaat
JOB SATISFACTION AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF AT
COLLEGES OF EDUCATION IN THE FREE STATE
by
GETRUDE MATSITSO BOHLOKO
Dip. Sei. Ed., B.Se., B.Ed.
Submitted infulfillment of the demands for the degree
MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS
in the
FACULTY OF THE HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AND
EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
at the
UNIVERSITY OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE
BLOEMFONTEIN
SUPERVISOR: PROF. R. R. BRAZELLE
November 1999
I dedicate this dissertation to
My children Relebohile, Morakane and Khotso, who have served as a source of motivation
and comfort throughout the course of my studies. I hope that my efforts will encourage them
to do their best in their studies and life in general.
Tselane Pitso, who endured long hours of silence, taking care of my children
throughout the course of my studies.
11
Acknowledgements
Iwould like to express my sincere gratitude to the following people for the help andsupport they offered me towards the completion of this dissertation:
o My supervisor, Professor R.R. Brazelle, for his advice and guidance, without
which the success of this study would not have been possible.
o Ms A. Mostert, for the final layout of this dissertation.
o Ms E. Steyn, for language editing, proof-reading and translation.
o My family and rriends, especially Russel Nelson for his support and
encouragement.
o God Almighty for making it possible for me and my children.
III
Table of Contents
Page
Chapter 1: Orientation
1.1 INTRODUCTION I
1.2 DELIMITATION OF THE FIELD OF STUDY 3
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 4
1.4 THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 5
1.5 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION 6
1.5.1 Literature study 6
1.5.1.1 Primary sources 6
1.5.1.2 Secondary sources 6
1.5.2 Questionnaire 6
1.6 OUTLAY OF THE RESEARCH 7
1.7 CONCLUSION 7
Chapter 2: Job satisfaction: Literature review
2.1 INTRODUCTION 9
2.2 THE CONCEPT OF JOB SATISFACTION 9
2.2.1 Definingjob satisfaction 10
2.2.1.1 General definitions 10
2.2.1.2 Defining job satisfaction in the teaching profession 12
2.3 APPROACHES TO JOB SATISF ACTION 13
2.3.1 Motivation and job satisfaction 13
2.3.2 The discrepancy approach 16
2.3.2.1 Content theories 16
(a) Maslow's need hierarchy theory 17
(b) Herzberg's Two-factor theory 21
(c) McLelland's theory of self-realisation 24
2.3.3 Equity approach 25
2.3.3.1 Adam's equity theory 25
2.3.3.2 Bersheid and Walster's equity theory 27
iv
Page
2.3.4 The expectancy approach 27
2.3.4.1 Vroom's expectancy theory 28
2.3.4.2 Gergen's exchange theory 30
2.3 .4.3 Wolf's need gratification theory 31
2.3.4 Synthesising motivational theory and job satisfaction 32
2.4 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS 34
2.4.1 Managerial implications of the theories of motivation 34
2.4.2 Managerial implications of reward systems and administration 37
2.5 OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE JOB SATISFACTION 40
2.5.1 Locus of control 40
2.5.2 Role tensions 41
2.5.3 Leadership 43
2.5.3.1 Organisational climate 47
2.5.3.2 Cornmun ication 48
2.5.3.3 Attitude towards work 50
2.5.4 Some evidence of identified indicators of job satisfaction in the teaching
profession 51
2.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS 57
Chapter 3: Consequences of job satisfaction
3.1 INTRODUCTION 58
3.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LEVEL OF JOB SATISFATION
AND SOME ORGANISATIONAL VARIABLES · 58
3.2.1 Job satisfaction and withdrawal from work 58
3.2.1.1 Job satisfaction and absenteeism 59
3.2.1.2 Job satisfaction and employee turnover 60
3.2.2 Job satisfaction and career commitment 63
3.2.3 Job satisfaction and union activity 65
3.2.4 Job satisfaction and counter productive behaviour of employees 66
3.2.5 Job satisfaction and the individual 67
3.2.5.1 Job satisfaction and physical health 69
3.2.5.2 Job satisfaction and mental illness 70
3.2.6 Job satisfaction and burnout.. 71
3.2.7 Job satisfaction and occupational level 72
3.2.8 Job satisfaction and life satisfaction 72
3.2.9 Job satisfaction and productivity 74
3.2.10 Job satisfaction and achievement 78
3.2.10.1 Job satisfaction and educator achievement 79
3.2.10.2 Job satisfaction and student achievement 80
3.3 CONCLUSION 82
v
Page
Chapter 4: Presentation, analysis and
interpretation of results of the research
4.1 INTRODUCTION 84
4.2 THE PURPOSE OF THE IMPIRICAL RESEARCH 84
4.3 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION 85
4.3.1 The questionnaire 85
4.3.2 Section A 85
4.3.3 Section B 85
4.3.4 Sampling 86
4.3.5 Computation of data 87
4.4 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 87
4.4.1 lntroduction 87
4.4.2 The level of Job satisfaction for the entire population 87
4.4.3 The level of Job satisfaction at each college 89
4.4.4 The level of Job satisfaction of various sub-groups 99
4.4.4.1 Bibliographic group 1: Gender of respondents 99
4.4.4.2 Bibliographic group 2: Current post held by respondents 102
4.4.4.3 Bibliographic group 3: Age of respondents 107
4.4.4.4 Bibliographic group 4: The teaching experience of respondents in years 113
4.4.4.5 Bibliographic group 5: Professional qualification of respondents 118
4.4.4.6 Bibliographic group 6: Academic qualification of respondents 126
4.5 CONCLUSION 133
Chapter 5: Findings, conclusions and
recommendations for improving the current level
of job satisfaction in the colleges
of education
5.1 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 134
5.1.1 Findings and conclusions regarding the overall level of job satisfaction of the
target population 134
5.1.1.1 The majority of the academic staff members at the colleges of education are
generally satisfied with their job 134
5.1.1.2 The job satisfaction indicators frequently rated as the most satisfying came
largely from intrinsic aspects ofthejob 135
5.1.1.3 Job satisfaction indicators frequently rated as the most dissatisfying came largely
from extrinsic aspects of the job 135
VI
Page
5.1.2 Findings and conclusion regarding the level of job satisfaction at the individual
colleges 136
5.1.2.1 There are big differences in the level of job satisfaction at the individual colleges 136
5.1.2.2 At one of the eight colleges respondents indicated that they are dissatisfied with
their job 136
5.1.2.3 The respondents at the majority of the colleges agree on the indicators of job
satisfaction frequently rated as the most satisfying aspects ofthe job 137
5.1.2.4 The respondents at the majority of the colleges agree on the indicators of job
satisfaction frequently rated as the least satisfying aspects
of the job 137
5.1.2.5 College 1 is the only college which included extrinsic aspects of the job among
the indicators frequently rated as the most satisfying 137
5.1.3 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction according
to gender 138
5.1.3.1 Male respondents are more satisfied than their female colleagues 138
5.1.3.2 Both male and female respondents frequently rated the same indicators of job
satisfaction as the most satisfying aspects of the job 138
5.1.3.3 Both male and female respondents frequently rated the same indicators of job
satisfaction as the most dissatisfying aspects of the job 139
5.1.4 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction according to the
post-level held 139
5.1.4.1 The post level held by respondents influence their level of job satisfaction 139 0/
5.1.4.2 Senior staff are more satisfied with their jobs than junior staff members 139
5.1.4.3 The job satisfaction of lecturers as a group is slightly lower than the overall
level of job satisfaction of the target population 140
5.1.4.4 The majority of post level sub-groups agree to a large extent on the indicators of
job satisfaction rated as the most satisfying aspects of the job 140
5.1.4.5 The majority of the post level sub-groups agree to a large extent on the
indicators of job satisfaction rated as the least satisfying aspects of the job .......... 141
5.1.5 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction according to
age groups 14I
5.1.5.1 The level of job satisfaction is influenced by the age of respondents 141
5.1.5.2 The level of job satisfaction of the age group 31 to 40 years is below the overall
level of the target group 141
5.1.5.3 The majority of the age sub-groups agree to a large extent on the indicators of
job satisfaction rated as the most satisfying aspects of the job 142
5.1.5.4 The majority of the age sub-groups agree to a large extent on the indicators of
job satisfaction rated as the least satisfying aspects of the job 142
5.1.6 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction according to
teaching experience of respondents 142
5.1.6.1 The level of job satisfaction tends to increase with the number of years of
teaching experience of respondents 142
5.1.6.2 There is a big difference between the levels of job satisfaction of different
sub-groups according to teaching experience 143
5.1.6.3 The majority of the sub-groups according to teaching experience agree to
a large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction rated as the most satisfying
aspects of the job 143
VII
Page
5.1.6.4 The majority of the sub-groups according to teaching experience agree to a
large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction rated as the least satisfying
aspects ofthejob 144
5.1.7 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction according to the
professional qual ifications of respondents 144
5.1.7.1 The level of job satisfaction in influenced by the professional qualifications of
respondents 144
5.1.7.2 The majority of the sub-groups according professional qualifications agree to
a large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction rated as the most
satisfying aspects of the job 145
5.1.7.3 The majority of the sub-groups according professional qualifications agree to
a large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction rated as the least satisfying
aspects of the job 145
5.1.8 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction of groups
according to the academic qualifications of respondents 145
5.1.8.1 The level of job satisfaction varies according to academic qualifications of
respondents 145
5.1.8.2 The level of job satisfaction offour of the six sub-groups according to highest
academic qualifications is lower than the overall level of the target group 146
5.1.8.3 The majority of the sub-groups according to the highest academic qualification
agree to a large extent on some indicators of job satisfaction rated as the most
satisfying aspects of the job 146
5.1.8.4 The majority of the sub-groups according to the highest academic qualification
agree to a large extent on some indicators of job satisfaction rated as the least
satisfying aspects of the job 147
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE CURRENT LEVEL
OF JOB SATISFACTION 147
5.2.1 Introduction 147
5.2.2 Recommendations regarding compensation of educators at the colleges
of education 148
5.2.3 Recommendations regarding departmental policies and practices that affect
educators at the colleges of education 149
5.2.4 Recommendations regarding advancement of educators at the colleges
of education 150
5.2.5 Recommendations regarding conditions under which educators work at the
colleges of Education 151
5.2.6 Recommendations regarding job security of educators at the colleges
of education 152
5.2.7 The current level of job satisfaction at the colleges of education should be
further investigated 152
5.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS 154
viii
Page
BIBLIOGRAPHY 155
APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE 167
SUMMARY 174
OPSOMMING 176
KEY WORDS 179
IX
List of Tables
Page
Table 4.1: Ranking of job satisfaction indicators according to their contribution
to the overall level of job satisfaction 88
Table 4.2: Ranking the colleges according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction 89
Table 4.3: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per college with the overall level. 90
Table 4.4: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 1 91
Table 4.5: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 2 92
Table 4.6: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 3 93
Table 4.7: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 4 94
Table 4.8: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 5 95
Table 4.9: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction ofcollege 6 96
Table 4.10: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 7 97
Table 4.11: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 8 98
Table 4.12: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per gender sub-group with
the overall level of job satisfaction 99
Table4.13: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the
level of job satisfaction of male respondents 100
Table 4.14: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the
level of job satisfaction of female respondents 101
Table4.15: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per position sub-group with
the overall level 102
Table 4.16: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of rectors 103
Table 4.17: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of vice-rectors 104
Table 4.18: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of heads of departments 105
Table 4.19: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of lecturers 106
Table 4.20: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per age sub-group with
the overall level of job satisfaction of the target population 107
Table 4.21: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the
overall level of job satisfaction of the age group 30 years or younger 108
x
Page
Table 4.22: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the
overall level of job satisfaction of the age group 31 to 40 years 109
Table 4.23: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the
overall level of job satisfaction of the age group 41 to 50 years 110
Table 4.24: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the
overall level of job satisfaction of the age group 51 to 60 years III
Table 4.25: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the
overall level of job satisfaction of the age group older than 60 112
Table 4.26: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per teaching experience sub-group
with the overall level of the target group 113
Table 4.27: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with 10 years or less teaching
experience 114
Table 4.28: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with 11 to 20 years teaching experience. 115
Table 4.29: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with 21 to 30 years teaching experience. 116
Table 4.30: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with 31 to 40 years teaching experience. 117
Table 4.31: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per professional qualification
sub-group with the overall level of the target group 118
Table 4.32: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with a teacher's diploma as their highest
professional qualification 119
Table 4.33: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with further or 2nd diploma as their
highest professional qual ification 120
Table 4.34: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with an integrated degree as their highest
professional qualification 121
Table 4.35: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with B.Ed. as their highest
professional qualification 122
Table 4.36: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with M.Ed. as their highest
professional qualification 123
Table 4.37: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with a doctorate in education as their
highest professional qualification 124
Table 4.38: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with other professional qualifications ..... 125
Table 4.39: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per academic qualification
sub-group with the overall level for the target population 126
Table 4.40: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with matric as their highest academic
qualification 127
Table 4.41: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with a bachelor's degree as their highest
academic qualification 128
XI
Page
Table 4.42: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with an honour's degree as their highest
academic qualification 129
Table 4.43: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall level
of job satisfaction of respondents with a masters degree as their highest
academic qualification 130
Table 4.44: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of respondents with a doctorate as their highest
academic qualification 131
Table 4.45: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of respondents with other academic qualifications .. 132
XII
List of Figures
Page
Figure 2.1: Practical application of Maslow's need hierarchy 18
Figure 2.2: The satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors 22
Figure 2.3: A comparison of the Maslowand Herzberg models 23
Figure 2.4: Job satisfaction indicators and the theories of motivation 33
Figure 3.1: The structure of expectations: The theoretical representation 76
XIII
Chapter 1
ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The new constitution of South Africa makes tertiary education a nationalcompetence that all colleges offering higher education programmes, including
colleges of education, have to be incorporated into the higher education sector
(Department of Education, 1998:i). Based on that, the Green Paper on higher
education attempts to expand and transform the system of higher education within the
reality of limited resources. According to this paper, the need to transform higher
education in this country stems from factors of two origins (National Department of
Education, 1996: 10). Firstly, the historical legacy of inequity and inefficiency which
inhibits its ability to meet the moral, social and economic demands of the new South
Africa, and secondly, a context of unprecedented national and global opportunities
and challenges. The transformation of higher education requires reorientation and
innovation of these factors (National Department of Education, 1996: 10).
In preparation of the transformation, the report of the Research Institute for Education
Planning (RIEP) at the University of the Orange Free State (Strauss & Vander Linde,
1998:22) outlines the following recommendations on the colleges of education in the
Free State province:
1. The number of educators trained in the province must be decreased.
2. It is necessary to scale down on the training capacity of the province.
3. Educator to student ratio needs to be increased to at least 1:18.
Chapter I Orientation
4. The transformation of colleges of education should go hand in hand with the
transformation of the programme (curriculum) for teacher training.
5. The possibility of incorporating some colleges (in Thaba Nchu and Bloemfontein
areas) into one or more of the universities and/or technikon has to be investigated.
6. The reorganisation of the remaining colleges (in Phuthaditjaba area) into one Free
State College of Education.
There is therefore no doubt that the present situation regarding the colleges of
education in this province calls for a change. Apparently, a lot of money is spent to
produce teachers not needed in the schools.
"That the largest portion of the educational budget is spent on salaries
further necessitates an in-depth look at the number of educators
actually needed in schools in years to come, taking into account the
present urgent need for the training of teachers in specialised areas"
(Strauss & Van der Linde, 1998 :20).
While bodies such as RIEP were targeted to investigate the background report,
identifying the implications and outlining implementation strategies that would
facilitate the incorporation process, the academic staff at these colleges have little
clarity as to their fate. This creates feelings of uncertainty and insecurity, considering
that people have needs which they fulfil by virtue of being employed. Consequently
the level of their performance, interest and commitment may drop, as may the
achievement of educational goals. When changing the system, educational leaders
should be concerned about the aspects which can affect the job satisfaction of the
staff.
A teacher training college has to produce good teachers, well equipped to educate the
children of the community it serves. The quality of the product of any organisation,
education in this study, determines the quality of the service offered by the
organisation. The needs of the community which is served by an institution, exert
pressure on the institution and type of student it produces. Student achievement
should therefore be a concern to educators. According to Hage in Marra (1978:6)
educator job satisfaction and student production are legitimate school goals. Educator
job satisfaction is based on the needs fulfilment and professional and personal growth
2
Chapter 1 Orientation
of the teaching staff. Student production is based on providing for students' needs,
growth and development.
Marra (1978:6) suggests that the two goals are inseparable and interdependent, the
success of the latter depending on the former. Conversely, counter-productive
behaviour of educators can undoubtedly affect the level of student achievement
negatively. The present period of uncertainty at colleges of education requires the
particular attention of educational leaders. Moreover, the quality of teachers produced
by these institutions is a concern of the time.
From the above it is clear that job satisfaction among the academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State has not received significant attention while the
incorporation of these colleges into the higher education system is being investigated
and strategised. Yet, motivation to achieve high performance levels in any job
requires satisfaction with the job (Mullins, 1989:20).
1.2 DELIMITATION OF THE FIELD OF STUDY
The scientific field of study of this research is Educational Management, a sub-
discipline of Education comprising those regulative tasks or actions which allow
formative education to take place (Van der Westhuizen, 1991:43-53). The
management tasks include planning, orgamsmg, guiding and control. These are
executed by a person in a position of authority in the various management areas. One
such area is personnel management, which deals with the physical and psychological
needs of the staff members with a view to achieving the goals of the institution.
Satisfaction of staff needs ensures job satisfaction and the well-being of the individual
staff members. Also, it motivates them to have a positive attitude towards learning
and educational activities. Van der Westhuizen (1991:183) regards motivation as a
supportive action (sub-task) of guiding staff to carry out specific tasks in the teaching-
learning process. Although many of the management tasks and areas will receive
attention, the main focus of this study will be on job satisfaction, which is closely
linked to the motivation of staff as a sub-section of the staff management area.
3
Chapter I Orientation
At present, three types of institutions in the Free State province train teachers. These
are the universities: Vista, Uni-Qwa and the University of the Orange Free State; the
Free State Technikon and the colleges of education. This study focuses on the
colleges of education, namely Bonamelo, Tshiya, Lere-la- Tshepe and Sefikeng in
Qwaqwa; Kagisanong and Bloemfontein College in Bloemfontein, Thaba-Nchu
College at Thaba-Nchu and Mphohadi at Kroonstad. This study involves all academic
staff at the colleges. It attempts to analyse the current state of job satisfaction among
the academic staff with the aim of establishing the culture of teaching and learning at
these colleges.
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The era in which we live, brings endless change. As the needs of man change, so do
the education needs. Consequently, man continually changes, arranges and adapts his
social structures and surroundings (Niemann, 1997:24). The school is one such
structure that was designed to meet man's need for education. Educational systems
change to cope with technology, new systems, methods and techniques, economic and
political changes. This stresses the need for true educators; those fully prepared and
equipped with knowledge, skills and values to meet the demands and challenges of
the time.
Since the beginning of democratisation in South Africa in 1994, a range of changes
has taken place in the education system. The incorporation of colleges of education
into the higher education sector is one such change in process. An unanswered
question is: What is the net impact of these changes on the level of job satisfaction of
the staff?
In every organisation professional satisfaction eo-determines the individual's
effectiveness and efficiency. The academic staff at the colleges of education is no
exception. High job satisfaction of teachers is closely connected to their efficacy as
educators (Van der Westhuizen, 1991 :295). Therefore, the organisational climate
4
Chapter 1 Orientation
should inspire and motivate the staff to perform at the top of their capabilities in order
to achieve educational goals.
In administering the process of education, educators must be concerned with those
factors that may motivate students to learn. These may affect students directly or
indirectly as long as they may produce satisfaction and success. Students have to
participate in the education process of which they are both beneficiaries and products.
This indicates the significance of a satisfied staff member and a motivated student.
The quality of the working life is directly proportional to the ability to overcome
obstacles to effective performance. To clarify the significance of the role job
satisfaction plays in the current situation at colleges of education in the Free State, the
following questions may be put forward:
1. What does job satisfaction entail?
2. What is the current level of job satisfaction among the academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State?
3. What recommendations can be given to Improve the current level of job
satisfaction among academic staff at these colleges?
1.4 THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The study is aimed at analysing the level of job satisfaction among the academic staff
at the colleges of education in the Free State with the aim of improving the current
level.
This overall aim gives rise to the following specific objectives:
1. To give a theoretical background of what job satisfaction entails, establish
indicators of job satisfaction in a formal organisation and determine the
consequences of job satisfaction.
2. To establish the present state of job satisfaction among academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State.
5
Chapter I Orientation
3. To provide recommendations for improving the current level of job satisfaction
among staff to increase performance at these colleges.
1.5 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
To achieve these objectives, the following research methods were used:
1.5.1 Literature study
1.5.1.1 Primary sources
A selection of relevant primary sources was studied. These included educational bills,
acts and original departmental publications.
1.5.1.2 Secondary sources
Relevant secondary sources were studied in order to obtain sufficient knowledge of
job satisfaction indicators in a formal organisation. Most of the information,
especially research findings, were on primary and secondary schools. Very little could
be found on the job satisfaction of staff at tertiary institutions such as colleges of
education. However, colleges of education are formal organisations like schools, only
at a higher level of vertical academic advancement. Therefore, the secondary sources
on schools have been used and have provided sufficient information for the basis of
this study.
1.5.2 Questionnaire
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Dawis, England & Lofquist,
1967: Il 0) was used as the main data-collecting instrument. This questionnaire
consists of 100 questions identifying 20 job satisfaction indicators in clusters of five
questions per indicator. Each indicator refers to a factor that influences an employee's
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the work environment. It was distributed to the
eight colleges of education in the Free State Province. This involved 385 academic
6
Chapter 1 Orientation
staff members. Of the 385 questionnaires distributed, 182 were recovered and the
responses of 170 could be used.
1.6 OUTLAY OF THE RESEARCH
This study is divided into five chapters:
Chapter 1 highlights the problem and the objectives and gives an overview of the
study.
Chapter 2 focuses on the literature review on job satisfaction, mainly in educational
organisations with reference to teacher motivation, job satisfaction indicators, role
clarity and leadership behaviour.
Chapter 3 focuses on the consequences of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction for an
educational institution like a college of education.
Chapter 4 focuses on the current level of job satisfaction of academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State, based on the information obtained through the
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire.
Chapter 5 provides recommendations for improving the current level of job
satisfaction of the academic staff at the colleges of education in the Free State and the
culture of teaching and learning to increase performance.
1.7 CONCLUSION
The education system of South Africa is at present undergoing a process of
transformation, from the previous system, which did not meet the needs of most
people, to the present unitary one. For this system to meet the demands of all South
Africans, it should be in the hands of good educators at all levels. The quality of
teachers produced by the colleges of education is directly proportional to the quality
of the academic staff at the colleges. The latter also plays an important role in
7
Chapter 1 Orientation
determining the culture of teaching and learning at both primary and secondary school
levels; thus, it is of great importance that the staff should be satisfied with their job.
The present situation, its consequences and how it may be improved, is the main
concern of the research.
8
Chapter 2
JOB SATISFACTION:
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The focus of this chapter is the approaches to job satisfaction, with the aim ofidentifying those factors which influence and/or act as indicators of job
satisfaction. Furthermore, the implications of these job satisfaction indicators for the
academic staff of educational institutions such as colleges of education are considered
in order to obtain adequate knowledge of aspects that affect the level of job
satisfaction either negatively or positively. This knowledge can equip educators with
ways of improving satisfaction and reducing dissatisfaction at work. It is therefore
imperative to start by defining the concept of job satisfaction.
2.2 THE CONCEPT OF JOB SATISFACTION
Job satisfaction involves the assessment of both the people doing the job and the job
itself. This assessment identifies areas of action or improvement in the job so that it
will be more satisfying for the people doing it. According to Cope (1979:57) the
assessment may include other appropriate remedies taken to ensure a "fit" between
the individual and his/her job and organisation.
Mumford (1991: 12) argues that a more realistic approach to job satisfaction may be to
look at the individual's needs in the work and the extent to which these needs are
being met, but also to examine the pressures and constraints, internal and external to
the organisation, which influence the demands it makes on its employees and hinder
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
its ability to provide maximum job satisfaction. Mumford's approach (1991:12)
considers job satisfaction in two ways:
1. In terms of the fit between what an organisation requires of its employees and
what employees are seeking from it.
2. In terms of the fit between what employees are seeking and what they are
receiving.
A good fit on 1 and 2leads to what Mumford (1991:13) calls a 'mutually beneficial'
relationship and 'job satisfaction' respectively. The concept of fit concerns the
following:
o Organisation job requirements vs. personal job requirements;
o Organisation interest vs. self-interest;
o Uniformity vs. individuality;
o Performance vs. personal quality;
o Work specificity vs. work flexibility.
In this study, attention is given to what the employee is seeking and what he/she is
receiving. This requires sufficient knowledge of what job satisfaction entails.
2.2.1 Defining job satisfaction
Various authors have come up with a wide range of definitions. The definitions
considered can be divided into general and job specific, education in this case.
2.2.1.1 General definitions
Mortimer (1979:2), following Locke, defines job satisfaction as a positive emotional
state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experience. This refers to the
evaluation of the job as a whole, arguing that 'facet-specific' satisfactions such as
satisfaction with financial rewards, resources to get the job done, interest, challenge,
10
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
autonomy, relations with eo-workers, and comfort factors such as physical
surroundings, hours and travel time, are only part of a bigger concept.
With a similar view, Kreitner and Kinicki (1995: 159) define job satisfaction as an
effective or emotional response toward various facets of an individual's job. Mumford
(1991: 11), agreeing with Vroom, defines job satisfaction as an individual liking more
aspects of his work than he/she dislikes.
Rue and Byars (1989:381) define job satisfaction as an individual's general attitude to
his or her job. This includes one's attitude towards workgroup, working conditions,
attitude towards company, monetary benefits and attitude towards supervision. Job
satisfaction may be positive or negative, depending on the individual's mental self,
concerning the components of job satisfaction (Rue & Byars, 1989:381). Therefore,
job satisfaction is an attitude that results from other aspects and factors of the job.
Similarly, Mullins (1989:335) refers to job satisfaction as an attitude that could be
associated with a personal feeling of achievement, either quantitative or qualitative.
According to this definition, job satisfaction is an internal state likely to resuIt from
motivation.
To Kahn (1977:73) job satisfaction is the favourableness or unfavourableness with
which employees view their work. Kahn (1977 :73) believes that job satisfaction
results when there is a fit between job characteristics and the wants of the employee.
In this view, job satisfaction expresses the congruence between the employee's
expectations of the job and the rewards that the job provides.
From the above it is clear that job satisfaction is the positive emotional state and
attitude associated with personal feelings about job aspects, likely to result from
motivation. To be more specific, it is necessary to define job satisfaction in the
teaching profession.
Il
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
2.2.1.2 Defining job satisfaction in the teaching profession
The study of satisfaction in the context of one's profession is an area of broad and
varied theoretical frameworks. According to Menlo and Poppieton (1990: 174)
satisfaction in the teaching profession determines the enjoyment of teaching as an
occupation, how teaching measures up to initial expectations, retrospective likelihood
of entering teaching again and responsibility (the involvement in it, and its importance
for the teacher's job satisfaction).
By educators' satisfaction with their job, Wi'sniewski (1990:299) refers to those
attitudes and ways of behaving within their work environment. This may include
resolving of conflict-bearing situations and acceptance of the demands of their jobs
and current educational functions. As a consequence, educators may fulfil the tasks
imposed upon them in such a way that the behaviour of others (e.g. their pupils, their
colleagues, their superiors and the parents) towards them warrants permanent, or at
least periodically recurring, satisfaction with the role which they play.
Furthermore, Tice (1981 :6) describes educator job satisfaction as the attitude that they
assume towards their job task, determined by interaction with others and the degree of
success on completion of a specific responsibility.
Marra (1978:6) refers to teacher job satisfaction as a teacher's feelings about his
relationship with students and teaching itself. Applied to the colleges of education,
this means that lecturers with high satisfaction love to lecture, feel competent in their
job, enjoy their students and believe in the future of lecturing as an occupation. March
and Simon (Avi-Itzhak, 1988:355) also emphasise this by referring to job satisfaction
as the willingness of the worker to stay within the organisation despite inducements to
leave.
Similarly, Smith (Rohman, 1985:10) suggests that job satisfaction comprises a feeling
or affective response to facets of the work situation. These feelings are associated
with a perceived difference between what is expected as a fair and reasonable return
and what is experienced in relation to alternatives in a given situation.
12
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
From the definitions above, it can be concluded that educators' attitude and
behaviours, feelings and perception about institutional climate and leadership
behaviours, determine their level of job satisfaction. It is also apparent that job
satisfaction and motivation are interdependent.
The interdependence of job satisfaction and motivation is further highlighted by the
approaches to job satisfaction and other factors that influence the level of job
satisfaction.
2.3 APPROACHES TO JOB SATISFACTION
The literature on job satisfaction provides varIOUS theoretical approaches. Job
satisfaction is mainly addressed through theories of motivation. The central focus of
many of these theories is human needs and how they can be satisfied in the
workplace. Working can bring about satisfaction if it helps towards the fulfilment of
these needs. On the other hand, failure to do so can cause dissatisfaction and a great
deal of unhappiness. To understand job satisfaction, it is therefore necessary that the
concept of motivation be understood first.
2.3.1 Motivation and job satisfaction
Livy (1988:413) refers to motivation as the basis of all human activity, a force which
compels human beings to behave in a variety of ways. According to Livy (1988:413)
"the activity which results from a motivated state is fuelled by a drive to satisfy a
certain 'need'. The basic drive and the strength of various needs at different points in
time determine the motivational force. The perceived value and expectation of
rewards to be received act as satisfying agents". In agreement, Campbell in Hoyand
Miskei (1987: 176) adds that motivation involves the direction of behaviour, the
strength of response and the persistence of the behaviour. According to Hoy and
Miskei (1987: 176) concepts such as drive, need, incentive, reward, reinforcement,
goal setting and expectancy are included in the word "motivation".
13
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
Motivation and job satisfaction are not synonymous. Byars and Rue (1994:323) refer
to motivation as the drive to perform while job satisfaction reflects the employees'
attitude or happiness within the job situation. The organisational reward system can
affect both: job satisfaction by making employees comfortable with the job because of
the rewards it offers, and motivation primarily through the perceived value of the
rewards and the contingency on performance (Byars & Rue, 1994:323).
When dealing with mature professionals who have developed a set of work standards
connected with the challenging objective demands, Kellogg (1979: 109) suggests that
most of their sense of reward is internal. If they feel that the task could not have been
done by almost anyone and they feel that the conditions imposed on them were
necessary, their satisfaction reward has a motivational impact. Unfortunately, the
reverse is true when they feel that the schedule is arbitrary or the work is sloppy. Thus
the manager has to make clear the value and need for the task during the planning
phase. Kellogg (1979: 109) further suggests that internal satisfaction with
accomplishment is necessary but short-lived, therefore it should be supplemented by
external reward and recognition. The expectations in this regard have to be discussed
and followed to the letter. This includes, for example, appraisal sessions, salary
review and awards. Furthermore, Kellogg (1979:110) also suggests unexpected praise,
compliments or honour that fits an accomplishment.
Mol (Van Dyk, 1996:319) and Hackman, Oldham, Janson and Purdy (1990:405)
suggest that real dedication and commitment to a task can only come when the task is
enjoyable for the individual concerned. Arguing that when a person carries out a task
for the sake of what he/she gets from it, he/she is not motivated but moved. However,
employees have to be moved with good pay and incentives, as well as motivated
through satisfaction of the human needs.
Hoy and Miskei (1987:74), using the Getzeis and Guba's social system model, define
satisfaction with the job as a prior condition in motivating an individual toward and/or
participating in the realisation of organisational objectives. Administrators, those in
education included, require sufficient knowledge of human behaviour so as to
understand why others behave in a way that they do. A good understanding of
14
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
motivation is necessary for explaining people's behaviour and knowing more or less
what behaviour to expect from others, in response to aspects of the job.
Besides, dedication and a professionally motivated staff of educators are one
important factor of success in education (Tice, 1981 :2). According to Tice (1981 :2),
without happy and satisfied educators, the educational process is likely to lag or even
become inoperable. For teachers to be satisfied, Pastor and Erlandson (1982: 181)
suggest that areas of motivation should be identified by determining teachers' needs
and their relationship with job satisfaction.
Van Dyk (1996:320) suggests that people have different behaviour patterns and
reasons for what they do or do not do. They may show the same behaviour but for
different reasons. Generally, all human behaviour is motivated. It is directed by
human needs, for which a person develops an urge to satisfy. The person thus uses
energy and time to satisfy the need. Therefore, human behaviour is directed towards
whatever will satisfy a need. According to Van Dyk (1996:321), the process of human
motivation goes in steps as follows: The need, the urge to satisfy the need, release of
energy, behaviour and the goal (performance).
From the above it is clear that workers are motivated through satisfaction of their
needs as humans. However, they also have to be moved with good pay and benefits
from the job.
For the purpose of this study, a few examples of motivation theories are used to give
an overview of the concept of job satisfaction. Although there is some controversy
about job satisfaction, Cope (1979:58) argues for individual job satisfaction to address
changes in the organisation, jobs and varied individual needs. Using Cameron's
generally accepted approach, Cope (1979:58) categorises job satisfaction theories into
three broad groups, namely discrepancy theories, equity theories and expectancy
theories. These theories provide a useful survey of research work done on job
satisfaction.
15
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
2.3.2 The discrepancy approach
Discrepancy theories generally outline the pattern of individual needs or wants and
examine the discrepancy between what is wanted and what is obtained from or
through the job. They propose that job satisfaction results from the extent to which an
employee receives what he expected from a job. According to Kreitner & Kinicki
(1995: 161) satisfaction is a result of the "net expectations", that is, the difference
between what an employee expects from the job and what he/she actually gets. They
suggest that employees will be satisfied when they attain outcomes above and beyond
their expectations. On the other hand, dissatisfaction results when expectations are
greater than what is received.
Discrepancy is defined as the difference between two versions of an affair (Hornby,
1989:342), referring to the difference between what is expected and what is actually
received from the job in this context. Thus, the greater the discrepancy, the lower the
level of satisfaction and vice versa.
The individual needs and wants of people have been successfully illustrated through
the content and reinforcement theories of motivation. These theories focus on the
fulfilment of the needs outlined. They hold that the extent to which job characteristics
allow an employee to fulfil his needs, determines his/her level of job satisfaction.
2.3.2.1 Content theories
These theories focus on the internal needs and factors that influence human behaviour
and what humans do to satisfy them (Van Dyk, 1996:323). The theories of Maslow,
Herzberg and McLelland are discussed below as they provide valuable insights on job
satisfaction.
16
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
(a) Maslow's need hierarchy theory
Maslow studied human behaviour and developed a pattern of the needs of man at
certain times in his life. Some needs dominate at certain times, yet they were dormant
at other times. According to Van Dyk (1996:323) Maslow's theory has a twofold
basis:
o People are continuously wanting beings. As soon as lower-order needs are
satisfied, they are replaced by needs of the next level up. A satisfied need becomes
dormant and cannot act as a motivator of behaviour.
o People's needs are arranged in order of importance for human survival. Lower-
order needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs.
Maslow divided the needs into five categories: physiological needs, safety or security
needs, the belongingness and love needs (affection needs), esteem needs and the need
for self-fulfilment. Van Dyk (1996:326) illustrates the practical application of
Maslow's needs hierarchy through figure 2.1 on the next page.
According to Maslow's hierarcy of needs, only when the physiological and safety
needs are satisfied, can higher-order needs be in demand. Van Dyk (1996:326)
identifies the job satisfiers at each level of this hierarchy, for example, Maslow
suggests that food, clothing, housing and self-maintenance are the physiological
needs; and these can be satisfied in the work-place through equal remuneration
programmes, good working conditions and effective workflow.
17
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
Figure 2.1: Practical application of Maslow's needs hierarchy
Full utilisation of abilities Able to be creative
Independence Does preferred work
Total self-guidance
t :r:Self-actualisation needs t Job satisfiers ciQ"::r
(1)
';'
oa.
(..1.).
Self-respect Participation in :::
(1)
Responsibility important decisions (1)0..
Importance High status <Jl
Recognition
t Ego needs t Job satisfiers
Friendship Group cohesion
Group membership Team work
Interaction with others Opportunities to
interact with others
t Social needs t Job satisfiers
Safety Pension or
Favourisation Security system ~(1)
Equality before the law Insurance policies ....6
Grievances procedure a.
(..1.).
:::
t (1)(1)Safety needs t Job satisfiers 0..<Jl
Food, clothing, housing Equal remuneration
Self-maintenance programmes
Good working
conditions
Effective worktlow
t Physiological needs t Job satisfiers
Source: Van Dyk (1996:326), adapted from Skinner and Ivancevich
Hoy and Miskei (1987:61) refer to needs as the internal forces that determine the
direction and goals of behaviour. Individuals' needs and desires make them behave
differently in similar situations; lecturers for example, react differently to changes in
their jobs. According to Hoyand Miskei (1987:61) the needs affect the way one
18
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
perceives the work environment with regard to fulfilling the motivational needs up the
hierarchy suggested by Maslow.
The importance of these needs to an individual is determined by the extent to which
the needs are satisfied or can be readily satisfied. Van Dyk (1996:324-5) finds the
theory to have the following implications:
Firstly, implications for individual performance. Management uses different
strategies to motivate people. Usually good pay, service benefits and job security are
the employee's efforts to satisfy the needs on the physiological and safety levels.
Once satisfied, these no longer act as motivators. Therefore, the work and its
environment may be designed to increase interaction between employees. The social
needs will be satisfied but these can have a negative impact on the work output. The
esteem and self-actualisation needs provide the best opportunity for employee
motivation. This refers to the type of work done and its meaningfulness, challenge
and interest to the employee. They can improve individual performance.
Secondly, the control function. People need to control their environment in order to
manipulate it to meet their needs. However, if the environment controls people,
inability to satisfy the prevailing needs can result in undesirable behaviour such as
aggression, frustration and resignation. These behaviours are non-productive and
unhealthy for the psychological well-being of humans. In this case, the work becomes
a source of need satisfaction. Motivators thus become less prominent. The
organisation requires a great deal of effort to ensure continued employee
performance: mechanisms that become superfluous where people are motivated by
challenging, interesting and meaningful work.
When the basic needs in people are satisfied and when they strive for satisfaction of
higher needs, any hindrance in the attainment of such goals could constitute a grave
cause of unhappiness and thus dissatisfaction. Ferber and Miller in Frase and
Sorenson (1992:41) agreed that a great deal of job dissatisfaction could result when
the affiliation needs of educators are not met.
19
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
The theory is useful since it places emphasis on the presence of needs at various
levels which call for satisfaction in man, and the conditions under which these needs
could be satisfied. In the teaching profession, a position offering a new challenge and
an opportunity for personal growth tends to motivate teachers to spend more time and
effort planning and preparing for classes (Tarrant, 1991 :34). Sergiovanni and Starratt
(1971:130) use Maslow's theory to address teachers' needs, motivation and job
satisfaction. Based on Porter's revised presentation of Maslow's theory, Sergiovanni
and Starratt (1971: 135) divide human needs into two categories:
1. Lower-order needs: security, social and esteem to some extent.
2. Higher-order needs: esteem, autonomy and self-actualisation.
They refer to the lower-order needs as fundamental needs that must be supplied to
teachers to function adequately as persons. Sergiovanni and Starratt (1971: 136) warn
the school to expect little return for these needs since teachers can demand their
fulfilment by virtue of their membership in the school. Therefore, satisfaction of these
needs cannot act as motivators to teachers. On the other hand, non-fulfilment of these
needs may lead to unhappiness and therefore job dissatisfaction.
According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (1971: 136) fulfilment of higher-order needs
can be exchanged for the service teachers give to the school. Evidently, satisfaction of
higher-order needs is rightfully earned through performance. Therefore, fulfilment of
these needs leads to motivation, a feeling of happiness and job satisfaction. Maslow
(1992:201) points out that basic needs are often largely unconscious although with
suitable techniques and with sophisticated people, they may become conscious.
To conclude, satisfaction of lower-order needs offers inadequate personal and
professional growth opportunities for which professionally oriented teachers strive.
The reverse is also true if higher-order needs are satisfied.
20
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
(b) Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg and his associates made a study of the sources of people's satisfaction and
dissatisfaction experienced in and around their jobs, based on Maslow's needs
hierarchy theory. They divided the needs into two groups: motivators and hygiene
factors, thus the Two-Factor Theory. Their pilot studies were done in industry and
middle management level personnel. In interviews, employees had to describe times
when they felt satisfied at work and also times when they experienced dissatisfaction
at work. Herzberg found that (Van Dyk, 1996:327):
D Factors that make people happy and satisfied in their jobs differ from factors that
make people unhappy with their jobs. In most cases, these feelings originate from
the task itself, the nature and content of the work done. The factors include
opportunities for advancement and for growth in knowledge and capabilities in the
job, achievement of workers and recognition for achievement, increased
responsibilities and the work itself: how interesting, challenging and meaningful it
is. These factors tend to motivate employees to improve their performance and
thus result in job satisfaction. However, the absence of these factors does not
necessarily result in dissatisfaction, but leads to the absence of satisfaction (Van
Dyk, 1996:327). These are termed motivators and they correspond to Maslow's
higher-order needs, namely ego needs and self-actualisation.
D Feelings of unhappiness which cause dissatisfaction are products of factors related
to the surroundings of the job such as administration and policies, interpersonal
relations including supervision, wages, salaries and benefits, security and working
conditions. These maintenance factors are called hygiene factors since they
prevent trouble rather than eliminate it.
The study reflects a certain level of hygiene factors that is acceptable to employees.
Below this optimum level, employees show dissatisfaction but this does not ensure
satisfaction even when it is above the acceptable level. Rather, a positive job attitude
originates from the factors that promote self-fulfilment and self-actualisation. These
are Herzberg's motivators that encourage individuals to reach their aspirations (Tice,
21
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
1981:15). According to Gerber, Nel and Van Dyk (1996:328) and Herzberg
(1992: 122), although hygiene factors do not provide motivation for improved
performance, employers must pay attention to them because they can cause job
dissatisfaction.
In the absence of the hygiene factors, motivation is affected and workers tend to
reduce their productivity. According to Sergiovanni and Starratt (1971: 144) Herzberg
argues that the opposite of "job satisfaction" would not be "job dissatisfaction" but
rather "no satisfaction". Similarly, the opposite of "job dissatisfaction" is "no job
dissatisfaction" and not "job satisfaction". Herzberg is convinced that the solution to
motivation problems lies in the task itself by making the job interesting, meaningful
and challenging. Figure 2.2 summarises the satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors of
Herzberg's hypothesis (Sergiovanni & Starratt, 1971:145).
Figure 2.2: The satisfaction and dissatisfaction factors
Satisfiers Dissatisfiers
, (Foound in the work itselO (Found in the environment of the work)
Achievement Salary
Recognition Possibility of growth
Work itself Interpersonal relations (subordinates)
Responsibility Interpersonal relations (supervisors)
Advancement Interpersonal relations (peers)
Supervision-technical
Company policy and administration
Working conditions
Personal life
Status
Job securit
Source: Sergiovanni and Starratt (1971: 145)
Apparently, both motivators and hygiene factors are necessary to meet the needs of
workers. Motivator factors are intrinsic to the work while the hygiene factors are
extrinsic. Pay can motivate employees to greater effort and productivity in the job.
Job satisfaction of the workers, however, requires both types of factors to be present
in the job situation. Furthermore, Hill (1994:223) suggests that "satisfaction and
dissatisfaction are best conceived not as opposite ends of a single continuum but as
22
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
two distinct continua". Nonetheless, both types of factors are necessary. Herzberg
puts it clearly that motivators motivate and are primary sources of satisfaction. On the
other hand, hygiene factors such as pay, do not motivate, but can be a source of
dissatisfaction.
Galloway, Boswell, Panckhurst, Boswell and Green (1985:49) conducted a study
about teachers which revealed broad consistency with Herzberg's theory. The results
of this study show that the job satisfaction indicators frequently rated as the most
satisfying come from intrinsic aspects, while teachers are most dissatisfied with their
conditions of employment or external factors which reduce their sense of self-esteem.
The theories of Maslowand Herzberg have been questioned by certain human
behaviourists (Cowling, 1990: 132), but this is not part of this study. Instead, the
similarity between the two theories is apparent. This is indicated in figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 indicates that the lower-order needs of Maslow correlate with Herzberg's
hygiene factors while the higher-order needs correlate with the motivational factors.
Figure 2.3: A comparison of the Maslowand Herzberg models
Maslow's Model Herzberg's Model
I""
Self-actualisation Achievement
needs t
o~
;l Recognition
.~ (5/-)< Advancement
;> t) The work itself
Ego and self- 'g~~ Personal growth 0 +
esteem needs Responsibility No satisfaction Satisfaction
Social and / Company policy
belonging needs and administration
Quality of supervision
(/)
Lo
0 Relations with peers
t)
Safety and security ~ Relations with
(l)
needs c Subordinates·(ol)n Salary
:::>c-. Job security
Physiological needs Personal life - 0
Working conditions Dissatisfaction No Dissatisfaction
Status
Source: Klatt, Murdick and Schuster (1985:246)
23
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
(c) McLelland's theory of self-realisation
This theory (Van Dyk, 1996:330-1) is based on the assumption that "there is a relation
between the achievement motivation aroused in individuals, entrepreneurship and
economic growth of a particular cultural group". Any culture or community plays a
definitive role in its people's achievement motivation. According to this theory a
person has the potential energy to behave in a variety of ways. The behaviour depends
on the person's varied motives and opportunities offered by the situation. The need to
achieve goals differs in people, and so does the effort applied to overcome difficulties
towards achieving their goals.
According to Van der Westhuizen (1991:201), Sergovanni and Starratt's perspective
on McClelland's theory is that "man prefers pleasant experiences and tries to avoid
unpleasant ones". They suggest that pleasant experiences provide further motivation
while errors create a feeling of failure and are counter-productive. Therefore, the
achievement of objectives and the realisation of ideals can act as motivators for
further achievement.
On the other hand, different work situations provide different achievement
opportunities and people have different motives towards achievement. Thus their need
to achieve also varies. Reddin (Van der Westhuizen, 1991:201) asserts that an
individual with a high need of achievement "is motivated rather by his feeling of self-
realisation than by money". For such people the opportunity for self-realisation is
more important than rewards. Therefore, satisfaction with the job implies the
provision of a full possibility of self-realisation.
According to Van der Westhuizen (1991:202) McClelland's theory distinguishes
between people of three need types, namely, the need for self-realisation, the need for
power (authority) and the need for interpersonal relationships (need of affiliation).
The motive behind efforts made towards achievement is based on the particular need.
Similarly, Wanous and Lawler's theoretical framework, the Discrepancy Model
(Menlo & Poppleton, 1990: 175), holds that the "fit" between the perceived reality and
the worker's goals determines the level of satisfaction. This suggests that satisfaction
24
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
is a function of the perceived relationship between what one wishes from a job and
that which one perceives the job as offering.
Alongside a person's needs exist his/her values. Satisfaction with the job can result
from one's perception that the job allows for fulfilment of his important work values.
However, even those needs, which may not be of important value to the employee,
should be fulfilled. "Gains in satisfaction can be obtained by providing workers with
outcomes oflesser value" (Kreitner & Kinicki, 1995: 161).
From the theories above it is evident that the discrepancy approach involves
identifying those variables that are likely to influence the workers' satisfaction with
their jobs. The level of job satisfaction is determined by the extent to which the nature
of the job allows the fulfilment of the individual worker's needs.
2.3.3 Equity approach
Equity theories focus on how an individual is treated at work. Satisfaction is
determined by one's perception of the relation between work input and outcome. To
give an overview of the equity approach, Adam and Bersheid and Walster's theories
are discussed.
2.3.3.1 Adams's Equity Theory
Adams's theory (Van Dyk, 1996:333) is based on the assumption that "motivation is
influenced by the degree of equity an employee experiences in the work situation".
The theory compares what an employee receives on the basis of the quality and
quantity of work done. If an employee feels that his pay is less than that of his
colleagues who do the same work, he will be dissatisfied and will attempt to reduce
the inequity. Van Dyk (1996:334) outlines the following aspects of the theory:
o Input-outcome factors: Inputs refer to everything regarded as an investment to
work and worthy of some yield by the employee. These include experience,
education, training, skills and effort. Outcomes refer to anything the employee
25
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
regards as a yield from work. These may be positive or negative. Van Dyk (1996:
335) suggests "salary, intrinsic job satisfaction, satisfactory supervision, seniority
benefits and status in the organisation as positive outcomes. Negative outcomes
include poor working conditions, monotony, lack of security and other hygiene
factors".
o Inequity comparison process: To determine the degree of inequity, the
employee's outcomes (remuneration) are related to his inputs (effort) and
compared with that of a comparable employee. The comparison may reflect:
1. Equity - that the relation between the employee's inputs and outcomes is equal to
that of the comparable employee.
2. Underpayment - that the employee's input-outcome ratio is smaller than that of
the comparable employee.
3. Overpayment - that the employee's input-outcome ratio is greater than that of the
comparable employee.
Equity may satisfy the employee depending on his present position and where he
would have been in his previous or other organisations. Underpayment and
overpayment reflect inequity. This can give rise to feelings of disequilibrium and
arouse dissatisfaction and unhappiness. The perception of inequity creates tension
among employees. The degree of inequity is indicative of the degree of the tension.
This affects motivation in that the tension motivates employees to reduce it by
striving towards equity measures. Van Dyk (1996:336) has reported that employees
reduce inequity by one or more of the following
o Changing their inputs or outcomes to increase or decrease the outcome-input ratio
in relation to that of the comparable employee;
o Distorting their inputs and outcomes subjectively by allocating changed weights to
both inputs and outcomes;
o Withdrawing or transferring from the organisation;
o Reacting to the comparable employee by distorting his inputs or outcomes;
o Changing the object of comparison to have a more balanced comparison.
26
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
2.3.3.2 Bersheid and Walster's Equity Theory
The equity theory of Bersheid and Walster indicates that people are self-interested and
go along with the rules of society to get what they want. "Persons view themselves
and others in terms of a balance or equity-type relationship" (Tice, 1981 :20). The
individual seeks ways of restoring equity as soon as an imbalance is perceived. In the
work-place the relationships and situations affect the way individuals feel about their
jobs.
According to Tarrant (1991 :32) rewards may be intrinsic or extrinsic. Teachers are
mostly motivated by the intrinsic rewards of having reached their students while they
complain about conditions interfering with achieving those intrinsic rewards.
Tarrant's study (1991 :32) with the resource teachers in Quebec added other intrinsic
motivators such as working with interesting colleagues in a supportive atmosphere
within the school and a strong sense of ownership in the improvement of special
education. Services across the board of specific goals are reached. Extrinsic
motivators such as pay are undeniably motivating but not indefinitely.
Equity theories are important but have two important drawbacks. The comparison of
the employees' ratio of inputs and outputs is not practically easy and they ignore
individual differences in the comparisons. The expectancy approaches next discussed
are more realistic in addressing the individuality problem.
2.3.4 The expectancy approach
The approach focuses on how human behaviour originates and is directed, and the
relationship between variables constituting motivation (Van Dyk, 1996:331). Sell &
Shipley (1979:59) describe expectancy theories as giving a good explanation of
observed human behaviour and predicting the most probable behaviours, although
they fail to explain why certain behaviours should occur. Three theories have been
considered to survey these approaches, namely that ofVroom, Gergen and Wolf.
27
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
2.3.4.1 Vroom's Expectancy Theory
Vroom's expectancy theory "views an individual as making choices with some
outcomes beyond his control" (Tice, 1981: 17). This theory explains the tendency of
people to expect certain outcomes, preferably those beneficial to them. Uncertainties
force them to choose between alternatives. As a result, their behaviours are affected
by preferences among these outcomes, and the degree of probability the outcomes are
believed to have. Therefore, individuals participate in activities that determine their
level of motivation to correlate their specific successful efforts with the desired
outcomes. Satisfaction is based on a number of variables, yet some may satisfy a
particular individual but not the other. In agreement, Hoyand Miskei (1987: 192)
believe that this approach
" ... captures the essence of why individuals expend different levels of
energy in their jobs. Stated simply, the force of a person to perform
depends on the answers to a series of questions that all people ask
themselves on a daily basis: Is a reward being offered that I value? If I
make the effort, will I be able to improve my performance? If my
performance improves, will I actually be rewarded for it?"
Johnson (1986:56) adds that Vroom's theory holds that people can be expected to act
in anticipation of achieving favourable outcomes (rewards), while avoiding penalties.
Also, a person who desires an outcome thought to be attainable tends to shape his/her
behaviour to increase the likelihood of achieving the reward.
According to Van Dyk (1996:331), Vroom's theory is based on two assumptions,
namely that
o individuals have expectations about outcomes that may manifest themselves as a
result of what they do, and
o individuals have different preferences for different outcomes.
This suggests that individuals will be motivated to work well if they have a perception
that their efforts will result in successful performance; and that this will result in
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
desirable outcomes. Vroom divided these desirable outcomes into two categories very
similar to those proposed by Herzberg:
o Intrinsic outcomes - directly related to the task, how interesting, challenging and
meaningful the work is.
o Extrinsic outcomes - related to the environment of the job area, the working
conditions, salary and benefits.
The following are variables ofVroom's theory (Van Dyk, 1996:331-2):
Expectancy (E): The expectation that the outcome can be realised influences the effort
a person makes towards achieving a specific performance goal, first-level outcome.
That is, if the expectancy is positive and high, every effort will be made to achieve the
goal. But if the expectancy is that the performance is impossible or improbable, no
effort or little will be made. Expectancy is referred to as the conviction that a
particular effort or action will result in a particular outcome. The expectancy is based
on one's perception of the situation.
Instrumentality (1): Reaching the first-level outcome may be instrumental in reaching
a second-level outcome or reward. Instrumentality is the degree of conviction that the
first-level outcome, achieving a specific performance goal, will lead to attaining the
second-level outcome (reward).
Valence (V): Satisfaction rather than the immediate satisfaction it brings follows a
positive outcome. This is referred to as valence. The importance of second-level
outcomes is determined by the degree to which the outcomes satisfy the individual's
needs.
According to Vroom's theory motivation is a process affected by the variables
valence, instrumentality and expectancy, VIE in short. Motivation or effort to perform
a task can be calculated from the VIE. Thus, management, including educational
management, can use the theory to improve performance and productivity by
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
motivating employees. Therefore, improving or introducing a compensation system
and promotion (reward) are directly linked to the effort made to achieve the goal
(performance). To improve variage, managers should take into account individual
preferences concerning aspects such as salary, promotion and recognition, with the
effort to satisfy these preferences.
2.3.4.2 Gergen's exchange theory
The basis of this theory is very similar to that of Vroom. The interaction of
individuals at work, in terms of the individual's contribution and rewards in relation
to other individuals, is the main focus of Gergen's exchange theory.
"If a person perceives his relationship with others as having more or
equal rewards to his contributions to the relationship, then he is
satisfied and will likely continue the relationship until his contributions
are viewed as being too great for the return (reward) he is receiving.
The rewards are not all-monetary payoffs but may be also social
prestige, status, and achievement and recognition" (Tice, 1981: 19).
This is true for individuals with peers and employees at the workplace. To attain
satisfaction, the individual's contribution is expected to be equal or less than the
rewards he receives. Dissatisfaction is very likely to result from the reverse.
Furthermore, dissatisfaction or low satisfaction could result from not having enough
balance in exchange with peers on the job. This could lead to frustration and low
performance through minimal efforts (Tice, 1981: 19).
On the basis of Vroom and Gergen's theories, workers' perception of equity in
relation to their peers, management and monetary rewards tend to improve
satisfaction with the job. Dissatisfaction is likely where individuals perceive their job
and work environment to contribute to the imbalance. Also, a feeling among workers
of being exploited affects cooperation with management and other workers, leading to
a negative attitude towards the job itself. Monaghan (1989:A14) identified large
classes, heavy workloads and little recognition as causes of the feeling of exploitation
among teachers.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
2.3.4.3 Wolf's need gratification theory
According to the Need Gratification Theory of Wolf (Tice, 1981: 18), salary can act as
a motivator, especially when one has a high expectancy that one's job related
behaviour could increase one's salary. Most motivation theorists and researchers,
however, argue for performance related rewards over material related rewards.
Goodland in Johnson (1986:58), for example, has found that, although money can be
a reason teachers give for entering the profession, it ranks second after inefficacy as a
reason for leaving the profession.
Others, such as Sieber in Johnson (1986:56), suggests that some sources of
gratification are self-contained (intrinsic motivators), while others (extrinsic
motivators such as money) are resources that can be used to purchase gratification
elsewhere. With the same line of reasoning, Johnson (1986:58) documented that some
educators claim that intrinsic rewards of teaching can be compromised when money is
introduced as an additional or alternative incentive.
The former group believes the most powerful teacher's attribute is an intrinsic
motivator, determining the teacher's sense of efficacy. They focus on a solution to the
problem for which a reward is given. But, intrinsically motivated teachers use more
information to solve the problem carefully, logically and coherently. Spuck in
Johnson (1986:59) found that material rewards induce teachers to join the system and
remain in it, while intrinsic rewards are related to job performance, reduced
absenteeism, improved interpersonal relations and in particular effective teacher
classroom behaviour.
The need gratification theory is in agreement with Vroom's hypothesis and in contrast
to Herzberg, who suggests that salary is a hygiene factor. It suggests that teachers are
primarily motivated by intrinsic motivators. Also, that money does matter to them,
especially when it falls short of personal needs and personal satisfaction.
From the above it is apparent that the expectancy approach is based on the job
outcomes, taking into account individual differences. An individual's outcome
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
expectations are greatly influenced by the individual's preferences. For example, a
feeling of achievement motivates mainly intrinsically motivated individuals, while
material rewards motivate individuals having extrinsic preference.
2.3.5 Synthesising motivational theory and job satisfaction
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) was developed, as part of the Work
Adjustment Project, by the University of Minnesota (Weiss, Dawis, England &
Lofquist, 1967:v). It is a standardised instrument used worldwide in surveying job
satisfaction among various occupational groups, including teachers (Sashkin, 1996:8).
It is highly respected on grounds of validity, reliability, content, language level and
norm availability (Feldman & Arnold, 1983:212-213).
The long form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire uses 100 questions to
identify 20 job satisfaction indicators in clusters of five questions per indicator. The
20 indicators of job satisfaction used by the questionnaire are the following (Weis et
al.,1967:1-2):
1. Ability utilisation: The chance to do something that makes use of one's abilities.
2. Achievement: The feeling of accomplishment one gets from the job.
3. Activity: Being able to keep busy all the time.
4. Advancement: The chance for advancement in this job.
5. Authority: The chance to tell other people what to do.
6. Colleagues: The way one's eo-workers get along with each other.
7. Compensation: A person's pay and the amount of work he/she does.
8. Creativity: The chance to try one's own methods of doing the job.
9. Departmental policies and practices: The way departmental policies are put into
practice.
10. Independence: The chance to work alone on the job.
11. Moral values: Being able to do things that don't go against one's conscience.
12. Recognition: The praise one gets for doing a good job.
13. Responsibility: The freedom to use one's own judgement.
14. Security: The way one'sjob provides for steady employment.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
15. Social services: The chance to do things for other people.
16. Social status: The chance to be "somebody" in the community.
17. Supervision - human relations: The way one's supervisor handles his/her staff.
18. Supervision - technical: The competence of one's supervisor in making
decisions.
19. Variety: The chance to do different things from time to time.
20. Working conditions: The physical working conditions.
If the indicators above are related to the factors that influence job satisfaction or
dissatisfaction as discussed in each of the preeeeding motivational theories, the results
can be summarised as shown in figure 2.4.
Figure 2.4: Job satisfaction indicators and the theories of motivation
Job satisfaction indicators
~ .t:.l.Il
"0 ~
.=!! <eIJ "0 ... e ._0 .<cII .Q:i ~ =<II-~;; .N.. ~ ~ .c 0 t:l<IJ 0 ...Il '00 "0 <.IJ ~ ...~ <II <.I -< .. ~ <II;;> C,,') ~
== :; =<II
Ability utilisation X X X X X
Achievement X X X X X
Activity X X X X X
Advancement X X X X
Authority X X X
Colleagues X X X X X X
Compensation X X X X X X X X
Creativity X X X
Departmental policies and X X
practices
Independence X X
Moral value X X X
Recognition X X X X
Responsibility X X X
Security X X X
Social service X X
Social status X X X
Supervision-human relations X X X
Supervision-technical X X X
Variety X
Working conditions X X X
33
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
From figure 2.4 it is clear that Herzberg's theory forms the basis of the questionnaire.
The factors of the other theories, however, also correlate with the indicators of job
satisfaction in the questionnaire. Therefore these indicators can be used as predictors
of job satisfaction or dissatisfaction in an organisation such as a college of education.
2.4 MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS
2.4.1 Managerial implications of the theories of motivation
All these theories attempt to answer the question that most managers ask themselves,
"How can I motivate my people?" This question is of great importance and has been
answered in many ways. However, Terpstra (1981 :67) suggests that managers should
borrow only the best from each theory. According to Terpstra (1981:67) each theory
has some degree of validity and utility to the practising manager, and this is what
should be extracted. Pearson (1991: 176) suggests that managers should borrow the
part with a practical application and testable explanations.
For example, the value of Maslow's theory (see 2.3.2.1 (a» lies in its emphasis on
motivating employees by appealing to their individual needs. That is, the manager has
to identify and gauge employees' most important needs and utilise them by linking
their satisfaction to effort or performance. When a need is identified, for example,
recognition, opportunities for satisfying that need should be provided and made
contingent on increased effort or performance. Another value of this theory is its
focus on the recognition and identification of individual needs for the purpose of
motivating behaviour.
Terpstra (1981 :68) finds Herzberg's theory useful to draw the manager's attention to
enriching jobs by making the work meaningful and interesting and by providing more
opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth
on the job. However, the nature of the employees and their needs have to be
considered since some employees simply do not respond or enjoy enriched jobs.
Furthermore, Haimann and Scott (1974: 358) suggest that even though management
may strive for organisational "hygiene" through promoting equitable wage
34
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
administration programmes, enlightening supervision and good working conditions, a
strong motivational climate could still be a problem since such efforts only minimise
dissatisfiers without maximising satisfiers. Because satisfiers and dissatisfiers relate to
separate and different aspects of the employment situation, motivation does not
Improve.
According to Haimann and Scott (1974:358), management has to develop two
strategies, one directed at hygiene factors to avoid unpleasantness and the other at
motivation factors to ensure personal growth through the fulfilment of satisfying
conditions. They further point out that these managerial efforts can be quite complex
due to human diversity to which the environment of an organisation should be
responsive. Haimann and Scott (1974: 358) suggest that the following can guarantee
the success of management:
D Management should foster decentralisation to allow lower managerial levels to
work out the climate best adapted to the satisfaction sought by the employees
supervised.
D Managers should increase their awareness of their subordinates' needs and the
kind of satisfaction they require.
D Responsiveness to human satisfactions should not be interpreted as 'soft
management', since it only reflects a philosophy designed to facilitate
organisational adaptability and to accommodate a wide variety of changing human
requirements.
Vroom's theory, according to Terpstra (1981:69), suggests that to motivate employees
with the aim of increasing effort, the manager can focus on any of the three
components of this theory at a time. For example, for the motivational level deemed
inadequate, the manager needs to focus on each of the components to locate the
cause(s). The effort-performance expectancy component may cause problems if the
employee is not convinced that effort is related to performance. Then the manager has
to develop more relevant performance criteria or convince the employee as to how
his/her effort is related to performance.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
The motivational deficit may involve the performance-outcome expectancy
component. Terpstra (1981:70) suggests that the manager has to aim at improving the
perceived link between performance and outcomes (rewards). Tying outcomes more
directly to performance through the use of incentive plans, commissions, merit raises
or merit-based promotions could do this. On the other hand, if the valence component
is the source of the motivational deficit, the manager has to identify employees'
relevant values and outcomes as well as their acceptable forms. Then, these outcomes
are more likely to motivate effort from employees.
The expectancy theory recognises that individuals come to work with different needs
to satisfy and will be motivated to greater effort if and only if employers provide the
rewards they seek. These are the needs that management has to identify and fulfil.
Equity theories recognise that individuals expect to be rewarded fairly. Greenberg and
Baron (1995: 140) suggest that underpayment should be avoided since it is an obvious
source of dissatisfaction. On the other hand, they discourage overpayment, arguing
that the increases in performance shown in response to overpayment inequity tend to
be only temporary. With time these employees believe they deserve the high pay and
bring their work level down to normal. Besides, overpaying some employees means
underpaying others and this can be dissatisfying. All in all, Greenberg and Baron
(1995: 140) suggest that managers should strive to treat employees equitably, and be
open and honest about outcomes and inputs. These have to be presented thoroughly
and in a socially sensitive manner.
Torrington and Chapman (1979:100) warn researchers about the managerial
assumptions about what motivates employees and the nature of the people involved,
which usually influences the management of personnel in organisations. According to
Torrington and Chapman (1979: 100) these assumptions can represent a self-fulfilling
prophecy. For example, a manager may assume that an employee is lazy and
uninterested in work. Therefore he/she decides to have close control and supervision,
which may be the cause of the behaviour. When the behaviour deteriorates as a result
thereof, the managers tend to confirm their original assumptions which does not
necessarily make them right. They further suggest that managers should explicitly
36
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
recognise their own theories and assumptions by questioning their validity, relevance
and influence upon their own behaviour and the behaviour of others.
From the above, it is clear that satisfaction of human needs and how they can best be
satisfied should be the manager's concern. Moreover, that the job has to be rewarding
to satisfy employees indicates the importance of every organisation's reward system.
2.4.2 Managerial implications of reward systems and administration
McKenna and Beech (1995: 147) postulate that motivation and rewards are connected
since rewards are awarded to motivate employees to commit themselves to perform to
satisfactory levels in the workplace. Therefore, those who design the reward systems
have to understand the theories of motivation because these theories delve into
psychological explanations of what really motivate people in formal organisations.
Thierry in McKenna and Beech (1995:147) argue that pay has both psychological and
social significance because it sends a lot of messages to the employee apart from its
status as the most desired material reward. Thierry in McKenna and Beech (1995: 147)
suggest that pay performs the following role:
o It satisfies personal needs by providing an escape from insecurity, creating a
feeling of competence and opening up opportunities for self-fulfilment.
o It provides feedback on how well one is doing and acts as an indicator of that
person's relative position in the organisation.
o It is a reward for success in controlling others where the individual has a
supervisory or managerial position.
o It conveys a capital to spend in that pay reflects one's purchasing power in the
customer market.
In agreement, Hersey and Blanchard (1982:31) argue that Maslow's physiological
needs are usually associated with money since having shelter, food or clothing
requires money. People need money to buy that which satisfies their physiological
needs, but not money itself. According to Hersey and Blanchard (1982:31) money can
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
play a role in the satisfaction of needs at every level. For example, one's need for
achievement, status or recognition can be fulfilled by driving an expensive car.
Besides monetary reward in the form of payor awards, Greenberg and Baron
(1995: 132) point out that some organisations offer financial assistance to employees
regarding sending their children to college or university. This provides financial
security, a key aspect of job security. According to Greenberg and Baron (1995: 132),
other organisations satisfy their employees' social needs by celebrating a day at work
with their families or including social activities in their cultures.
Furthermore, Byars and Rue (1994:323) distinguish between compensation and pay.
According to them, compensation refers to extrinsic rewards that employees receive
as a result of their work, while pay is just an example of the extrinsic rewards
employees receive in exchange for their work. Byars and Rue (1994:324) view
compensation as the basic salary and overtime pay, while pay includes incentives
such as bonuses, commission, and benefits such as paid vacation, health insurance and
retirement pension.
In addition to this, Cowling (1990: 132) adds that pay is essential for the motivation of
employees (hygiene factor). But since health requires much more than hygiene, high
levels of motivation require a sense of achievement, recognition and responsibility.
Pay schemes should attempt to match rewards to performance to avoid dissatisfaction
of employees. With reference to the teaching profession, Johnson (1986:73) suggests
that the reward system should attempt to attract teachers, retain them and improve
their practice. While arguing that the best teachers stay in teaching because of the
intrinsic rewards, Johnson (1986:73) further suggests that they may be forced to leave
because of poor salaries or working conditions.
Cowling (1990: 129) indicates that in every organisation, managers have both extrinsic
rewards, pay being the most important, and intrinsic rewards such as recognition and
status, available to them. According to Cowling (1990: 129), pay represents both a
cost and an investment to the organisation. The organisation invests in paying salaries
because it is money paid in pursuit of productivity. For every organisation, the prime
38
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
objective of the pay policy is to ensure that the money devoted to pay is invested
wisely. Reyes (1990:333) agrees that both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards should be
used to satisfy the needs which employees bring to the work situation.
The main objective of reward management as further suggested by Cowling
(1990: 129) is to motivate and retain a productive workforce. The pay policy should be
aimed to attract and retain employees, and to encourage effort and cooperation, as
well as a willingness to learn new skills and to adapt to change. The reward system
that can successfully retain employees, according to Lawier III (1977: 169) and
Cummings and Worley (1993:407), is one that rewards enough to feel satisfied, as
well as rewarding employees at a level above the reward levels in other organisations
of its type.
Whatever the pay policy, researchers agree that it has to be administered in a manner
perceived as equitable and fair by employees (see 2.3.3).
Byars and Rue (1994:319) highlights the importance of anything that employees
perceive as a meaningful reward by suggesting that employers should view whatever
employees perceive as of value to them. According to Byars and Rue (1994:319) and
Beer and Walton (1991 :209), rewards are related to performance. That is, if
performance guarantees a reward, employees will be motivated to perform to the best
of their abilities and they will be satisfied with performing the rewarding duties. It is
worth noting that a desired reward is a need. Therefore, satisfaction of this need is
actually meeting the expectation and this leads to greater effort to achieve to the level
that will be best rewarded.
Byars and Rue (1994:321) also point out that besides the direct impact of extrinsic
rewards, they can also affect intrinsic rewards and job satisfaction, for example, an
increase of 10% across the board does not give any feeling of accomplishment.
However, pay raise related to performance is more likely to give a feeling of
accomplishment and satisfaction.
39
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
In conclusion, it should be a concern to management as to how equitable and fair the
pay programme as well as its administration is.
2.5 OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE JOB SATISFACTION
Job satisfaction is also influenced by a number of other factors. Mumfort (1991: 12)
warns researchers to avoid generalising since organisational and individual needs
differ, and to avoid concentrating on anyone factor's influence on job satisfaction. A
few of these factors are the following:
o Locus of control;
o Role tensions;
o Leadership.
2.5.1 Locus of control
Although educators worldwide take different approaches to improve education at all
system levels, their ultimate aim is to promote more effective training institutions.
This refers to positive job attitudes of staff members to increase performance of both
educators and students. Understanding educators' job attitude and behaviours
therefore seems to be a necessary condition for any improvement effort (Cheng,
1994: 180). With regard to control, Cheng (1994: 180) has found that:
"Teachers with a belief in internal control tend to have more positive
job attitude in terms of organisational commitment, intrinsic
satisfaction, role clarity, and feeling of job challenge ... and internal
work motivation. They also tend to have more positive perceptions of
the school organisation in terms of the principal's leadership,
organisational structure, teachers' social norms, and organisational
culture and effectiveness."
Therefore, according to Cheng (1994: 186), locus of control seems to be a powerful
indicator of teachers' job attitude and feelings and perceptions about organisational
characteristics, and consequently of their level of job satisfaction.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
2.5.2 Role tensions
A synthesis of research findings regarding job satisfaction performed by Thompson,
McNamara and Hoyle (1997:27) suggests that the strongest predictors of job
satisfaction in educational settings are role tensions, namely, role ambiguity and role
conflict. These point to professional role as an apparent covariate in the relationships
between overall job satisfaction and both role ambiguity and role conflict. Bacharach
and Bamberger (1990:321) agree that role conflict and role ambiguity are
significantly and inversely associated with job satisfaction but directly related to job
dissatisfaction and eventually job stress. In fact, Conley, Bacharach and Bauer
(1989:69) suggest that professionals tend to willingly accept bureaucratisation to the
degree that it clarifies their role in the organisation.
Role ambiguity and role conflict are a possible source of stress at work (NewelI,
1995 :40). Byrne (1994:668) found that teacher burnout is significantly related to
organisational variables of role conflict, work overload, classroom climate, and
decision-making and the personality variables of self-esteem. These relationships
were critical determinants of particular aspects of burnout for teachers regardless of
the level taught although the locus of control was also important.
Van der Westhuizen (1991 :90) refers to a role as what a person does in a certain
position, usually defined by expectations or ideas, and distinctive personal
characteristics of an individual. Tice (1981:22) proposes that mastery, clarity and
appropriateness of one's role could enhance personal satisfaction with the role.
Personal satisfaction is an intrinsic motivator, leading to more involvement and
commitment.
Turner (Tice, 1981:21) developed the Role Theory, indicating a need for role clarity.
This suggests that new roles tend to be in conflict with previous roles. Therefore, the
level of clarity of the new role ensures that this is not confused with the previous
ones. According to Tice (1981 :21) fulfilling the role requirements could increase both
motivation and job satisfaction. Thus, the role must be described accurately and
completely to present a good overall picture regarding one's duties and
41
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
responsibilities. These include the behaviour of a person as determined by
interpersonal relationships and events within an organisation, such as the school.
Using the Getzei and Guba model, Hay and Miskei (1987:60) found that some roles
might not be prescribed since they are associated with a wide range of role
expectations. Applied to a college, for example, this range of freedom allows lecturers
with different personalities to perform the same role without tension or conflict. Every
lecturer has the right to plan learning experiences for students and the duty to present
them in a manner effective and comfortable to him/her. The individual is performing
the role as long as he behaves in a manner consistent with the institutional demands of
the position.
According to Mullins (1991 :338), role conflict can result in role stress. A certain
amount of stress has been proved to be psychologically beneficial as it can improve
performance. But high amounts of stress can be harmful, causing tension, frustration
and dissatisfaction. People are more likely to be satisfied with a work environment
less likely to bring stress-related illnesses.
NewelI (1995 :40) agrees that role conflict can be a source of dissatisfaction at work,
based on the numerous roles that an individual normally plays simultaneously. These
roles are associated with a number of expectations defining how the individual should
behave in each. The attempts to conform to these expectations and the sanctions
which can be applied if the individual steps outside the expectations, put enormous
pressures on the individual in trying to behave as expected. These pressures are
common in the work-place and can cause stress. According to NewelI (1995:45), an
ambiguous role can be stressful and also be a source of dissatisfaction at work. In this
study, job stress is considered as a negative consequence of job dissatisfaction, which
will be dealt with in the next chapter.
Much as the fulfilment of bureaucratic expectations and the workers' needs and
motives can guarantee satisfaction, role conflict complicates communication and
interpersonal relationships, hindering the effectiveness of working together.
Satisfaction with the lecturer's job, therefore, requires efforts from educational leaders
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
to reduce role conflict and role stress as a result thereof. To ensure the satisfaction of
educators with their roles, the leader should aim at supporting them as they perform
their tasks.
2.5.3 Leadership
Leadership is defined by Ivancevich, Donnellyand Gibson (1983:283) as the process
of creating a work environment, by the leader, in which people can do their work best.
This includes the leader getting people to do their work willingly, convincing them to
do it even when they do not feel like doing it at all. According to Ivancevich et al.
(1983 :284), the leader has to exercise influence through communication to specify the
task-related activities of the individuals or groups. These are the activities required to
achieve effective performance for which employees are rewarded. Johnson and
Holdaway (1991 :66) refer to effective leaders as those who are successful in behaving
in an exemplary manner, communicating with their subordinates, making timely,
appropriate and acceptable decisions, and establishing a suitable work atmosphere.
Likert in Rohman (1985:19) has found that the employee's job satisfaction depends
upon the relationship between the employee's perception of the supervisor's
leadership behaviour and the expectations, values, and skills of the employee. In
whatever leaders do, directly or indirectly, they influence the satisfaction of their
subordinates (Strauss 1977:299). The direct influence lies in their daily interactions
while the indirect one lies in the management activities that design systems for the
organisation. In addition, Litt and Turk (1985: 178) suggest that the role teachers
perceive for themselves as well as the school climate, particularly their relationship
with administrators, is extremely important in predicting their job stress.
Tarrant (1991 :33) suggests that the quality of education should be determined by the
success of educational leaders, arguing that these leaders have a significant role in the
overall educators' morale and effectiveness, as well as in student success. On the
other hand, research findings indicate that the leader's success can be attributed to the
characteristics of the situation in which he/she acts (Hoy & Miskel, 1987:273).
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
Educational leaders have a challenging managerial role. They manage work
performed by specialists whose individual knowledge in their respective fields
surpasses that of the manager. With regard to colleges of education for example, the
rectors manage lecturers who are experts in the subjects they teach, but they have to
be able to judge whether they did or did not achieve their goals. Kellogg (1979:100)
and Nel (1996:505) suggest that the managers have to lay groundwork for sound
motivation toward organisational goals by involving the staff in planning and
formulating the organisational goals. Moreover, they have to offer support to their
subordinates since this can be a key feature in the elimination of dissatisfaction and
stress (Fimian, Pierson & McHardy, 1986:757).
Although many educational theorists advocate a democratic leadership style that
encourages staff involvement in decision-making (Marra, 1978: 1), some research
findings do not point to a single leadership style as the best. Instead, "what traits
under what situation are important to leader effectiveness" is the question (Hoy &
Miskel, 1987:274). They found that most research literature involves the contingency
approach. This approach highlights the importance of specifying the conditions or
situational variables that influence the relationship between the leader's behaviour and
his/her performance.
According to Hoy and Miskei (1987:274), "under one set of circumstances, one type
of leader is effective, and under another set of circumstances, a different type of
leader is effective". Thus, leadership involves both leader behaviour and the
conditions of the organisation.
One general theoretical basis for a research approach in investigating leader behaviour
was initiated by Evans, namely the path-goal theory. House's path-goal theory (Hoy
& Miskel, 1987 :292) explains how leaders influence the perceptions of their
subordinates about personal goals, work goals and the path to goal attainment.
Rohman (1985 :31) regards the path-goal theory as the extension of the valence
expectancy theory of Lewin and Vroom. The path-goal theory focuses on how the
leader's behaviour affects path-goal expectations and job satisfaction of employees.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
Yet the valence expectancy theory focuses on the motivational basis of action (Hoy &
Miskei, 1987:292).
House and Mitchell (1990:483) suggest that a person "is satisfied with his job if he
thinks that it leads to things that are highly valued, and he works hard if he believes
that effort will lead to things that are highly valued". According to House and
Mitchell (1990:483), this theory can be used to
o predict why leaders behave the way they do, and
o understand how leader behaviour influences subordinate motivation.
For this study, the latter is important. House and Mitchell (1990:484) found that
researchers with this approach focus on:
o How a leader affects subordinates' expectations that effort will lead to
effective performance and valued rewards;
o How these expectations affect motivation to work hard and perform
well.
According to Tosi (1990:484) and Rohman (1985:32) Evans suggests that in order to
succeed, leaders should create conditions that link their performance path and the
personal goals. He further suggests that the leader make the rewards available, and
that the rewards be contingent on the subordinate's accomplishment of specific goals
(performance) .
In agreement, Whaley (1994:47) has found that educators are satisfied when their
leaders put high priorities on rewards for job performance. These must be
communicated to the staff. Successful educators take pride in the values and beliefs of
their school and are committed to making them a success through their teaching.
The path-goal theory emphasises clarity of the subordinates' behaviour that leads to
the goal accomplishment and a valued reward, thus clearing the subordinates' path or
expected behaviour. In addition, the leader's support to subordinates as they perform
the task, increases the rewards and motivation of subordinates (Tosi, 1990:484).
45
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
Workers in a given work area tend to have certain goals in common that they wish to
achieve. This is suggested by the path-goal theory. According to this theory, goals that
workers are trying to achieve, reflect the workers' needs. For example, "if individuals
perceive high productivity as a path to their goal, they will tend to be high producers"
(Tice, 1981 :23). In turn, satisfaction of these individuals with their jobs will be
guaranteed by high production.
Evans (Tosi, 1990:484) found a positive relation between the performance of
subordinates and the view of their leader as being supportive (considerate of their
needs) and the degree to which they provide clear directions and guidance. Ivancevich
et al. (1983:284) add that leaders have to adopt styles that reflect their ideas and
perspectives on the importance of tasks and the people they work with.
House's path-goal theory outlines the effects of leader behaviour on the motivation
and satisfaction of subordinates, their acceptance of the leader and their expectations
that their effort towards effective performance is the path to valued rewards. Hoy and
Miskei (1987:292) agree when they say "leaders are effective when they enhance the
acceptance, satisfaction and motivation of their subordinates." The four types of
leadership style suggested by House and Mitchell (Tosi, 1990:490-492) are:
o Directive leadership - Where role demands are ambiguous, this leadership
correlates with satisfaction and expectations of subordinates. The leader provides
the necessary guidance. Conversely, directive leadership can hinder progress
where subordinates are familiar with the task demands, by giving direction
through rules and principles.
o Supportive leadership - Subordinates working on stressful, frustrating or
dissatisfying tasks, need support from their leaders. It can be satisfying to see that
the leader show concern and is friendly to them.
o Achievement-oriented leadership - Provides satisfaction to subordinates with
ambiguous and non-repetitive tasks. These subordinates always have challenging
goals. The achievement-oriented leader assures the subordinates that efforts for
effective performance will be rewarded.
46
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
o Participative leadership - Creates a participative climate, good for decision-
making as it 1) clarifies the path and goals, 2) allows subordinates to decide on
goals that they want, 3) increases subordinates' control over what happens to them
on the job and 4) lets subordinates determine pressure toward high performance
themselves. This style is good when subordinates prefer autonomy, self-control
and are low authoritarians.
So far, the significance of appropriate leadership behaviours is evident. The amount of
influence that the specific leader behaviour has in motivating subordinates can be
predicted from his/her leadership style. The success of the management activities of
an educational leader - planning, organising, guiding and controlling - is dependent on
the degree to which the leader can trigger the power of motivation in the educators
towards achieving the set goals (Van der Westhuizen, 1991 :296).
The effectiveness and efficiency of1eadership depend on a number of factors. These
include creating an organisational climate conducive to teaching and learning, quality
communication and a positive attitude towards work.
2.5.3.1 Organisational climate
Organisational climate refers to teachers' perception of the general work environment
of the institution and is influenced by the institutional structure, the personalities of
the participants and the organisational leadership (Van der Westhuizen, 1991 :309). It
makes one institution different from another. "If teacher performance in schools is to
be improved, it is necessary to pay attention to the kind of work environment that
enhances teachers' sense of professionalism and decrease their job dissatisfaction"
adds Steyn and Van Wyk (1999:37). Lissmann and Gigerich (1990:279) further
suggest that working conditions be related to various cultural settings since educators
attach different values to working conditions and to the social context of the job.
Educational leaders are probably the most important III creating a favourable
organisational climate, which in turn predicts other behavioural and attitudinal
variables of the staff, such as job satisfaction, motivation and morale, teacher
47
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
performance and student achievement (Ntsaluba, 1991:38). Neumann, Reiehel and
Saad (1988:82) and Ball and Stenlund (1990:322) found a strong relationship between
organisational climate and job satisfaction, work attitude and attitude towards
collective bargaining.
The quality of human activity in an organisation is greatly determined by the spirit
(milieu, culture, atmosphere, ethos or climate) which influences these activities and
which differs from one school to another (Van der Westhuizen, 1991:630). It is when
the organisational climate is favourable that educative teaching and learning can take
place, through the enthusiasm of all people in the institution. According to Van der
Westhuizen (1991 :631) all these people feel that the organisational climate influences
their behavour and in turn determines the value of the organisation. A climate that is
positively perceived by the people involved in a particular organisation, is a source of
satisfaction and a positive attitude towards work. The college is no exception; the
college climate may have a positive or negative influence on the personnel involved
in the teaching-learning process: lecturers, students and the community.
The mutual relationship between students and lecturers arouses enthusiasm and brings
changes through new possibilities in an organisation. Therefore, educational leaders
should create an effective educational climate, influencing people towards achieving
educational goals. Fox (Van der Westhuizen, 1991:633) suggests the following aims
for creating a positive climate:
o Work satisfaction;
o Maximum productivity;
o Co-ordination of tasks for a team effort;
o Recognition of the principle of human dignity.
2.5.3.2 Communication
Bowditch and Buono (1990: 106) define communication as the exchange of
information between the sender and the receiver and the perception of meaning
between the individuals involved. According to Bowditch and Buono (1990: 106)
48
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
communication is one of the fundamental processes of almost all activity In
organisations. In any organisation incoming information is communicated to the
leader, who has to communicate it to his/her subordinates. How well and how
effectively the leader can do this, should be a concern of every top management
(Leslie, 1989:21).
To McKenna and Beech (1995:177), communication is a process at the disposal of the
organisation to keep management and employees informed about a variety of relevant
matters. For example, the leader has to communicate the mission statement and the
objectives of the organisation, as well as what is expected of them in terms of
performance and how a change in strategic direction of the organisation is likely to
affect them. Employees, on the other hand, should have the opportunity to
communicate their reaction to proposals and put forward counter-proposals.
McKenna and Beech (1995: 177) state:
"Good communication, as the lifeblood of the organisation, helps to
promote the involvement of employees in decision-making processes,
and in doing so, can enhance the individuals' identification with the
organisation, which in turn can lead to improved performance."
With regard to the teaching profession, Frase and Sorenson's (1992:42) study
revealed that in addition to their difficulties regarding unsatisfied needs, teachers are
generally dissatisfied by the absence of feedback, autonomy and task-related
interactions.
Ross (1981: 168) points out that "productivity suffers where poor communication
exists", suggesting the following as the main reasons for improving communication
between supervisor and subordinate:
o Communication takes 75 percent of an average manager's time; thus improving
the process will improve the effectiveness and utilisation of time.
o The manager gets production results through communication; therefore the
process seeks constant improvement.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
The quality of the communication process relates to the overall educator job
satisfaction (Hoy & Miskel, 1987 :405). Leaders should communicate the scope of the
job clearly to employees as well as how their contributions are related to the
organisational goals (Hoy & Miskel, 1987: 405).
Whaley (1994:47) found a strong relationship between the leaders' communication
effectiveness and the satisfaction of the staff, particularly in areas of feedback, reward
and support. According to Whaley (1994:49) effective communication is the main
component of leadership, especially in problem situations. Ineffective communication
can be problematic. Bass (1990:458) finds it a problem when supervisors say and
believe they give feedback and information to their subordinates who feel that they do
not receive it.
Leading or guiding is a managerial task aimed at ensuring that the work is done well.
To fulfil this task, Van der Westhuizen (1991: 183) suggests that the leader should
give direction to his/her followers towards achieving the set goals and should be able
to build relationships. Consequently, motivation and communication play an
important part in leading. The leader has to consider his followers' feelings and direct
them to efficiency through communicating ways of carrying out their specific tasks.
2.5.3.3 Attitude towards work
Wisniewski (1990:299) approaches job satisfaction as a hypothetical syndrome of
attitudes with some degree of typological notion, namely that one may be satisfied
with some aspects of the job but not with others. Wi'sniewski (1990:300) suggests
analysing the teacher's attitude towards various aspects of the teacher's role in
relation to their high satisfaction as one way of determining the strength of the links.
Furthermore, that teachers showing highest and lowest job satisfaction should be
compared and further analysed as a basis for improving the situation.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
To educational leaders, Wi sniewski (1990:303) proposed the following factors as
determinants of job satisfaction:
o Work conditions;
o Teacher participation III formulating didactics and educational policy of the
school;
o Educational equipment;
o The atmosphere created by the principal;
o The frequency with which professional literature is consulted;
o Pay;
o Administrative work done by teachers;
o Teacher's knowledge of subject matter;
o Feeling of getting support when it is needed.
From the above, it is clear that understanding the attitudes of workers towards aspects
of their job is necessary since it can determine those aspects of the job that have to be
addressed as well as ways of addressing them.
2.5.4 Some evidence of identified indicators of job satisfaction in the teaching
profession
In the 1980s Japan went through its "third educational reform". The National Council
on this reform advocated improvement in the quality of teachers through in-service
training. Itwas during this time that Ninomiya and Okato (1990:249) analysed teacher
job satisfaction in Japan. They found that teachers who are satisfied with the job feel
that "teaching measures up to the sort of work" they wanted when they entered the
profession. Teachers who are not satisfied tend to have "over-expectations" about the
profession, which is idealised without adequate or actual knowledge of working
conditions and other aspects of the profession.
The satisfied teachers were the males and the mid-career teachers, while young
teachers had difficulty adapting to their working environment. Some were those
teachers who find success at work very important and those whose salaries were
51
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
100% of the total household annual income. For the critical analysis of satisfied
teachers in Japan, Ninomiya and Okato (1990:249) itemised the following as very
important for job satisfaction as indicated by those teachers who are satisfied:
" ... pleasant physical surroundings at work, freedom to decide how
teachers do their work, enough materials and equipment for the work,
good pay, reasonable class size, the support and cooperation of
colleagues (working conditions), sharing in the guidance system, being
involved in counseling individual students, and understanding the
running of clubs, sport, drama, trips, ete (roles and responsibilities),
giving prompt attention when issues of student behaviour arise,
developing warm, personal relationships with students (classroom
practi ces). "
They attributed job dissatisfaction to:
Lack of professional skills and competence: Young teachers, especially those in
their twenties, are more likely to be dissatisfied with the job. They find the profession
different from what they expected; skills and competencies acquired at teacher-
training stage are not always sufficiently utilised in practical teaching; they
experienced difficulty in student-guidance and encounter problems in school
management; they do not have enough time for preparation of instruction; and
principals encounter leadership problems, especially those not professionally trained,
but selected among the senior experienced teachers.
Japanese teachers at risk: Teachers' feelings of difficulty in their job result in stress,
changing the individual's behaviour and/or resulting in illness. Mental disturbances
have been documented. Some teachers are at greater risk of these psychological
problems than others due to working environments and are calling for administrators'
concern.
Expansion of role and responsibilities: Teachers' roles and responsibilities keep
them so busy that the ability to give quality instruction and guidance is reduced.
Changes in the social and business lives of this decade forced the family
responsibilities onto the schools. These include discipline and providing various
opportunities for children.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
Female teachers: Females tend to hold to their stereotyped roles at home even when
they work outside home. They have to be good teachers at school and good wives and
mothers at home. Role conflict may lead to dissatisfaction with the teaching job.
The Japanese style in teacher-student relationships: A warm and personal
relationship between teacher and student is very important in Japan but its
development tends to be difficult for most teachers. The warm relationship still has to
be strictly in accordance with the traditional Confucianism, keeping some distance
between teacher and student. Nonetheless, a more democratic style of relationship
seems to be developing.
A non-challenging attitude: Dissatisfaction among teachers is possibly the result of
teachers being unchallenged, uncritical and uninnovative. This could be due to
teachers who are reluctant to try challenging practices, thus following the same
direction as everyone else.
Educational leaders should be concerned with attracting and retaining the best
educators. The aspect of the job which influences educators' job satisfaction and
motivation, may be of best interest to their leaders in particular.
Frase and Sorenson (1992:39) relate motivation and satisfaction to participatory
management. They suggest that leaders must
o ensure that they spend time with their staff formally and informally, so that
feedback given may be accurate,
o promote interaction so as to share responsibilities for decision-making since
isolation is seen as a job dissatisfier for most employees. The leader must allow
freedom to develop collegial relationships while they share the responsibility for
decision-making, and
o identify educators' high growth needs and provide them with task-related, person-
oriented or collegial opportunities. The growth needs include the desire for
professional growth and achievement to meet the affiliation needs of educators.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
In South Africa, Steyn and Van Wyk (1999:38) designed their research to understand
and describe the extent to which the sample of teachers used experienced job
satisfaction from their own framework of reference. They sampled the schools on the
basis of their accessibility and the willingness of the teachers to be used in the study.
Steyn and Van Wyk (1999:39) used three data collection strategies, namely
observation, individual interviews and group focus interviews. Observation was
aimed at obtaining the general feel of the school climate and teaching practices.
Individual interviews were used to elicit data from the principal of the schools used in
the study. The focus group interviews with the participating teachers were found to be
especially well suited to exploring the attitudes and experiences of the informants.
The data collected was then analysed by identifying, coding and categorising the
primary patterns in the data.
Steyn and Van Wyk (1999:39) attribute job dissatisfaction to the following factors:
Physical working conditions: The schools varied but generally there were no
suitable playing areas for the children, broken fences, not sufficient classrooms to
accommodate both the necessary furniture and the pupils per class. In some cases
there were no clerical staff-room and no telephone. None of these schools had a
library, and toilet facilities and facilities for learners to wash their hands were not
adequate. Teachers did not have a proper staff-room where they could relax and have
tea or prepare their lessons.
Support by education authorities: Principals indicated problems they had with the
education department especially not informing them about changes taking place in
education.
Job security and teachers' salaries: Teachers referred to the poor salaries they got
as the source of dissatisfaction and a factor driving teachers out of the teaching
profession. Teachers also feel insecure in their job because of the government's policy
of right-sizing primary schools to the teacher: pupil ratio of 1:40. It is true that this is
meant to solve problems in schools where classes are overcrowded. For these schools,
job insecurity was attributed to the fact that a significant number of teachers were not
54
Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
permanent, thus they could be forced to go while the permanent teachers from other
schools could be transferred to take up their posts. Lack of job security was blamed
for the lack of commitment on the part of teachers.
Interpersonal relations: In interviews, teachers complained about poor home-school
relationships. This results in parents refusing to assist learners at home or teachers
having trouble contacting parents when they experience problems at school. Some
parents are not willing to assist teachers and are rude when approached while others
work long hours and therefore do not have the necessary time. Their grandparents,
who are not helpful either, take care of some children. Negative interpersonal
relations with colleagues were blamed on lack of staff-rooms, reducing chances for
interaction. Instead, teachers tend to form cliques along trade unions and political
lines. Teacher-learner relationships, on the other hand, are not satisfactory. There
seem to be no clear boundaries between the two groups, which often lowers teacher
morale.
AppreciationlRecognition: Teachers feel that the communities they serve, do not
appreciate what they do and therefore do not afford them much respect. Some
teachers believe that this is due to the low salaries they earn, while others believe that
primary teachers are not respected because their qualifications are not as good as
those of the secondary school teachers, most of whom have university qualifications.
This attitude is said to apply even to learners, who tend not to respect teachers
teaching lower classes. However, some teachers feel that teachers are to blame for the
lack of respect they get because of their tendency to go on strike or neglect learners to
further their own studies.
School culture: A culture of learning is lacking in township schools. Some teachers
were dissatisfied with the apathy of learners in their classes, the source of which was
not clear; whether teaching methods were at fault or whether the problem lay with the
learners themselves, was not clear. Lack of a learning culture is related to a lack of
discipline especially since the prohibition of corporal punishment.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
Environmental factors: Poor socio-economic factors brought about by poverty, poor
backgrounds and family problems have negative implications for teachers. These
home circumstances also influence the extent to which learners can do their
homework. Violence in townships results in learners being aggressive. Regardless of
the teachers' efforts to train learners in conflict resolution strategies, the culture of
violence has a huge and negative impact on education.
Nature of work and workload: Teachers are expected to fulfil a wide range of
responsibilities and eventually the load becomes too much. Parents, on the other hand,
are not prepared to assist teachers in their educational task. Some teachers feel that
their training did not prepare them adequately for the educational practice. They feel
that the training is different from reality and that they lack skills such as management,
which they feel they need. In-service training has been discontinued, yet teachers
express a need to be equipped in this manner. They feel there is a lack of support
services in the form of specialists to help them cope with the various problems they
encounter in schools. At some schools teachers have to cope with children with
special needs and behavioural problems without any expert assistance.
Physical and emotional effect on teachers: Most teachers reported a feeling of
despondency and an inability to evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching.
Moreover, they were afraid of losing their jobs or being relocated. This feeling of
uncertainty regarding their future in education was one of the main sources of
dissatisfaction. Teachers who reported more job dissatisfaction tended to be less
committed to their work. They also suffered from various physical ailments and
complained about migraine headaches, heart complaints and ulcers.
From the above it is clear that the level of job satisfaction of teachers in South Africa
requires attention. A great deal has to be done to improve the conditions under which
teachers work, but funds are required and this is the reason for delay. However, it is
necessary that the government should consider non-monetary and low-cost incentives
to ensure quality and job satisfaction. Moreover, educational leaders should be
sensitive to the impact of their leadership style on the level of job satisfaction of
teachers.
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Chapter 2 Job satisfaction: Literature review
2.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is clear that there are reasons for all human behaviour and that no two persons are
alike. Each behaviour is directed towards satisfying a need. To satisfy their needs,
humans are stimulated to work. The urge to satisfy these needs motivates people to
release the energy necessary for work. Moreover, conditions prevailing in the work
area should also be motivating and favourable. It is therefore imperative that people
enjoy their work and perceive it as adequately rewarding.
Job satisfaction is influenced by many factors, which differ from one organisation to
another. In every organisation, identifying these factors, be they satisfiers or
dissatisfiers, is important in developing strategies to improve the positive factors
while reducing negative ones. In the next chapter, the relationship between job
satisfaction and these factors is investigated. It is the strength of these relationships
that determines the significance of their effects on the overall employee satisfaction.
57
Chapter 3
THE CONSEQUENCES OF
JOB SATISFACTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on the relationship between job satisfaction and some jobbehaviours with the aim of determining the effects of job satisfaction since these
behaviours have serious consequences for the overall effectiveness of the organisation
and its ability to survive. The relationship between job satisfaction and the behaviour
has to be strong enough to have a significant impact on the organisation. This is aimed
at answering questions pertaining to the extent to which job satisfaction is related to
these behaviours. Various research studies have examined the relationship between
job satisfaction and other organisational variables (Borg & Riding, 1991 :263;
Bacharach & Bamberger, 1990:317). It is impossible to discuss all these findings,
therefore a few related to the teaching profession are considered.
3.2 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE LEVEL OF JOB
SATISFACTION AND SOME ORGANISATIONAL VARIABLES
3.2.1 Job satisfaction and withdrawal from work
One apparently self-evident result of dissatisfaction is the likelihood of increasing
withdrawal of individuals from the work situation. The withdrawal from work
remains a costly problem which jeopardises the quality of education of any country.
Chapter 3 Consequences of iob satisfaction
This behaviour can be in the form of absenteeism or employee turnover, but both
invite attention or possibly remedial action.
3.2.1.1 Job satisfaction and absenteeism
Gruneberg (1979: 109) defines absenteeism as temporary withdrawal of workers from
work for a short period of time. Absenteeism is costly to the organisation and should
be reduced. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (1995:161), increasing job satisfaction
is often recommended as one way that can reduce absenteeism, provided the two can
be proved to correlate. Attempts to prove that absenteeism and job satisfaction are
related, are not quite convincing. However, Scott and Wimbuch's study (1991 :506)
revealed that absenteeism among teachers was significantly related to distance from
work, gender, job involvement and job satisfaction.
According to Gruneberg (1979: 109) some researchers find absenteeism as an
alternative when getting an alternative job is not a realistic possibility. Others describe
absenteeism as a sign that the individual is likely to leave the organisation in the near
future. Many researchers could not find a significant relationship between
absenteeism and job satisfaction. Metzner and Mann (Gruneberg, 1979: Ill) for
example, suggest that many factors other than job satisfaction influence absenteeism.
These factors include gender. The responsibilities of female teachers at work and at
home make them more susceptible to absenteeism. The findings of some of these
researchers include the following:
Khaleque (Sell & Shipley, 1979: 100) could not find a significant difference in the
incidence of absenteeism between satisfied and dissatisfied workers. Evidence only
pointed at greater absenteeism of low performance workers. Kahn and Wherry
(1985: 113) suggest that dissatisfied employees do not plan to be absent but respond
more readily to the opportunities to do so than their satisfied colleagues. Feldman and
Arnold (1983 :203) add that the dissatisfied employee is more likely to take days off
due to illness or personal business for no reason but to be away from the frustrating
job. They further suggest that employees with high levels of job satisfaction exert the
high effort necessary to get to work against all odds, for example, transport and
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Chapter 3 Consequences of iob satisfaction
inclement weather. On the other hand, employees with lowest job satisfaction are less
likely to apply any effort; any reason enough not to be penalised for being absent
would be an opportunity to be away from work.
Ilegen and Hollenbach (Gruneberg, 1979: 112) find it unlikely that a high degree of
satisfaction with pay, security and company policy can lead to regular attendance in
organisations with generous sick-leave schemes. Instead, they find it more likely that
companies which allow more frequent absence, can produce greater satisfaction. They
then suggest that instead of focusing on the relationship between absenteeism and job
satisfaction, researchers should focus on whether job satisfaction correlates with the
attainment of valued rewards for attendance behaviour.
In agreement, Baum (1981: 199) points out that rewards can be used to improve and
reduce absenteeism. He suggests a control policy based on positive reinforcements to
improve attendance and sanctions based on a motivational pattern of legal compliance
to reduce absence. However, the reinforeers and other incentives used should have
proof of positive response from workers to prove that they can be used to make
employees attend more regularly. Baum (1981: 199) bases his argument on the
assumption that those employees "with highest probability of responding to positive
reinforcement would not be adversely affected by the presence of sanctions that apply
to the chronic employee".
In conclusion, although the relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism is
not direct, one can argue that job satisfaction indicators, such as pay and job security,
can be improved and/or be used as rewards for attendance behaviour, while sanctions,
such as no work no pay, can reduce absenteeism.
3.2.1.2 Job satisfaction and employee turnover
Employee turnover refers to the permanent withdrawal of an individual from work or
transferring with the result that the individual has to be replaced. Some authors refer
to employee turnover as career intention. For instance, Borg and Riding (1991 :265)
refer to turnover as career intention, defined within the teaching profession as the
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Chapter 3 Consequences o(job satisfaction
teacher's intention to leave teaching. This brings about costly disruptions to the
organisation's normal operations, moral problems among those who remain and
increase cost, time and energy involved in selecting and training replacements
(Gruneberg & Oborne, 1981:177; Feldman & Arnold, 1983:203). It is therefore
imperative to reduce it.
Besides the general, economic and personal factors, increasing employee job
satisfaction is one way that has been found to reduce turnover significantly (Keitner &
Kinicki, 1995: 162). In fact, Lawier III (Hackman & Suttle, 1977: 169) points out that
managing employee turnover means managing satisfaction at work, which depends on
the effectiveness in relating rewards to performance. Gruneberg and Oborne
(1981:177) and Feldman and Arnold (1983:204) suggest that turnover is directly
related to the availability of job opportunities elsewhere, but a number of factors such
as job satisfaction are within the control of the organisation.
Mobley (1982: 125) advocates the understanding of the following aspects of job
satisfaction before its relationship with turnover:
o Sensitivity to individual differences in work values;
o The emphasis of job satisfaction on employee perceptions;
u The fact that job satisfaction is controlled by a set of important values perceived
as being attained on the job instead of just one;
o Job satisfaction is a present-oriented evaluation of the job with no expectations of
what the organisation may offer in future.
However, convmcmg evidence documents a positive relationship between job
satisfaction and turnover. Hulin (Gruneberg, 1979: 113) proved the positive
relationship by comparing employees who left a company and those who stayed on a
number of dimensions. These included their scores on a job satisfaction scale
administered before some left. Employees who left, had substantially lower levels of
job satisfaction than those who stayed.
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Chapter 3 Consequences of iob satisfaction
Through self-report investigations, young and less experienced teachers felt that they
were very likely to leave the profession within the first five years (Borg & Riding,
1991 :265). Travers' s study (Borg & Riding, 1991:265) confirmed this with older and
more experienced teachers who reported their active consideration to leave the
teaching profession in their first five years of teaching, yet they were now less likely
to leave. In agreement, Kahn (1977:77) suggests that older employees are probably
more satisfied because of their increasing adaptation to the job on the basis of
experience. The younger ones have high expectations of promotion and other job
conditions that are practically not easy to get, so they tend to be dissatisfied.
On the other hand, Livy (1988:431), Gruneberg (1979:114) and Tice (1981:49) agree
that employee satisfaction with the following factors has a consistent and inverse
relationship with employee turnover: overall satisfaction, promotion prospects, pay
levels, supervisory relations, work group size, job content, autonomy and
responsibility. Gruneberg (1979:114) adds that job satisfaction is mainly related to
individual factors such as vocational interests. Evidence indicates that "those who
regard their jobs as being in line with vocational interests are less likely to leave than
others" (Gruneberg, 1979: 115). These mayor may not be related to perceived job
satisfaction.
However, Porter and Steers (Gruneberg, 1979: 115 and Gruneberg and Obone,
1981: 177) argue that the absence or presence of any factor is not directly related to
turnover, but the extent to which expectations concerning these factors are met on the
job is important. Failure of the organisation to meet employees' expectations leads to
dissatisfaction. To Mobley (1982: 102), turnover is one behavioural reaction to
dissatisfaction.
Gruneberg and Orbone (1981: 178) suggest that other factors related to turnover
include the degree to which supervision is considerate, equitable, giving recognition
and feedback; unit size; peer relationships and job content such as task repetitiveness,
lack of challenge in the job, lack of autonomy and lack of role clarity. All these
factors influence job satisfaction of employees. The extent to which employees'
expectations concerning each factor are fulfilled, will determine their level of
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Chapter 3 Consequences o[job satisfaction
satisfaction with the job regarding that factor. Ilgen and Seely (1981: 181) suggest that
recruiters should provide adequate information on what the new employee can expect
from the job he/she is recruited for. They base their argument on the fact that, should
the employee decide to take the post, his/her expectations will be within the picture
initially presented by the recruiter.
Gruneberg (1979:115) and Mitchell and Larson (1987:142) further argue that there
are other factors, not necessarily connected with the job, that force individuals to
continue with the job they may not be satisfied with. Also, individuals may change or
leave the job they are satisfied with for personal reasons. For instance, Thomas (Tice,
1981:50) found that the main reason for turnover of female teachers was marriage,
pregnancy and the husband's transfer, whereas the converse is true in the older age
groups.
From the above it is apparent that turnover is not always directly related to job
satisfaction, but the fulfilment of expectations is more likely to bring satisfaction and
reduce turnover as a result. For example, turnover can be reduced by increasing job
satisfaction related variables such as pay. On the other hand, it should be borne in
mind that personal reasons might promote turnover regardless of the high level of job
satisfaction.
3.2.2 Job satisfaction and career commitment
Career commitment is defined as the teacher's intention to take up teaching as a
career if they were to start their careers again (Borg & Riding, 1991 :265). Career
intention and career commitment are distinct in that a teacher may decide to leave
teaching (career intention or turnover) for alternatives within the profession, which
may indicate a commitment to the career. Hill (1994:230) adds that those teachers
who have achieved relative career success (older teachers and teachers in senior posts)
are more likely to remain in present posts until they retire. Moreover, older teachers
would find it difficult so late in their lives to equal the benefits of their present job in
another line of work. According to Hill (1994:230), less successful and younger
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teachers who feel wrongly placed in the teaching profession, can leave their jobs for
other alternatives, reflecting less commitment to the teaching career.
The level of job satisfaction leads to either greater or lesser commitment to the job,
which affects effort to do the work and eventually performance (Kahn & Wherry,
1985: 111).
Borg and Riding (1991 :279) found a significant relationship between more stress and
lower job satisfaction and career commitment. Furthermore, male teachers compared
with their female colleagues become less committed to the career with age while
females become increasingly career committed. They suggest that, for male teachers,
this could be attributed to growing frustration with poor promotion prospects, poor
salary and lack of benefits commensurate with their qualifications and experience. For
female teachers, on the other hand, it was not readily apparent why career
commitment increased except that there are fewer females in the older age groups.
Therefore, the remaining few could be the most committed or those having other
factors that force them to remain in teaching irrespective of available alternatives.
Farber (1984:327) found a significant relationship between career commitment and
dissatisfaction with stressful working conditions, arguing that teachers feel they
would not choose this career if they had to do it again because they were not
adequately prepared for the stresses in teaching. According to Farber (1984:328),
teachers also feel that society is not making things easier by increasing its
expectations from them, while the educational leaders and administrators are not
doing much to improve the quality of teachers' jobs.
On the other hand, Farrugia (1986:221) suggests that the general view of teacher
commitment is that people are attracted to the profession by purely extrinsic factors
such as long holidays, good working conditions and job security in the midst of white
collar unemployment, and not by intrinsic pedagogical commitment. The working
conditions "allow ample time for cultural and leisure activities, as well as
opportunities to acquire extra income from after school work" (Farrugia, 1986:221).
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From the above it is clear that job dissatisfaction is related to professional
commitment. Thus, dealing with the dissatisfying aspects of the job could increase
educators' commitment, a condition necessary for improving the culture of teaching
and learning in any country's education system.
3.2.3 Job satisfaction and union activity
Feldman and Arnold (1983:204) suggest that there is strong evidence that job
dissatisfaction is a major cause of unionisation, into which employees initiate interest
based on dissatisfaction with working conditions and a perceived lack of influence to
change those conditions. According to Feldman and Arnold (1983:203), the employer
violates the employees' expectations by not keeping wages up with inflation, by
arbitrary and capricious discipline, or by not removing safety hazards. The employer
further violates the employees' expectations by failing to respond to their complaints,
denying the legitimacy of the employees' attempt to exert influence to change the
working conditions.
Feldman and Arnold (1983:204) further suggest that the employees join the unions as
an attempt to find a body with enough power to deal with the employer in solving
their work problems. Otherwise, satisfied employees do not feel the need for unions.
With the same view, Hartley and Stephenson (1992: 171) suggest that union joining is
high in the following situations:
o Where employees believe that the union will be instrumental in helping them to
obtain outcomes they desire;
o Where employees believe that they were less likely to influence changing their
working conditions through channels such as talking to their superiors, through
high performance or networking;
o Where employees direct their dissatisfaction to unions rather than, say, turnover or
absenteeism;
o Where joining is related to the provision of protection against diversity such as
unfair treatment or accusations of misconduct. In addition, for conflict insurance
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from unions by providing material and legal assistance in the event of individual
grievances and problems.
In all these situations, one can conclude that the employer has violated the employees'
expectations to the level that the latter do not trust the former, and as a result join the
union for the times of need should they experience the worst. Furthermore, "there is a
significant negative correlation between job satisfaction and pro-union voting"
(Kreitner & Kinicki, 1995:163). They further support the correlation between job
dissatisfaction and unionisation, arguing that dissatisfied employees file for their
grievances or strike through unions because they cannot change their dissatisfying
conditions on their own.
However, Milkovich and Boudreau (1994:20) suggest that the unions promote
harmonious relationships between organisational management and employees by
attending to sources of dissatisfaction which employees have failed to change
themselves.
In conclusion, industrial action can be avoided by providing employees with the
opportunity to influence change of the dissatisfying aspects of their job. Also,
management should try not to violate employees' expectations and trust.
3.2.4 Job satisfaction and counter-productive behaviour of employees
Counter-productive behaviour involves actual sabotage as well as causing trouble,
doing work badly on purpose and theft (Gruneberg, 1979: 118). This is normally the
alternative employees choose when they perceive constructive behaviour as benefiting
the organisation at their expense. For example, Ivancevich et al. (1983 :349) suggest
that individuals who are blocked in attempts to satisfy their needs, may exhibit
defensive behaviour instead of constructive behaviour. Their defensive behaviour is
an attempt to cope with the frustration as a result of having difficulties in adapting to
the responsibilities of work and social relationships.
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Chapter 3 Consequences of iob satisfaction
According to Ivancevich et al. (1983:349), these individuals need to be motivated to
bear their responsibilities constructively by attending to their frustrations in an
attempt to reduce or eradicate them. In addition, Kahn and Wherry (1985: 114) argue
that employees may steal as a result of being frustrated by the impersonal treatment
they receive from their organisation, justifying it as their way of getting revenge.
Mangoine and Quinn (Gruneberg, 1979: 118) found a significant relationship between
job satisfaction and counter-productive behaviour of different kinds. Gruneberg
(1979: 120) regards the propensity to strike as an aspect of counter-productive
behaviour. He argues that although the employees may be generally satisfied with
their job, a strike might be induced by dissatisfaction about one aspect such as pay.
Bacharach and Bamberger (1990:322) refer to striking or slowing down as a more
radical manner of voicing dissatisfaction. They suggest that any form of collective
action can be reduced by attending to employees' concerns in time.
In conclusion, there is a need to motivate employees towards constructive behaviour
and discourage counter-productive behaviour. Management can only do this by
fulfilling the employees' needs, treating them humanly and showing respect, thus
contributing to raising their job satisfaction.
3.2.5 Job satisfaction and the individual
Considering the amount of time working people spend at work, it is significant to look
into the effects of job satisfaction on the personal well-being of workers. A person's
physical and mental health mainly influence aspects of the individual's life. Peldman
and Arnold (1983 :205) argue that physical and mental health are not "job behaviours"
per se, but the impact of job dissatisfaction on the employee is important for two
reasons:
o The managers have to know the impact the job has on the employees for
humanistic reasons;
o Loss of work time costs organisations substantial amounts of money.
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Borg and Riding (1991:263) suggest that teacher stress has implications that go
beyond the concern for the educator's well-being due to the diverse effects that may
be caused by prolonged stress on their mental and physical health. According to Borg
and Riding (1991 :263), it is only reasonable to expect teacher stress to interfere with
teacher performance and consequently with the whole education process.
Kremer-Hayon and Goldstein (1990:285) suggest that educators are ever trying to
cope with rapid changes in their jobs, brought about by efforts to adapt to technology
and the advancements of the day. These changes place heavy demands on them, both
in the intellectual and social sphere. Kremer-Hayon and Goldstein (1990:285) argue
that it is only through the knowledge of teachers' professional inner being that the
educational policy and leaders can effectively nurture teachers' professional well-
being, and consequently improve their teaching. They suggest that the inner world of
teachers is constituted by a number of factors, including job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction. Applied to a college, knowledge of staff job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction is necessary for nurturing their well-being in an attempt to improve
their performance and productivity.
Casabrese (Borg & Riding, 1991 :263) argue that lower levels of teacher stress are
related to improved effectiveness and higher attainment of scores. This, according to
Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (Borg & Riding, 1991 :263), suggest that when teachers
experience stress, are dissatisfied with their jobs, are intent on leaving teaching and
are frequently absent from work, their performance is bound to suffer significantly.
Their series of surveys of teacher stress rated being a teacher as being very stressful or
extremely stressful, later confirmed by Borg and Riding, Broiles and Laughlin (Borg
& Riding, 1991 :264) to name a few. Boyle, Borg, Falzon and Baglioni (1995 :62)
suggest that good relationships with one's colleagues is beneficial when the teacher is
experiencing stress from other sources.
The relationship between self-reported teacher stress and job satisfaction remains a
controversial issue. For instance, Borg and Riding (1991 :275) found a negative and
significant correlation, Kyriacou and Sutcliffe (Borg & Riding, 1991 :277) reported a
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negative relationship in some cases and a positive one in others, Otto, Laghlin and Litt
and Turk (Borg & Riding, 1991 :266) reported an inverse relationship.
In contraposition to that, Borg and Riding (1991 :277) found that male teachers above
the age of 31 years reported greater stress. Although the reason was not readily
apparent, they suggest that males reflect the willingness of the male teachers to admit
and report stress or they could be less tolerant of more stress factors in their work
environment or working conditions.
From the above, it is evident that stress is a problem among educators. Whether
directly or indirectly related to job satisfaction, one can argue that reducing stress in
the workplace can reduce job dissatisfaction. Therefore, instead of workers
concentrating on dissatisfying factors as sources of their unhappiness, they can
concentrate on those factors that make them happy and thus satisfied with their jobs.
3.2.5.1 Job satisfaction and physical health
Research seems to agree that job dissatisfaction, especially the extreme form, causes
stress. Feldman and Arnold (1983:205) link job dissatisfaction with physical
symptoms such as fatigue, shortness of breath, headaches, sweating, loss of appetite,
indigestion and nausea. They also link serious levels of job dissatisfaction with
illnesses such as ulcers, arthritis, high blood pressure, alcohol and drug abuse, strokes
and heart attacks. Job dissatisfaction is the cause of these in that people tend to resort
to drinking, smoking and using sedatives to reduce the job induced tensions. Also,
tension and stress from job dissatisfaction cause physiological reactions, such high
blood pressure, which can lead to more serious illnesses.
In the teaching profession, Kremer-Hayon and Goldstein (1990:288) suggest that
stress is caused by working conditions such as heavy workload, restrictive school
climate, unfavourable working conditions and heavy role demands. However, stress
does not only result from frustrating working conditions, lack of facilities and poor
feedback, but mainly from the individual's perception about each work aspect.
Moreover, these aspects are independent of one another, for example, a stressful
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workload does not necessarily imply that the school climate is stressful. Also, the
same conditions may be stressful to one individual but not to another.
However, Gruneberg (1979:121) argues that individuals are stressed in their jobs and
lives because of reasons that have nothing to do with job satisfaction. That the source
of stress is normally unclear, could be a shortcoming of stress investigations. Despite
this limitation, there is enough evidence of the relationship between job dissatisfaction
and physical illness. For instance, Rissier (Sell & Shipley, 1979: 113) suggests that
there should be a balance between work and leisure time, especially in countries with
a high percentage of females in the work force, and with an active debate on work
roles and family roles for both males and females.
According to Rissier (Sell & Shipley, 1979: 113), unwanted overtime is an important
contributor to dissatisfaction with work demands and workers' ill-health. Overtime
work reduces leisure time. Moreover, the reduced leisure time cannot be used
effectively due to physiological activation and increased strain and tiredness as a
result of overtime work. Dissatisfaction with the job is likely to be a consequence of
the reported strain, tiredness, irritation and bad mood during overtime due to
overload. Considering the roles of women at work and at home, it is not unreasonable
to expect a significant sex difference, females reporting higher stress levels than their
male colleagues (Borg & Riding, 1991 :264).
It is clear that dissatisfaction with some factors including those arising from the job
can cause stress, which in turn can result in bad health. From the above, one may
argue that absenteeism can be a long-term result of dissatisfaction. Should Herzberg's
hygiene factors (see 2.3.2.1 (b)) lack in the job situation, dissatisfaction may lead to
tension and stress, then poor health and later absenteeism.
3.2.5.2 Job satisfaction and mental illness
Feldman and Arnold (1983 :205) refer to a mentally healthy person as one who feels
that he/she leads a rewarding life and has a good self-concept. Job dissatisfaction has
been related to mental illness. Kornhauser (Gruneberg, 1979:122) for example, noted
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that "gratifications and deprivations experienced in work and expressed in job
dissatisfaction are important determinants of workers' mental health". Feldman and
Arnold (1983 :206) have related job dissatisfaction to anger over unimportant matters,
feelings of persecution, apathy, forgetfulness and an inability to concentrate and make
decisions. Much as a lack of job satisfaction is not necessarily job dissatisfaction, they
argue that the absence of job satisfaction can lead to anxiety, worry, tension, impaired
interpersonal relations and irritability. These can ultimately be the sources of
dissatisfaction.
However, the relationship is generally of a low order since some people pretend to be
job satisfied when they are actually not and cover up for mental problems because of
fears concerning what others might think (Gruneberg, 1979: 123). According to him,
extreme cases of dissatisfaction are rare since people tend to avoid these by either
moving to alternative jobs that are more in line with their needs, or seek their
satisfaction from aspects of their jobs other than work itself.
From the above, it is clear that mental illness derived from job dissatisfaction require
further investigation. Nonetheless, Gruneberg (1979: 125) suggests that managers
should not ignore the possible effects of this relationship on the feelings of self-
esteem, self-confidence and life satisfaction in general. The existing evidence
suggests that job dissatisfaction has substantial negative consequences for both the
physical and the mental health of employees.
3.2.6 Job satisfaction and burnout
Farber (1984:325) defines burnout as a function of feeling inconsequential, that is,
feeling that "no matter how hard one works, the payoffs in terms of accomplishment,
recognition or appreciation are not there. As result of these working conditions, one's
idealism, energy, purpose and concern progressively decline, leading to attitudinal,
physical and emotional exhaustion". Burnout is commonly reported in the teaching
profession. Schamer and Jackson (1996:28) postulate that burnt-out teachers lose their
idealism, sense of purpose and enthusiasm; they lack personal accomplishment and
eventually become physically and psychologically ill.
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According to Schamer and Jackson (1996:29), job satisfaction seems a key aspect of
burnout, especially among people like teachers who work in stressful circumstances,
see few rewards, seldom feel fulfilment and whose needs are not being met. They
argue that burnout is not stress but an inability to adapt, especially in new teachers. As
a result, Schamer and Jackson (1996:29) further suggest that teachers need to be
recognised and supported; and that low-level satisfactions like salary and benefits are
not adequate; a sense of satisfaction from self-actualisation, intrinsic factors and
authenticity is required. In addition, Farber (1984:325) states that when a teacher's
need for self-actualisation and self-esteem is not fulfilled, the probability for teacher
burnout becomes higher. Otherwise, it is normal for some teachers to develop new
interests while others unconsciously cease to work constructively. In this way even
their students are likely to be burnt out, thus jeopardising the process of learning and
teaching even more (Beck & Gargiulo, 1983: 170).
From the above it is clear that educational leaders can motivate educators toward the
effectiveness of the teaching and learning process by preventing burnout. Fulfilling
their higher-order needs, self-actualisation and self-esteem can do this.
3.2.7 Job satisfaction and occupational level
Studies of occupational groups have shown a significant and consistent relationship
between job satisfaction and occupational level (Kahn, 1977:77). The higher the
occupational level, the higher the job satisfaction and career commitment and the
lower the career intentions (employee turnover). According to Kahn and Wherry
(1985: 115), these individuals "are better paid and have better working conditions, and
their jobs make fuller use of their abilities; therefore they have good reason to be
more satisfied". Job dissatisfaction is therefore a rare problem for them.
3.2.8 Job satisfaction and life satisfaction
Dissatisfaction as a result of life expenences is another complex aspect of job
satisfaction. That individuals are job dissatisfied may be due to their background and
life experiences but not the job or any job aspect. Interpreting job satisfaction in terms
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of the general emotional tone of employees, Kahn (1977:74), Gruneberg (1979: 125),
and Kahn and Wherry (1985: 110) postulate that it is a natural tendency of individuals
to compare job satisfaction and life satisfaction. It follows that the two are closely
related in that if employees are highly satisfied with their home and community life,
but thinks the job is only average or at least not as satisfying as their life, then job
satisfaction will be low. The reverse is also true when satisfaction with life is lower
than satisfaction with the job.
The relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction is best explained
through the compensation and spillover theories (Gruneberg, 1979: 125 and Steyn &
Van Wyk, 1999:38). According to the compensation theory, individuals compensate
for low job satisfaction by trying to achieve high in life situations. They tend to
compensate for dissatisfaction at work by deriving greater satisfaction from other
aspects of life. The spillover theory, on the other hand, argues that unhappiness at
work is likely to affect one's whole life. In addition, Kornhauser (Gruneberg,
1979: 125) found that people who are unhappy with their jobs, tend to be unhappy
with life in general. Not much research work has been done on the causal aspect of
this relationship.
Iris and Barrett (Gruneberg, 1979: 126) propose that people are not satisfied with their
lives as a result of the job-produced dissatisfaction extending beyond the work
situation only, but the reverse is also true. Also, that when life satisfaction is low,
people tend to regard dissatisfaction aspects of their job as important. They then
suggest reducing the dissatisfying aspect of the job as likely to defend this
individual's self-esteem.
According to Kahn (1977:74), some organisations survey both job satisfaction and life
satisfaction in order to specifically relate their employees' general emotional tone to
job satisfaction. A questionnaire with selected job satisfaction variables is another
way of interpreting job satisfaction with specific aspects of the job. Answers above
average serve as indicators of satisfaction while those below average help diagnose
the problem areas (Kahn, 1977:75).
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In conclusion, evidence exists to suggest that job satisfaction can be related to the
individual's physical and mental health as well as satisfaction with life itself. These
relationships depend on personality factors, the job and personal circumstances.
Therefore, generalising should be avoided when explaining the relationship and
dealing with its outcomes.
3.2.9 Job satisfaction and productivity
Rush (1975: 12) defines productivity as a measure of the efficient (maximum or at
least optimum) use of human and material resources. With regard to education,
besides the material resources in our educational institutions, educators should be
used efficiently to maximise production, namely student achievement. For this to
happen, it should be borne in mind that an individual seeks and needs meaningful
work through which his/her expectations can be fulfilled.
Rush (1975: 10) suggests designing the job for motivation to meaningful work.
According to him, "psychological health is greatly dependent upon man's involving
himself in creative and rewarding work". That is, a person expends energy and puts in
effort to express his drive for self-expression. Thus, if he finds good performance as a
way to satisfy his needs, work becomes an opportunity for creative expression.
Otherwise, the creative drive not found at work will be directed elsewhere. Therefore,
it is apparent that work should be satisfying for one to fully engage him/herself in
improving performance.
Gruneberg (1979: 105) regards productivity as one of the main reasons for studying
job satisfaction. That is, whether workers are satisfied or not with their work has
consequences for their productivity. The consequences may be positive or negative,
but are important in maintaining a smooth running of the organisation. Positive
consequences should be maintained and improved while dealing with the
determinants or developing remedial strategies should reduce negative ones.
Moreover, even in those organisations with "a solid fix on aspects of the job situation
an individual finds satisfying, there remains a problem of relating satisfaction to
productivity" (Reeser & Loper, 1978:304).
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Chapter 3 Consequences of job satisfaction
The relationship between the parameters of job satisfaction and productivity is very
important based on the usual tendency to wrongly assume that high job satisfaction
leads to high production. The literature in this field indicates that this relationship is
still far from clear (Mitchell & Larson, 1987: 143; Gruneberg, 1979: 105). Mortimer
(1979: 1) attributes the controversy regarding the effects of job satisfaction on
productivity to
o situational constraints on the extent to which job satisfaction can be reflected on
the type of materials and interdependencies with other workers as likely
limitations on productivity, and
o low productivity norms in the work group and workers' skill levels that are likely
to impede increases in performance.
According to Mortimer (1979: 1), the two can affect productivity even when workers'
job satisfaction and involvement are high. Kahn (1977:75) adds that a satisfied
individual can be a high producer, low producer or only average.
However, other reviews indicate that a significant relationship does exist. Khaleque
(Gruneberg, 1979:99) provides evidence of a significant positive correlation between
performance and job satisfaction in a repetitive job. This indicates that workers get a
sense of accomplishment in performing simple tasks. Furthermore, this study also
proves the importance of supervision and eo-workers to overall satisfaction with the
job. With reference to the Hawthorne studies, Gruneberg (1979: 105) agrees that
friendly supervision (as an indicator of job satisfaction) and productivity are related.
From this study, a positive correlation between friendly supervision and increased
productivity was documented. But one can argue that the relationship between job
satisfaction and productivity does exist but it is not direct, supervision becoming an
intervening variable in this case.
Lawier and Porter (Gruneberg, 1979:106), however, put forward two arguments for
the failure to find a relationship between job satisfaction and productivity:
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Chapter 3 Consequences o(iob satisfaction
First, based on Herzberg's view that satisfaction may lead to productivity but wrong
satisfaction measures are often used. Herzberg points out that motivators give rise to
satisfaction and are key instruments to increase performance. However, if satisfaction
measures include hygiene factors, then the relationship will be low.
Secondly, they suggest that instead of high satisfaction leading to higher productivity,
higher productivity leads to reward, which mayor may not lead to increased
satisfaction. Lawier and Porter (Gruneberg, 1979: 106) and Kahn (1977:75) argue that
the relationship between job satisfaction and performance or productivity is
significant when people perceive their efforts to increase productivity as equitably
rewarding. Unfortunately, this is not the case with most organisations. Many people
receive rewards that have nothing to do with their performance or the input towards
the productivity of the organisation (Mitchell & Larson, 1987:143). In the case of the
academic staff at the colleges, for example, the rewards are never related to their
production, namely student achievement.
Lawier and Porter's expectancy approach can be represented diagrammatically as
shown in figure 3.1 below:
Figure 3.1: The structure of expectancies: The theoretical representation
Perceived
equitable
rewards
Performance
(accomplishment) Satisfaction
Source: Gruneberg (1979: 107)
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Chapter 3 Consequences of iob satisfaction
According to this representation, Lawier and Porter (Gruneberg, 1979: 107)
incorporate their expectancy theory with the equity theory (see 2.3.3) in accounting
for the relationship between job satisfaction and performance. Using the expectancy
approach, they argue that workers expect outcomes from their efforts, therefore
manifest themselves according to the preferred outcome. On the other hand, using the
equity approach, they suggest that performance increase satisfaction "when that
performance leads to rewards and when these rewards are perceived as equitable in
terms of effort expended and in comparison with the rewards of others" (Gruneberg,
1979:107).
Although both job satisfaction and performance are related to rewards, Steyn and Van
Wyk (1999:38) suggest that the rewards constitute a more direct cause of job
satisfaction than performance, and rewards based on current performance are more
likely to cause subsequent performance (see 2.4.1).
Lawier and Porter (Gruneberg, 1979: 107) add that even the reward will lead to
satisfaction to the extent that the worker values it. However, if the reward is seen as
inadequate for the individual's level of performance, dissatisfaction tends to arise
instead. They have found the influence of intrinsic rewards to be more directly related
to the performance-job satisfaction relationship since the employee will be pleased to
have successfully accomplished his/her job. Extrinsic rewards such as pay and
benefits are not as directly related to the effort since they depend on the policies of the
organisation and group membership. Therefore, the employee who performs well, will
have more intrinsic and extrinsic rewards and be satisfied with the job as a result
thereof. Unfortunately, the reverse holds true for the employee who performs worst.
So far, evidence points at performance leading to satisfaction if individuals have the
expectations that their efforts will be rewarded with rewards of value to them. Job
satisfaction and performance are in what Kahn (1977:75) refers to as a circular
relationship. Although the correlation is not clear, that one affects the other, cannot be
questioned. However, Gruneberg (1979: 108) points out that the performance-
satisfaction relationship is likely to be stronger than the satisfaction-performance
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Chapter 3 Consequences o(job satisfaction
relationship. In addition, the former relationship may be affected by a number of
factors, including the degree to which individual needs are satisfied on the job.
Although Mitchell and Larson (1987:48) are of the opinion that job satisfaction does
not directly affect productivity, they argue that people are healthier, present on the job
more often and stay with the organisation longer if they are satisfied with most job
aspects or the job itself. Therefore, they are more likely to contribute significantly to
the productivity of the organisation.
In conclusion, the relationship between job satisfaction and performance remains
unclear. However, most research points at performance causing satisfaction rather
than the other way round, thus, this relationship should be further explored.
3.2.10 Job satisfaction and achievement
Menlo and Poppieton (1990: 175) suggest that a high quality of professional life for
the teacher as well as the ways teachers perceive themselves, their work, their schools
and their students, impact upon teaching and contribute to an increase in student
achievement. The relationship between satisfaction at work and performance at work,
however, remains a controversial issue (see 3.2.9), but a sense of job satisfaction may
enhance performance. Alternatively, a feeling of success and achievement may be an
important source of satisfaction (Galloway ef aI., 1985 :56; Ball & Stenlund, 1990:84
and Ninomiya & Okato, 1990: 118).
In fact, Maslow (see 2.3.21 (a» suggests that an individual can be motivated by a
feeling of achievement, and Herzberg (see 2.3.2.1 (b) suggests that work be designed
such that there may be a whole job that an individual can begin and end with a
product. On the basis of these two, it is the responsibility of educational leaders to
provide an environment in which educators can engage in the teaching-learning
process meaningfully to improve student achievement. Increase in student
achievement reflects the efficiency with which educators take their responsibilities
and is both motivating and satisfying.
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3.2.10.1 Job satisfaction and educator achievement
Davis and Newstrom (1985:413) refer to an achiever as a person with certain
characteristics, which enable him/her to work best in certain types of situations that
are to his/her liking. A teacher or lecturer is considered as a leader to students
especially in class. Being in the position of a leader only provides more opportunities
for using these talents than do other jobs. A high achiever is characterised by the
following (Davis & Newstrom, 1985:414):
D Liking situations in which one takes personal responsibility for finding a solution
to a problem. Solving the problem through one's abilities and efforts produces
some personal achievement satisfaction, instead of succeeding by chance. A
leader with a high achievement concern possesses achievement motivation to take
responsibility for work to be done, but does not pass the buck or delegate
unnecessarily, which in turn, according to Herzberg (see 2.3.2.1 (b)), leads to job
satisfaction.
D A tendency to set moderate achievement goals and take calculated risks. Moderate
achievement goals involve moderate difficulty of the tasks, the achievement of
which guarantees personal satisfaction. Too easy or routine tasks give little
satisfaction, while too difficult ones are unlikely to be achieved. Clearly, high
achievers prefer challenging situations, where there is a chance of not succeeding,
yet not so great a risk that their abilities and efforts would not overcome.
Calculated risk influences decision-making. The leader always tries to decide on
how difficult a given decision will be to realise. But it is the difficulty that gives
him/her achievement satisfaction, especially with success. To set realistic goals
and objectives is a key to experiencing a feeling of achievement, which is not only
a motivating factor but also leads, according to Herzberg (see 2.3.2.1 (b)), to job
satisfaction.
D Wanting concrete feedback as to how well he is doing. In a college of education,
for example, the rector and his staff give and receive feedback among themselves
as colleagues, but the examination results provide feedback in the form of a
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Chapter 3 Consequences of lob satisfaction
product. Over and above this, an educator with a high achievement concern is not
satisfied by the examination results alone, but by occasional evidence that his
former students actually absorbed the information and attitudes he communicated
to them and show success in life. Feedback is essential to experience recognition
for achievement, which, according to Herzberg (see 2.3.2.1 (b)), is an indicator of
job satisfaction.
Stewart and Stewart (1982:132) attribute poor performance to a lack of abilities and
job knowledge, stress and emotional problems, motivational problems, medical
disorders, work groups, the organisation, working conditions and other factors such as
family problems, home circumstances, attitude and ethical problems and cultural
differences. According to Stewart and Stewart (1982: 133), leaders can stress
subordinates by giving unchallenging tasks, not giving feedback, forcing people to do
a bad job, providing inappropriate environments, social ineptitude, threat, uncertainty,
pressure for spuriously clear answers and playing politics, all of which will result in
job dissatisfaction.
3.2.10.2 Job satisfaction and student achievement
The relationship between job satisfaction and its predictors is an important outcome of
student achievement. Research work done by Verdugo, Greenberg, Henderson, Uribe
and Schneider (1997:44) has proved that the level of student achievement is an
important determinant in a teacher's sense of efficacy, commitment and job
satisfaction. According to Verdugo et al. (1997:43), job satisfaction and commitment
are derived from pay, skills and worker productivity. Job satisfaction and
organisational commitment perspective further suggest that workers' attachment and
satisfaction are based on the bond between worker and employer.
Wright, Horn and Sanders (1997:63) suggest that the teacher is the most important
factor that affects student learning. Their study on factors affecting student
achievement has proved that more could be done to improve education by improving
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Chapter 3 Consequences of iob satisfaction
the effectiveness of teachers than by other single factors. Wright ef al. (1997:66) state:
"If the ultimate goal is to improve the academic growth of student
populations, one must conclude that improvements of student learning
begins with the improvement of relatively ineffective teachers
regardless of student placement strategies developed within the
school."
If job satisfaction and productivity are related and teachers can affect productivity,
then job satisfaction of the teachers is important.
Most researchers in the field of education agree on the importance of the teacher.
However, some researchers argue that the situation is different at tertiary institutions,
for example, Fransman (1995: 173) advocates independent learning in tertiary
institutions to reduce the dependence of students on subject material covered by their
lecturers in the classroom. Instead, he suggests that subject literacy will necessarily
have to take place outside the classroom to optimise lifelong learning. Fransman
(1995: 176) finds this logical considering the increasing student numbers at tertiary
institutions in South Africa today.
On the other hand, Van Dyk and Van Dyk (1993:239) attribute low student
achievement or performance to the existing admission requirements for tertiary
education. They argue that the ability of students to classify information should be a
prerequisite for entry into these institutions instead of matric (final school year). They
base their argument on the fact that literacy in all scientific disciplines requires
complex logical relations of available information.
From the above one could argue that independent learning and admission
requirements can affect student achievement regardless of the high satisfaction of
lecturers with their job. However, in spite of promoting independent learning and
altering admission requirements, educators still have to be satisfied to perform
efficient! y.
In conclusion, the above relationships indicate that the consequences of job
satisfaction may be either positive or negative. Although high job satisfaction tends to
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Chapter 3 Consequences of lob satisfaction
be linked to positive working conditions and a sound behavioural climate in an
organisation, it cannot be persuaded into existence or even bought (Kahn, 1977:73). It
is brought about by effective leadership and management (see 2.4.3) and has to be
maintained where it already exists. Kahn (1977: 74) suggests that it is important that
job satisfaction gets timeous attention, diagnosis and treatment. This mainly refers to
low or no satisfaction that is not directly related to dissatisfaction. Even high job
satisfaction does not necessarily mean no dissatisfaction. An employee can be
satisfied with most aspects of the job, yet dissatisfied with one that may be of great
importance to him/her (see 2.3.2.1 (bj), Nevertheless, one can sensibly assume that
low or no satisfaction with most aspects of the job can lead to unhappiness, which can
lead to dissatisfaction with the job.
3.3 CONCLUSION
This chapter highlighted the complexity of the relationship between job satisfaction
and dissatisfaction. That employees are satisfied with certain aspects of the job does
not prevent their dissatisfaction with others. As pointed out by Herzberg, the
motivators only motivate, while the absence of the hygiene factors can be a source of
great dissatisfaction. Those behaviours correlating with job satisfaction, directly or
indirectly, can be controlled and/or monitored through the knowledge of the inner
world of educators. That is, the knowledge of what motives people may have,
provided by Maslow, and Herzberg's suggestion on how to design work to appeal to
the higher-order motives, namely self-esteem and self-actualisation; together these
can be used to produce satisfaction at work. Herzberg puts it very clearly that the
hygiene factors do not motivate, however, they come to one's attention when they are
lacking or absent. It follows that individuals are less likely to strive for hygiene
factors if motivating factors are satisfied. Therefore, educational leaders, rectors of
colleges in this case, have to understand the motives of the academic staff and nurture
the college environment to meet the motivators and hygiene factors of Herzberg.
Behaviours likely to have a negative impact on the college such as absenteeism, its
relationship with job satisfaction and or causal factors of job dissatisfaction, should be
determined and used to improve the situation. For instance, those aspects of value to
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Chapter 3 Consequences o[job satisfaction
lecturers may be used as reinforcements for positive behaviour while sanctions In
those aspects may be used to discourage negative behaviour.
In the following chapters, the focus of the study will be on determining the level of
job satisfaction at the colleges of education in the Free State with a view to proposing
recommendations for improvements.
83
Chapter 4
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND
INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS
OF THE RESEARCH
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the presentation, analysis and interpretation of the resultsof an investigation performed to determine the current level of job satisfaction
of the academic staff at the colleges of education in the Free State.
4.2 THE PURPOSE OF THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
The main objectives of the empirical investigation were:
o To obtain information about the current level of job satisfaction of the academic
staff at the colleges of education in the Free State;
o To give an exposition of data collected by means of a questionnaire;
o To interpret data in the view of the literature study and give guidelines for
improving the current level of job satisfaction of the academic staff at the colleges
of education in the Free State.
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results ot the research
4.3 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
4.3.1 The questionnaire
A questionnaire (Appendix A) was used as an instrument to obtain information from
academic staff at the colleges of education in the Free State. The questionnaire was
divided into two sections. Section A was aimed at determining the biographical
particulars of the respondents. Section B was concerned with the 20 job satisfaction
indicators proposed by the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire.
4.3.2 Section A
This section comprised questions about the personal details of respondents. These
include gender, current post level, age, teaching experience and professional and
academic qualifications. It also aimed to identify the indicators of important value to
the respondents and the level to which their present working conditions fulfil their
expectations regarding these indicators.
4.3.3 Section B
This section consisted of the 100 Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
questions. The 100 questions of the questionnaire identify 20 job satisfaction
indicators in clusters of five questions per indicator. The 20 indicators are covered by
the 100 questions as follows (Weiss, Dawis, England & Lofquist, 1967: 3):
Indicators Questions
Ability utilisation 7 27 47 67 87
Achievement 19 39 59 79 99
Activity 20 40 60 80 100
Advancement 14 34 54 74 94
Authority 6 26 46 66 86
Colleague 16 36 56 76 96
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Compensation 12 32 52 72 92
Creativity 2 22 42 62 82
Departmental policies & practices 9 29 49 69 89
Independence 4 24 44 64 84
Moral values 3 23 43 63 83
Recognition 18 38 58 78 98
Responsibility 17 37 57 77 97
Security 11 31 51 71 91
Social service 1 21 41 61 81
Social status 8 28 48 68 88
Supervision-human relations 10 30 50 70 90
Supervision-technical 15 35 55 75 95
Variety 5 25 45 65 85
Working conditions 13 33 53 73 93
Each of the 20 indicators refers to a reinforcer of employees' satisfaction or
dissatisfaction in the work environment. Section B is intended to indicate the level of
job satisfaction of the respondents by determining how important each job satisfaction
indicator is to them.
By answering the questions respondents indicated the extent to which they were
satisfied or dissatisfied with aspects of their job. The questionnaire provided five
alternative responses for each indicator, scored 1 through 5 per indicator. The
response choices were 1: very dissatisfied, 2: dissatisfied, 3: neither, 4: satisfied and
5: very satisfied. For a description of the indicators of job satisfaction see 2.3.5 and
figure 2.4.
4.3.4 Sampling
The target population of all 385 lecturers at the eight colleges of education in the Free
State was selected. One lecturer was identified at each college to assist in distributing,
monitoring and collecting the questionnaire without individualising either the college
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Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
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or the academic staff members. Every member of the academic staff at all the colleges
was given the chance to fill in the questionnaire but this was not compulsory.
Of 385 questionnaires distributed, 182 were recovered and information from 170
could be used. This constitutes 42,5% of the target population.
4.3.5 Computation of data
The raw data was computerised by the computer centre of the University of the
Orange Free State using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Primer
Programme (Klecka, Nie and Hull, 1975:3). The computerised data provided all the
mean scores per job satisfaction indicator per college. For practical purposes the mean
scores were converted to mean percentages. The mean percentage then provided the
average values per response regarding each job satisfaction indicator.
4.4 ANAL YSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF RESEARCH DAT A
4.4.1 Introduction
The aim of section A of the questionnaire was to determine the personal particulars of
the respondents who completed the questionnaire. This section distinguished between
respondents in terms of gender, post level, age, teaching experience and
qualifications, both professional and academic. The responses to this section revealed
the influence of the sub-groups to the overall level of job satisfaction.
4.4.2 The level of job satisfaction for the entire population
The overall level of job satisfaction for the entire target population was 64,73%. The
20 job satisfaction indicators have each contributed differently to this mean. The
analysis of the overall level shows the contribution of each indicator. These indicators
are ranked from 1 to 20 in the order of their contribution as presented in Table 4.1.
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Table 4.1: Ranking of the job satisfaction indicators according to their
contribution to the overall level of satisfaction
Job satisfaction indicator Mean Standard Mean 0/0 Rank
deviation
Social service 3,80 0,80 76,00 1
Moral values 3,73 0,70 74,52 2
Independence 3,67 0,75 73,46 3
Colleagues 3,62 0,86 72,35 4
Activity 3,57 0,83 71,36 5
Creativity 3,56 0,91 71,18 6
Responsibility 3,55 0,80 70,92 7
Ability utilisation 3,54 0,97 70,87 8
Achievement 3,50 0,91 70,00 9
Variety 3,39 0,80 67,79 10
Authority 3,36 0,78 67,11 11
Social status 3,28 0,80 65,62 12
Supervision-human relations 3,22 1,05 64,33 13
Supervision-technical 3,17 0,95 63,41 14
Recognition 3,08 0,94 61,65 15
Working conditions 2,87 1,16 57,44 16
Security 2,56 0,89 51,18 17
Departmental policies & 2,50 0,96 49,98 18
practices
Advancement 2,45 0,91 48,94 19
Compensation 2,32 0,92 46,42 20
OVERALL LEVEL 64,73%
Table 4.1 indicates that the overall job satisfaction is a composite of a set of
indicators. These are the indicators valued by the respondents and expected to be
attained by the job. The table shows that social service and moral values contributed
most to the overall level of job satisfaction, while compensation, advancement and
departmental policies and practices contributed the least.
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4.4.3 The level of job satisfaction at each college
Eight colleges of education contribute to the overall level of job satisfaction (64,73%)
of the target group. The colleges are ranked 1 to 8 in the order of the level of job
satisfaction. The results are reported in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Ranking the colleges according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction
Colleges Responses (N = 170) Mean (%) Rank
No. 0/0
1 19 11,18 78,43 1
7 19 11,18 70,84 2
3 12 7,06 67,57 3
5 25 14,71 65,82 4
8 16 9,41 64,43 5
4 36 21,18 63,08 6
2 25 14,71 60,90 7
6 18 10,59 49,27 8
OVERALL LEVEL OF ALL COLLEGES 64,73%
From Table 4.2 it is clear that college 1 contributed most to the overall level of job
satisfaction, while college 6 contributed least. It also shows that the level of job
satisfaction at colleges 8, 4, 2 and 6 was below the overall level of all colleges,
64,73%. While most colleges are above 60%, which could be regarded as an indicator
of the lowest level of satisfaction, college 6 is at 49,27%, indicating dissatisfaction.
The difference between the level of job satisfaction per college and the overall job
satisfaction was calculated to determine the extent to which the two differ. The results
are presented in Table 4.3.
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Table 4.3: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per college with the overall
level
College Mean (%) Overall mean (%) Difference (%)
1 78,43 64,73 13,70
2 60,90 64,73 3,83-
3 67,57 64,73 2,84
4 63,08 64,73 1,65-
5 65,82 64,73 1,09
6 49,27 64,73 15,46-
7 70,84 64,73 6,11
8 64,43 64,73 0,30-
Table 4.3 indicates that the highest level of job satisfaction, for college 1, was above
the overall level by 13,70%, while college 6 was below the overall level by 15,46%.
The overall level for the entire population, 64,73%, is a very low indicator of
satisfaction of the group. Correlating the contribution per college to the overall level
and getting a negative difference should indicate dissatisfaction at that particular
college.
A further analysis of the level of job satisfaction at each college indicates the
contribution of each of the 20 indicators to the overall level of each college. The
results are presented in Tables 4.4 to 4.11.
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Table 4.4: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 1
Job satisfaction indicator Rank College 1 (N = 19)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 4,59 91,78
Activity 2 4,42 88,42
Supervision-human relations 3 4,41 88,22
Working conditions 4 4,39 87,78
Moral values 5 4,35 86,94
Achievement 6 4,31 86,10
Ability utilisation 7 4,28 85,68
Creativity 8 4,27 85,48
Responsibility 9 4,26 85,26
Variety 10 4,18 83,58
Independence 11 4,17 83,36
Supervision-technical 12 4,05 81,06
Recognition 13 3,90 77,90
Authority 14 3,88 77,68
Colleagues 15 3,84 76,84
Social status 16 3,65 73,06
Departmental policies and 17 3,23 64,64
practices
Security 18 2,87 57,48
Compensation 19 2,75 54,94
Advancement 20 2,62 52,42
Overall level: College 1 78,43%
From Table 4.4 it is clear that social service, activity and supervision-human relations
contributed most to the overall level of satisfaction of respondents at college 1, while
advancement, compensation and security contributed least. Moreover, the responses
indicate that at this college, the academic staff was satisfied with all job aspects tested
except advancement, compensation and security.
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Table 4.5: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 2
Job satisfaction indicators Rank College 2 (N =25)
Mean 0/0
Moral values 1 3,60 72,00
Social service 2 3,50 69,92
Independence 3 3,45 68,96
Colleagues 4 3,43 68,64
Responsibility 5 3,38 66,40
Creativity 6 3,32 66,08
Activity 7 3,30 65,76
Variety 8 3,29 64,32
Social status 9 3,22 63,84
Achievement 10 3,19 63,68
Ability utilisation 11 3,18 62,88
Authority 12 3,14 61,44
Supervision-human relations 13 3,07 61,12
Supervision-technical 14 3,06 58,72
Recognition 15 2,94 57,60
Security 16 2,88 52,48
Departmental policies & 17 2,62 51,68
practices
Working conditions 18 2,58 48,64
Advancement 19 2,43 47,52
Compensation 20 2,31 46,24
Overall level: College 2 60,90%
Table 4.5 indicates that the overall level of job satisfaction for this college is more or
less 60%, almost neutral on the five-point scale. The respondents are dissatisfied with
compensation, advancement, working conditions, departmental policies and the way
they are put into practice, security, recognition and supervision-technical. However,
moral values contributed more to the overall level of job satisfaction.
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Table 4.6: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 3
Job satisfaction indicators Rank College 3 (N =12)
Mean 0/0
Colleagues 1 4,30 86,00
Social service 2 4,23 84,66
Moral values 3 3,93 78,66
Creativity 4 3,85 77,00
Activity 5 3,83 76,66
Ability utilisation 6 3,80 76,00
Responsibility 7 3,80 76,00
Authority 8 3,60 72,00
Independence 9 3,58 71,66
Social status 10 3,57 71,34
Variety 11 3,50 70,00
Achievement 12 3,48 69,66
Recognition 13 3,27 65,34
Supervision-technical 14 3,00 60,00
Advancement 15 2,95 59,00
Security 16 2,62 52,34
Compensation 17 2,60 52,00
Supervision-human relations 18 2,57 51,34
Departmental policies & 19 2,57 51,34
practices
Working conditions 20 2,52 50,34
Overall level: College 3 67,57%
The results of Table 4.6 indicate that relationship with colleagues and moral value
contributed most to the overall level, while working conditions and departmental
policies and practices contributed least. However, the overall level of job satisfaction
at college 3 was 67,57%, indicating satisfaction.
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Table 4.7: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 4
Job satisfaction indicators Rank College 4 (N =36)
Mean 0/0
Independence 1 3,74 74,88
Social service 2 3,63 72,66
Colleagues 3 3,60 72,00
Creativity 4 3,55 71,00
Moral values 5 3,52 70,34
Ability utilisation 6 3,51 70,22
Variety 7 3,48 69,56
Achievement 8 3,47 69,56
Activity 9 3,45 69,34
Responsibility 10 3,38 69,00
Authority 11 3,34 66,78
Supervision-human relations 12 3,31 66,12
Supervision-technical 13 3,27 65,34
Social status 14 3,24 64,88
Recognition 15 2,97 59,44
Security 16 2,56 51,12
Working conditions 17 2,40 48,00
Advancement 18 2,36 47,22
Departmental policies & 19 2,33 46,56
practices
Compensation 20 1,98 39,66
Overall level: College 4 63,08%
From Table 4.7 it is clear that the respondents were satisfied with most aspects except
compensation, departmental policies and practices, advancement, working conditions,
security, recognition and social status. Moreover, the results indicate that respondents
at this college were very dissatisfied with their compensation.
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l Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation ofresults of the research
Table 4.8: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 5
Job satisfaction indicators Rank College 5 (N =25)
Mean 0/0
Colleagues 1 3,93 78,56
Social service 2 3,74 74,88
Independence 3 3,70 74,08
Moral values 4 3,58 71,52
Responsibility 5 3,56 71,20
Activity 6 3,55 71,04
Ability utilisation 7 3,51 70,24
Achievement 8 3,51 70,24
Authority 9 3,49 69,76
Creativity 10 3,44 68,80
Supervision-human relations 11 3,43 68,64
Variety 12 3,42 68,32
Supervision-technical 13 3,33 66,56
Social status 14 3,28 65,60
Recognition 15 3,22 64,48
Working conditions 16 3,10 62,05
Security 17 2,80 56,00
Departmental policies & 18 2,42 48,32
practices
Compensation 19 2,41 48,16
Advancement 20 2,39 47,84
Overall level: College 5 65,82%
From the responses in Table 4.8, it is clear that the majority of the respondents at
college 5 were satisfied with most job aspects tested, mainly their relationship with
colleagues, social service and independence. However, they were least satisfied with
advancement, compensation, departmental policies and the way they are put into
practice, and job security.
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Table 4.9: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 6
Job satisfaction indicators Rank College 6 (N =18)
Mean 0/0
Moral values 1 3,32 66,44
Social service 2 3,21 64,22
Independence 3 3,14 62,88
Ability utilisation 4 2,82 56,44
Activity 5 2,80 56,00
Creativity 6 2,77 55,34
Social status 7 2,.73 54,66
Responsibility 8 2,70 54,00
Colleagues 9 2,66 53,12
Authority 10 2,66 53,12
Variety 11 2,64 52,88
Achievement 12 2,60 52,00
Supervision-human relations 13 2,16 43,12
Recognition 14 2,06 41,12
Supervision-technical 15 1,98 39,56
Security 16 1,96 39,12
Departmental policies & 17 1,86 37,12
practices
Compensation 18 1,81 36,22
Advancement 19 1,76 35,12
Working conditions 20 1,64 32,88
Overall level: College 6 49,27%
From Table 4.9 it is clear that the majority of the respondents at college 6 were either
dissatisfied or very dissatisfied with most job aspects. However, they were barely
satisfied with moral values, social service and independence.
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Table 4.10: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 7
Job satisfaction indicators Rank College 7 (N =19)
Mean 0/0
Moral values 1 4,18 83,58
Social service 2 4,08 81,68
Activity 3 3,97 79,36
Achievement 4 3,95 78,94
Independence 5 3,90 77,90
Responsibility 6 3,88 77,68
Creativity 7 3,85 77,06
Ability utilisation 8 3,85 77,06
Working conditions 9 3,76 75,16
Colleagues 10 3,66 73,26
Supervision-technical 11 3,56 71,16
Authority 12 3,55 70,94
Social status 13 3,46 69,26
Variety 14 3,45 69,06
Supervision-human relations 15 3,44 68,84
Recognition 16 3,19 63,78
Departmental policies & 17 2,88 57,68
practices
Advancement 18 2,81 56,22
Compensation 19 2,80 56,00
Security 20 2,61 52,22
Overall level: College 7 70,84%
Table 4.10 indicates that at college 7, most respondents were generally satisfied
(70,84%). Moral values and social service contributed most to the overall level of
satisfaction at this college, while security, compensation, advancement and
departmental policies and practices contributed least.
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Table 4.11: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of college 8
Job satisfaction indicators Rank College 8 (N =16)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,80 76,00
Colleagues 2 3,71 74,26
Ability utilisation 3 3,66 73,26
Moral values 4 3,65 73,00
Creativity 5 3,64 72,76
Independence 6 3,63 72,50
Responsibility 7 3,60 72,00
Achievement 8 3,56 71,26
Activity 9 3,44 68,76
Variety 10 3,39 67,76
Authority 11 3,38 67,50
Recognition 12 3,35 67,00
Social status 13 3,25 65,00
Working conditions 14 3,05 61,00
Supervision-technical 15 3,04 60,74
Supervision human relations 16 2,93 58,50
Advancement 17 2,60 52,00
Security 18 2,29 45,76
Compensation 19 2,25 45,00
Departmental policies & 20 2,23 44,50
practices
Overall level: College 8 64,43%
Table 4.11 shows that the majority of respondents from college 8 were satisfied with
most of the job satisfaction indicators considered especially social service and
colleagues. However, they were dissatisfied with departmental policies and practices,
compensation, security and advancement.
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From Tables 4.4 to 4.11 one can conclude that respondents at all colleges except
college 6 are generally satisfied. For college 6 the level of job satisfaction was
49,27%, which is well below the overall level of the target population. Colleges 1,3,
5 and 7 are above the overall level while colleges 2, 4 and 8 are below this level but
still satisfied.
4.4.4 The level of job satisfaction of various sub-groups
The questions about the biographical information of respondents (see Section A,
Appendix A) were intended to distinguish between respondents in terms of gender,
current post held, age, teaching expenence, and professional and academic
qualifications. The following was revealed by the personal details of respondents:
4.4.4.1 Biographic group 1: Gender of respondents
Comparing the level of job satisfaction for the male and female sub-groups with the
overall level aimed at determining the differences between the two and the overall
level for the target population. The results are shown in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per gender sub-group with
the overall level of job satisfaction
Sub-group Mean (%) Overall mean (%) Difference
Male 65,53 64,73 0,80
Female 63,78 64,73 0,95-
Table 4.12 indicates that both male and female respondents were satisfied with their
job, the males being 0,80% above the overall level of the target population while the
female group is 0,95% below.
Ranking the indicators according to their contribution was intended at identifying
those job aspects that require separate attention and those that can be dealt with
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together to improve the education process for the two sexes. Table 4.13 and 4.14
show the responses of the male and female sub-groups respectively.
Table 4.13: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the level of
job satisfaction of male respondents
Job satisfaction indicator Rank Male N = 92
Mean Mean (%)
Social service 1 3,85 77,04
Independence 2 3,75 75,09
Moral values 3 3,75 75,00
Colleagues 4 3,68 73,61
Responsibility 5 3,64 72,78
Creativity 6 3,63 72,52
Achievement 7 3,61 72,17
Activity 8 3,61 72,13
Ability utilisation 9 3,59 71,83
Variety 10 3,45 68,96
Authority 11 3,44 68,87
Supervision-human relations 12 3,36 67,17
Social status 13 3,31 66,26
Supervision-technical 14 3,28 65,65
Recognition 15 3,13 62,57
Working conditions 16 2,88 57,57
Security 17 2,62 52,48
Advancement 18 2,43 48,52
Departmental policies & 19 2,41 48,17
practices
Compensation 20 2,11 42,22
Overall level: Male respondents 65,53%
From Table 4.13 it is clear that the male respondents were satisfied with most aspects
of their job. Social service, independence and moral values contributed most to their
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Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
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overall level of job satisfaction while compensation, departmental policies and
practices and advancement contributed least.
Table 4.14: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of female respondents
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Female N = 78
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,74 74,77
Moral values 2 3,70 73,95
Independence 3 3,58 71,54
Colleagues 4 3,54 70,87
Activity 5 3,52 70,46
Ability utilisation 6 3,49 69,74
Creativity 7 3,48 69,59
Responsibility 8 3,44 68,72
Achievement 9 3,37 67,44
Variety 10 3,32 66,41
Authority 11 3,25 65,03
Social status 12 3,24 64,87
Supervision-human relations 13 3,05 60,97
Supervision-technical 14 3,04 60,77
Recognition 15 3,03 60,56
Working conditions 16 2,86 57,28
Departmental policies & 17 2,61 52,10
practices
Compensation 18 2,57 51,38
Security 19 2,48 49,64
Advancement 20 2,47 49,44
Overall level: Female respondents 63,78%
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Table 4.14 indicates that the female respondents were generally satisfied with their
job, 63,78%. Social service, moral values, independence, colleagues and activity
contributed most to the overall level for this sub-group while their advancement and
job security contributed least.
Both male and female respondents were generally satisfied.
4.4.4.2 Biographic group 2: Current post level held by respondents
Comparing the level of job satisfaction of respondents according to post level held is
intended to identify the difference between the overall level per sub-group and the
overall level of job satisfaction for the target population. Table 4.15 reports the
findings of this comparison.
Table 4.15: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per position sub-group with
the overall level
Sub-group Mean (%) Overall mean (%) Difference
Rector 72,20 64,73 7,47
Vice-rector 68,63 64,73 3,90
H.O.D. 68,64 64,73 3,91
Lecturer 63,57 64,73 1,16-
From Table 4.15 it is clear that the level of job satisfaction of rectors, vice-rectors and
heads of departments was higher than that of the entire population (64,73%), while
that of lecturers as a group was less.
A further analysis of the level of job satisfaction of each sub-group (Table 4.15)
shows the contribution of each of the 20 indicators to the overall level of satisfaction
of each group. The results are as reported in Tables 4.16 to 4.19.
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Table 4.16: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of rectors
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Rectors (N = 4)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 4,30 86,00
Ability utilisation 2 4,25 85,00
Creativity 3 4,10 82,00
Authority 4 4,05 81,00
Activity 5 4,00 80,00
Social status 6 4,00 80,00
Achievement 7 3,95 79,00
Responsibility 8 3,95 79,00
Moral values 9 3,90 78,00
Colleagues 10 3,85 77,00
Independence 11 3,75 75,00
Recognition 12 3,75 75,00
Variety 13 3,70 74,00
Supervision-human relations 14 3,55 71,00
Supervision-technical 15 3,55 71,00
Security 16 3,00 60,00
Advancement 17 2,85 57,00
Departmental policies & 18 2,80 56,00
practices
Working conditions 19 2,70 54,00
Compensation 20 2,20 44,00
Overall level: Rectors 72,20%
Table 4.16 shows that rectors were satisfied with most aspects of the job especially
social service, ability utilisation, creativity, authority, activity and social status.
However, they were dissatisfied with compensation, working conditions,
departmental policies and practices and opportunities for advancement.
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Table 4.17: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of vice-rectors
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Vice-rector (N = 7)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 4,03 80,57
Colleagues 2 3,91 78,29
Achievement 3 3,77 75,43
Supervision-human relations 4 3,77 75,43
Independence 5 3,74 74,86
Responsibility 6 3,71 74,29
Social status 7 3,69 73,71
Working conditions 8 3,69 73,71
Activity 9 3,66 73,14
Ability utilisation 10 3,66 73,14
Moral values 11 3,63 72,57
Supervision-technical 12 3,57 71,43
Creativity 13 3,43 68,57
Authority 14 3,40 68,00
Recognition 15 3,40 68,00
Variety 16 3,34 66,86
Security 17 2,89 57,71
Advancement 18 2,74 54,86
Departmental policies & 19 2,34 46,86
practices
Compensation 20 2,26 45,14
Overall level: Vice-rectors 68,63%
Table 4.17 shows that respondents of the sub-group vice-rector were mainly happy
with social service and colleagues while they felt most dissatisfied with
compensation, departmental policies and practices, and advancement.
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Table 4.18: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of heads of departments
Job satisfaction indicators Rank H.O.D. (N = 25)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 4,11 82,24
Moral values 2 3,95 79,04
Activity 3 3,94 78,72
Ability utilisation 4 3,82 76,32
Responsibility 5 3,80 76,00
Achievement 6 3,78 75,52
Creativity 7 3,74 74,72
Colleagues 8 3,71 74,24
Authority 9 3,70 74,08
Independence lO 3,62 72,48
Variety 11 3,52 70,40
Supervision-human relations 12 3,46 69,28
Supervision-technical 13 3,36 67,20
Recognition 14 3,35 67,04
Social status 15 3,32 66,40
Working conditions 16 3,02 60,32
Security 17 2,66 53,28
Advancement 18 2,66 53,28
Departmental policies & 19 2,62 52,48
practices
Compensation 20 2,49 49,76
Overall level: H.O. D. 68,64%
Table 4.18 indicates that the heads of departments were satisfied with most aspects of
their job except compensation, departmental policies, advancement and job security.
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Table 4.19: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of lecturers
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Lecturers (N = 134)
Mean %
Social service 1 3,71 74,30
Moral values 2 3,68 73,67
Independence 3 3,68 73,52
Colleagues 4 3,58 71,55
Creativity 5 3,52 70,33
Activity 6 3,48 69,64
Responsibility 7 3,48 69,55
Ability utilisation 8 3,47 69,31
Achievement 9 3,42 68,42
Variety 10 3,36 67,16
Authority 11 3,27 65,34
Social status 12 3,23 64,63
Supervision-human relations 13 3,13 62,63
Supervision-technical 14 3,10 62,06
Recognition 15 2,81 59,91
Working conditions 16 2,51 56,15
Security 17 2,47 50,18
Departmental policies & 18 2,38 49,49
practices
Advancement 19 2,30 47,58
Compensation 20 2,30 45,94
Overall level: Lecturers 63,57%
From the information in Table 4.19, it is clear that lecturers were satisfied with most
job satisfaction indicators, mainly social service, moral values, independence,
colleagues and creativity. However, they were not satisfied with compensation,
advancement, departmental policies and practices, job security, working conditions
and recognition.
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According to the information in Tables 4.16 to 4.19, respondents are generally
satisfied with their jobs irrespective of the position held. They are also consistent in
ranking compensation, advancement and departmental policies and practices as
factors which contribute least to the overall level of job satisfaction.
4.4.4.3 Biographic group 3: Age of respondents
To identify the most satisfied and dissatisfied age group, the level of job satisfaction
per sub-group was compared with the overall level of the target population as
presented in Table 4.20 below.
Table 4.20: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per age sub-group with the
overall level of satisfaction of the target population
Sub-group Level per sub- Overall level (%) Difference
group (%)
30 years or younger 65,38 64,73 0,65
31 to 40 years 61,78 64,73 2,95-
41 to 50 years 65,12 64,73 0,39
51 to 60 years 68,98 64,73 4,25
Older than 60 years 73,85 64,73 9,12
Table 4.20 indicates that the respondents older than 60 years were 9,12% above the
overall level of job satisfaction of the target population while the respondents between
31 and 40 years were 2,95% below this level.
To indicate the contribution of each job satisfaction indicator to the overall level of
satisfaction of each age group, the 20 job satisfaction indicators were further ranked
according to their contributions regarding the age sub-groups. Tables 4.21 to 4.25
present the results for each age group.
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Table 4.21: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the age group 30 years or younger
Job satisfaction indicators Rank 30 years or younger (N =19 )
Mean 0/0
Independence 1 3,85 79,79
Social service 2 3,79 77,05
Moral values 3 3,75 75,79
Activity 4 3,71 74,95
Colleagues 5 3,69 74,11
Ability utilisation 6 3,65 73,89
Achievement 7 3,65 73,05
Responsibility 8 3,64 73,05
Creativity 9 3,44 72,84
Social status 10 3,41 68,84
Variety 11 3,40 68,21
Authority 12 3,35 66,95
Supervision-technical 13 3,07 61,47
Supervision-human relations 14 3,05 61,05
Working conditions 15 3,00 60,00
Recognition 16 2,95 58,95
Departmental policies & 17 2,57 51,37
practices
Advancement 18 2,33 46,53
Compensation 19 2,25 45,05
Security 20 2,23 44,63
Overall level: Age group 30 and younger 65,38%
Table 4.21 shows that the respondents who were 30 years or younger were generally
satisfied with most job satisfaction indicators, especially social service, independence,
moral values and colleagues. But they felt dissatisfied with security, compensation,
advancement, departmental policies and practices and recognition.
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Table 4.22: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the age group 31 to 40 years
Job satisfaction indicators Rank 31 to 40 years (N = 69)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,61 72,12
Independence 2 3,56 71,19
Moral values 3 3,51 70,14
Colleagues 4 3,50 70,09
Responsibility 5 3,37 67,42
Creativity 6 3,37 67,36
Activity 7 3,33 66,61
Achievement 8 3,32 66,49
Ability utilisation 9 3,32 66,49
Variety 10 3,23 64,52
Authority 11 3,18 63,59
Supervision-human relations 12 3,17 63,48
Supervision-technical 13 3,13 62,55
Social status 14 3,11 62,20
Recognition 15 2,99 59,83
Working conditions 16 2,58 51,65
Security 17 2,53 50,55
Departmental policies & 18 2,41 48,23
practices
Advancement 19 2,34 46,90
Compensation 20 2,21 44,17
Overall level: Age group 3lto 40 years 61,78%
Table 4.22 indicates that the respondents between the age of 31 and 40 years were
most satisfied with social service and independence while compensation,
advancement and departmental policies and practices contributed least to the overall
level of job satisfaction. Moreover, they were dissatisfied with compensation,
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advancement, departmental policies and practices, security, working conditions and
recognition.
Table 4.23: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the age group 41 to 50 years
Job satisfaction indicators Rank 41 to 50 years (N = 46)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,82 76,35
Moral values 2 3,74 74,78
Independence 3 3,66 73,13
Creativity 4 3,59 71,83
Responsibility 5 3,58 71,65
Activity 6 3,56 71,22
Ability utilisation 7 3,56 71,13
Colleagues 8 3,53 70,52
Achievement 9 3,44 68,87
Authority 10 3,41 68,17
Variety Il 3,40 68,09
Social status 12 3,31 66,26
Supervision-human relations 13 3,18 63,65
Recognition 14 3,14 63,35
Supervision-technical 15 3,12 62,78
Working conditions 16 2,93 58,52
Security 17 2,63 52,70
Departmental policies & 18 2,57 51,30
practices
Advancement 19 2,55 50,96
Compensation 20 2,41 48,17
Overall level: Age group 41 to 50 years 65,12%
The information in Table 4.23 shows that respondents between the age of 41 and 50
were satisfied with most aspects of their job, but dissatisfied with compensation,
advancement, departmental policies and practices, security and working conditions.
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Table 4.24: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the age group 51 to 60 years
Job satisfaction Rank 51 to 60 years (N = 32)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 4,13 82,50
Moral values 2 4,11 82,25
Activity 3 3,98 79,63
Creativity 4 3,84 76,75
Colleagues 5 3,84 76,75
Achievement 6 3,83 76,50
Ability utilisation 7 3,78 76,38
Independence 8 3,76 75,50
Responsibility 9 3,70 75,13
Variety 10 3,61 74,00
Authority 11 3,45 72,13
Social status 12 3,40 69,00
Supervision-human relations 13 3,33 68,00
Supervision-technical 14 3,29 66,50
Working conditions 15 3,23 65,88
Recognition 16 3,19 64,63
Security 17 2,55 51,00
Departmental policies & 18 2,51 50,13
practices
Advancement 19 2,48 49,50
Compensation 20 2,38 47,50
Overall level: Age group 51 to 60 years 68,98%
Table 4.24 indicates that the respondents between the age of 51 and 60 years were
mostly satisfied with social service and moral values but dissatisfied with
compensation and advancement.
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Table 4.25: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the age group older than 60
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Older than 60 years (N = 4)
Mean 0/0
Colleagues 1 4,45 89,00
Ability utilisation 2 4,25 85,00
Social service 3 4,10 82,00
Moral values 4 3,95 79,00
Responsibility 5 3,95 79,00
Achievement 6 3,85 77,00
Creativity 7 3,85 77,00
Security 8 3,85 77,00
Authority 9 3,80 76,00
Social status 10 3,80 75,00
Recognition 11 3,75 74,00
Supervision-human relations 12 3,70 73,00
Activity 13 3,65 72,00
Independence 14 3,50 70,00
Supervision-technical 15 3,50 70,00
Variety 16 3,45 69,00
Advancement 17 3,40 68,00
Working conditions 18 3,25 65,00
Compensation 19 3,15 63,00
Departmental policies & 20 2,85 57,00
practices
Overall level: Age group older than 60 years 73,85%
Table 4.25 indicates that the respondents older than 60 years were satisfied with all
the job satisfaction indicators considered especially colleagues, ability utilisation and
social service. However, they ranked departmental policies and practices, and
compensation last, compensation being the only job aspect they are dissatisfied with.
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For this biographical group, satisfaction seemed to increase with age while
compensation can be regarded as the major source of dissatisfaction.
4.4.4.4 Biographic group 4: The teaching experience of respondents in years
None of the respondents had more than 40 years of teaching experience. All the sub-
groups were compared with the overall level of job satisfaction as presented in Table
4.26.
Table 4.26: Comparing the level of satisfaction per teaching experience sub-
group with the overall level of the target group
Sub-group Mean (%) Overall mean (%) Difference
10 years or less 64,94 64,73 0,21
11 to 20 years 61,99 64,73 2,74-
21 to 30 years 65,52 64,73 0,79
31 to 40 years 74,00 64,73 9,27
Table 4.26 indicates that respondents with teaching experience of between 31 and 40
years were the most satisfied while those between 11 and 20 years were the least
satisfied.
A further analysis of the level of job satisfaction of the sub-group according to the
teaching experience shows the contribution of each of the 20 job satisfaction
indicators to the overall level of job satisfaction of each group. The results are
presented in Tables 4.27 to 4.30.
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Table 4.27: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of satisfaction of respondents with 10 years or less teaching experience
Job satisfaction indicators Rank 10 years or less (N = 50)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,83 76,64
Independence 2 3,77 75,36
Colleagues 3 3,69 73,76
Moral values 4 3,68 73,52
Responsibility 5 3,60 72,08
Achievement 6 3,59 71,84
Ability utilisation 7 3,57 71,44
Activity 8 3,57 71,44
Creativity 9 3,55 70,96
Variety 10 3,36 67,12
Supervision-human relations 11 3,35 66,96
Supervision-technical 12 3,33 66,56
Authority 13 3,32 66,48
Social status 14 3,29 65,76
Recognition 15 3,02 60,48
Working conditions 16 2,78 55,60
Departmental policies & 17 2,56 51,12
practices
Security 18 2,52 50,40
Advancement 19 2,38 47,68
Compensation 20 2,18 43,52
Overall level: 10 years or less teaching experience 64,94%
Table 4.7 indicates that respondents were generally satisfied with job aspects
considered. Social service and independence contributed most to the overall level of
job satisfaction for the sub-group, while compensation and advancement contributed
least. Moreover, these respondents were dissatisfied with compensation,
advancement, security, departmental policies and practices, and working conditions.
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Table 4.28: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of respondents with 11 to 20 years teaching experience
Job satisfaction indicators Rank 11 to 20 years (N = 66)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,65 72,71
Moral values 2 3,56 71,15
Independence 3 3,51 70,18
Colleagues 4 3,50 69,94
Activity 5 3,42 68,36
Responsibility 6 3,39 67,88
Creativity 7 3,38 67,58
Ability utilisation 8 3,32 66,42
Achievement 9 3,29 65,88
Variety 10 3,25 65,09
Authority 11 3,22 64,48
Social status 12 3,16 63,27
Supervision-human relations 13 3,02 60,48
Recognition 14 2,99 59,88
Supervision-technical 15 2,96 59,15
Working conditions 16 2,62 52,48
Security 17 2,52 50,48
Departmental policies & 18 2,43 48,61
practices
Advancement 19 2,39 47,82
Compensation 20 2,39 47,.76
Overall level: 11 to 20 years teaching experience 61,99%
From Table 4.28 it is clear that the respondents in this sub-group were most satisfied
with social service, moral values and independence, rated above 70%. Although
overall level of job satisfaction for this sub-group indicates satisfaction, 61,99%,
respondents were dissatisfied with compensation, advancement, departmental policies
and practices, security, working conditions and supervision-technical.
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Table 4.29: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of respondents with 21 to 30 years of teaching experience
Job satisfaction indicators Rank 21 to 30 years (N = 39)
Mean 0/0
Moral values 1 3,85 77,03
Social service 2 3,77 75,49
Independence 3 3,74 74,77
Creativity 4 3,66 73,23
Ability utilisation 5 3,63 72,62
Colleagues 6 3,63 72,62
Activity 7 3,56 71,18
Responsibility 8 3,53 70,67
Achievement 9 3,49 69,85
Variety 10 3,44 68,92
Authority 11 3,44 68,82
Social status 12 3,34 66,87
Recognition 13 3,12 62,36
Supervision-technical 14 3,09 61,74
Supervision-human relations 15 3,08 61,54
Working conditions 16 3,06 61,23
Advancement 17 2,61 52,21
Security 18 2,61 52,10
Departmental policies & 19 2,50 49,95
practices
Compensation 20 2,36 47,18
Overall level: 21 to 30 years teaching experience 65,52%
The information in Table 4.29 shows that moral values and social service contributed
most to the overall level of job satisfaction of this sub-group, while compensation and
departmental policies contributed least. Moreover, sources of dissatisfaction for
respondents of this sub-group were compensation, departmental policies and
practices, security and advancement.
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Table 4.30: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with 31 to 40 teaching experience
Job satisfaction indicators Rank 31 to 40 years (N = 15)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 4,44 88,80
Moral values 2 4,31 86,13
Activity 3 4,24 84,80
Ability utilisation 4 4,20 84,00
Creativity 5 4,12 82,40
Achievement 6 4,12 82,40
Responsibility 7 4,05 81,07
Supervision-human relations 8 4,00 79,73
Variety 9 3,95 78,93
Independence 10 3,91 78,13
Colleagues 11 3,88 77,60
Authority 12 3,81 76,27
Supervision-technical 13 3,80 76,00
Working conditions 14 3,77 75,47
Social status 15 3,61 72,27
Recognition 16 3,57 71,47
Security 17 2,72 54,40
Departmental policies & 18 2,61 52,27
practices
Advancement 19 2,48 49,60
Compensation 20 2,41 48,27
Overall level: 31 to 40 years teaching experience 74,00%
From Table 4.30, the overall level of job satisfaction was 74,00%, signifying
satisfaction on the five-point scale used. Social service and moral values contributed
most to this percentage, while compensation and advancement contributed least.
Respondents were dissatisfied with compensation, advancement, and departmental
policies and security.
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The sub-groups according to years of teaching experience were generally satisfied
with social service and moral values but dissatisfied with compensation and
advancement.
4.4.4.5 Biographic group 5: Professional qualifications of respondents
Table 4.31 compares the means to determine the difference between the overall level
of job satisfaction of the target group and those of the professional sub-groups.
Table 4.31: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per professional qualification
sub-group with the overall level of the target group
Sub-group Mean (%) Overall mean Difference
(%)
Teacher's diploma 64,73 64,73 0,00
Further or 2nd diploma 66,34 64,73 1,61
Integrated degree 69,25 64,73 4,52
B.Ed. degree 60,37 64,73 4,36-
M.Ed. degree 65,52 64,73 0,79
Doctorate in education 71,47 64,73 6,74
Other* 66,98 64,73 2,07
*Other professional qualifications included M. Sc. and H.N.D. (Mining Engineering).
Table 4.31 shows that the level of job satisfaction for respondents with a doctorate in
education as their highest professional qualification was the most satisfied, 6,74%
above the overall level of the target population. The least satisfied were those with a
B.Ed. degree, 4,36% below the overall level.
The contribution of each job satisfaction indicator has been ranked in Tables 4.32 to
4.38 for different sub-groups according to professional qualifications.
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Table 4.32: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with a teacher's diploma as their
highest professional qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Teacher's diploma (N = 32)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,79 75,75
Moral values 2 3,72 74,38
Creativity 3 3,61 72,25
Colleagues 4 3,61 72,13
Independence 5 3,59 71,75
Responsibility 6 3,57 71,38
Ability utilisation 7 3,53 70,63
Variety 8 3,52 70,37
Activity 9 3,48 69,63
Achievement 10 3,46 69,25
Authority 11 3,22 64,38
Social status 12 3,18 63,50
Recognition 13 3,03 60,50
Working conditions 14 3,01 60,13
Supervision-technical 15 2,99 59,88
Supervision-human relations 16 2,94 58,75
Security 17 2,75 55,00
Departmental policies & 18 2,64 52,75
practices
Advancement 19 2,63 52,50
Compensation 20 2,48 49,62
Overall level: Teachers' diploma 64,73%
Table 4.32 shows that respondents were mainly satisfied with social service and moral
values while mostly dissatisfied with compensation, advancement, departmental
policies and practices, security, supervision human relations, supervision technical
and working conditions.
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Table 4.33: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with further or 2nd diploma as their
highest professional qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Further or 2nd dip. (N = 25)
Mean 0/0
Independence 1 3,83 76,64
Moral values 2 3,80 76,00
Social service 3 3,78 75,68
Colleagues 4 3,73 74,56
Responsibility 5 3,73 74,56
Achievement 6 3,70 73,92
Creativity 7 3,67 73,44
Activity 8 3,62 72,32
Ability utilisation 9 3,56 71,20
Authority 10 3,50 70,08
Recognition 11 3,46 69,28
Variety 12 3,42 68,48
Supervision-human relations 13 3,36 67,20
Supervision-technical 14 3,26 65,12
Social status 15 3,20 64,00
Working conditions 16 3,07 61,44
Security 17 2,67 53,44
Departmental policies & 18 2,42 48,32
practices
Compensation 19 2,34 46,88
Advancement 20 2,22 44,32
Overall level: Further or 2nd diploma 66,34%
According to Table 3.33, respondents were satisfied with most job aspects considered
especially independence, moral values and social service. However, they were
dissatisfied with advancement, compensation, departmental policies and practices,
and job security.
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Table 4.34: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with an integrated degree as their
highest professional qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Integrated degree (N = 30)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,99 79,87
Ability utilisation 2 3,89 77,73
Colleagues 3 3,83 76,67
Independence 4 3,81 76,13
Moral values 5 3,.80 76,00
Responsibility 6 3,77 75,33
Activity 7 3,75 75,07
Achievement 8 3,73 74,53
Creativity 9 3,70 74,00
Social status 10 3,59 71,87
Authority 11 3,55 70,93
Variety 12 3,53 70,67
Supervision-human relations 13 3,50 70,00
Supervision-technical 14 3,47 69,47
Recognition 15 3,34 66,80
Working conditions 16 3,17 63,47
Advancement 17 2,89 57,73
Departmental policies & 18 2,79 55,73
practices
Security 19 2,62 52,40
Compensation 20 2,53 50,67
Overall level: Integrated degrees 69,25%
The information in Table 4.34 indicates that the respondents were satisfied with most
of the job satisfaction indicators considered, with social service, ability utilisation,
colleagues, independence and moral values contributing most to the overall level of
job satisfaction of this sub-group. Compensation, security, departmental policies and
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practices, and advancement contributed least and were the dissatisfying aspects of the
job.
Table 4.35: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of satisfaction of the respondents with B.Ed. as their highest
professional qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank B.Ed. N=53)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,60 72,00
Moral values 2 3,57 71,40
Independence 3 3,55 71,02
Colleagues 4 3,38 67,62
Creativity 5 3,36 67,17
Activity 6 3,34 66,72
Ability utilisation 7 3,26 65,28
Authority 8 3,26 65,28
Responsibility 9 3,26 65,13
Achievement 10 3,21 64,15
Variety 11 3,20 63,92
Social status 12 3,14 62,87
Supervision-human relations 13 3,05 60,91
Supervision-technical 14 2,99 59,77
Recognition 15 2,76 55,17
Security 16 2,43 48,68
Working conditions 17 2,33 46,57
Departmental policies & 18 2,31 46,11
practices
Advancement 19 2,25 44,91
Compensation 20 2,13 42,64
Overall level: B.Ed. degree 60,37%
Table 4.35 shows that social service, moral values and independence contributed most
to the overall level of job satisfaction of this sub-group. Compensation, advancement,
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departmental policies and practices, working conditions, security, recognition and
supervision technical contributed least and were the dissatisfying aspects of the job.
Table 4.36: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with M.Ed. as their highest
professional qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank M.Ed. (N = 18)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,97 79,33
Moral values 2 3,94 78,89
Activity 3 3,89 77,78
Ability utilisation 4 3,73 74,67
Independence 5 3,67 73,33
Responsibility 6 3,63 72,69
Achievement 7 3,61 72,22
Creativity 8 3,54 70,89
Colleagues 9 3,50 70,00
Variety 10 3,39 67,78
Social status 11 3,39 67,78
Supervision-human relations 12 3,31 66,22
Authority 13 3,26 65,11
Supervision-technical 14 3,21 64,22
Working conditions 15 3,14 62,89
Recognition 16 3,01 60,22
Departmental policies & 17 2,48 49,56
practices
Advancement 18 2,32 46,44
Security 19 2,32 46,44
Compensation 20 2,20 44,00
Overall level: M.Ed. degree 65,52%
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Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results of the research
From Table 4.36 it is clear that the respondents were mainly satisfied with social
service, moral values and activity. They were dissatisfied with compensation,
security, advancement, and departmental policies and practices.
Table 4.37: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with a doctorate in education as their
highest professional qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Doctorate (N = 3)
Mean 0/0
Colleagues 1 4,60 92,00
Social service 2 4,53 90,67
Working conditions 3 4,07 81,88
Activity 4 3,93 78,67
Moral values 5 3,93 78,67
Social status 6 3,87 77,33
Recognition 7 3,80 76,00
Authority 8 3,80 76,00
Creativity 9 3,80 76,00
Responsibility 10 3,80 76,00
Achievement Il 3,73 74,67
Independence 12 3,73 74,67
Supervision-human relations 13 3,67 73,33
Variety 14 3,60 72,00
Supervision-technical 15 3,53 70,67
Ability utilisation 16 3,40 68,00
Security 17 2,53 50,67
Advancement 18 2,40 48,00
Departmental policies & 19 2,40 48,00
practices
Compensation 20 2,33 46,67
Overall level: Doctorate in education 71,47%
124
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results of the research
The results in Table 4.37 show that respondents were very satisfied with colleagues,
social service and working conditions, while dissatisfied with compensation,
departmental policies and practices and advancement and security.
Table 4.38: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with other professional qualifications
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Other (N = 9)
Mean 0/0
Colleagues 1 3,93 78,67
Social service 2 3,84 76,89
Independence 3 3,80 76,00
Achievement 4 3,76 75,11
Activity 5 3,73 74,67
Creativity 6 3,71 74,22
Moral values 7 3,71 74,22
Ability utilisation 8 3,71 74,22
Responsi bili ty 9 3,67 73,33
Supervision-human relations 10 3,53 70,67
Supervision-technical 11 3,42 68,44
Variety 12 3,42 68,44
Authority 13 3,38 67,56
Social status 14 3,24 64,89
Recognition 15 3,18 63,56
Working conditions 16 3,09 61,78
Security 17 2,58 51,56
Departmental policies & 18 2,49 49,78
practices
Advancement 19 2,44 48,89
Compensation 20 2,33 46,67
Overall level: Other qualifications 66,98%
125
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results of the research
Table 3.38 indicates that colleagues, social service and independence were sources of
satisfaction while compensation, advancement, and departmental policies and
practices were the most dissatisfying job aspects.
Form the above tables it is clear that respondents in all the sub-groups agree about
social service and moral values as the main sources of satisfaction. Also that
compensation, security, advancement and departmental policies and practices were
the most dissatisfying factors.
4.4.4.6 Biographic group 6: Academic qualifications of respondents
A further analysis of the level of job satisfaction according to highest academic
qualification indicates the contribution of each sub-group regarding academic
qualification to the overall level of satisfaction of the target population. The results
are presented in Table 4.39.
Table 4.39: Comparing the level of job satisfaction per academic qualification
sub-group with the overall level for the target population
Sub-group Mean (%) Overall mean (%) Difference
Matric 64,55 64,73 0,18-
Bachelor's degree 65,68 64,73 0,95
Honours degree 64,93 64,73 0,20
Master's degree 61,29 64,73 3,44-
Doctorate 60,40 64,73 4,33-
Other* 59,50 64,73 5,23-
*Other academic qualifications included Cambridge Overseas School Certificate (C.O.S.C.).
The information in Table 4.39 indicates that respondents with other academic
qualifications have the lowest level of job satisfaction while those with a bachelor's
degree as the highest qualification had the highest level of job satisfaction.
126
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results o[the research
The contribution of each job satisfaction indicator has been ranked in Table 4.40 to
4.45 for the different sub-groups according to academic qualifications.
Table 4.40: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with matric as their highest academic
qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Matric (N = 85)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,81 76,24
Moral values 2 3,71 74,26
Independence 3 3,70 74,07
Colleagues 4 3,60 72,05
Ability utilisation 5 3,60 71,95
Activity 6 3,57 71,34
Creativity 7 3,56 71,20
Responsibility 8 3,53 70,64
Achievement 9 3,42 68,42
Social status 10 3,38 67,58
Variety 11 3,37 67,39
Authority 12 3,35 66,92
Supervision-human relations 13 3,19 63,86
Supervision-technical 14 3,14 62,73
Recognition 15 3,05 60,94
Working conditions 16 2,84 56,75
Security 17 2,51 50,16
Departmental policies & 18 2,50 49,98
practices
Advancement 19 2,45 49,08
Compensation 20 2,28 45,51
Overall level: Matric 64,55%
127
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results o(the research
Table 4.40 shows that the respondents were mainly satisfied with social service while
dissatisfied with compensation, advancement, departmental practices, security and
working conditions.
Table 4.41: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with a bachelor's degree as their
highest academic qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Bachelor's degree (N = 51)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,85 76,94
Moral values 2 3,78 75,61
Colleagues 3 3,73 74,67
Activity 4 3,65 73,02
Independence 5 3,64 72,78
Creativity 6 3,59 71,84
Achievement 7 3,57 71,37
Responsi bili ty 8 3,56 71,14
Ability utilisation 9 3,49 69,73
Variety 10 3,49 69,73
Authority 11 3,44 68,86
Supervision-technical 12 3,27 65,41
Supervision-human relations 13 3,27 65,33
Social status 14 3,25 64,94
Recognition 15 3,09 61,88
Working conditions 16 2,84 56,71
Security 17 2,67 53,33
Advancement 18 2,56 51,22
Departmental policies & 19 2,53 50,59
practices
Compensation 20 2,42 48,47
Overall level: Bachelor's degree 65,68%
128
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results of the research
The results in Table 4.41 show that social service and moral values contributed most
to the overall level of job satisfaction while compensation was the least.
Compensation, departmental policies and practices, advancement, security and
working conditions were the most dissatisfying aspects of the job.
Table 4.42: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with an honours degree as their
highest academic qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Honours Degree (N = 24)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,71 74,17
Achievement 2 3,67 73,33
Ability utilisation 3 3,66 73,17
Moral values 4 3,66 73,17
Independence 5 3,65 73,00
Responsibility 6 3,62 72,33
Creativity 7 3,62 72,33
Colleagues 8 3,49 69,83
Activity 9 3,43 68,50
Variety 10 3,35 67,00
Supervision-human relations 11 3,34 66,83
Supervision -technical 12 3,28 65,67
Recognition 13 3,28 65,50
Authority 14 3,24 64,83
Social status 15 3,03 60,67
Working conditions 16 2,97 59,33
Security 17 2,70 53,83
Departmental policies & 18 2,54 50,83
practices
Advancement 19 2,38 47,67
Compensation 20 2,33 46,67
Overall level: Honours degree 64,93%
129
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results of the research
According to the information in Table 4.42, the respondents were satisfied with most
job satisfaction indicators especially social service. They were dissatisfied with
compensation, advancement, departmental policies and practices, security and
working conditions.
Table 4.43: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with a master's degree as their highest
academic qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Master's Degree (N = 7)
Mean 0/0
Recognition 1 3,74 74,86
Moral values 2 3,69 73,71
Independence 3 3,66 73,14
Social service 4 3,60 72,00
Activity 5 3,54 70,86
Creativity 6 3,49 69,71
Responsibility 7 3,46 69,14
Colleagues 8 3,40 68,00
Achievement 9 3,37 67,43
Variety 10 3,31 66,29
Authority 11 3,23 64,57
Ability utilisation 12 3,20 64,00
Social status 13 3,20 64,00
Working conditions 14 3,00 60,00
Supervision-human relations 15 2,97 59,43
Supervision -technical 16 2,66 53,14
Departmental policies & 17 2,37 47,43
practices
Compensation 18 2,20 44,00
Security 19 2,14 42,86
Advancement 20 2,06 41,14
Overall level: Master's degree 61,29%
130
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results of the research
Table 4.43 indicates that the respondents were satisfied except with advancement,
security, departmental policies and practices, supervision-technical and supervision
human relations.
Table 4.44: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction for the respondents with a doctorate as their highest
academic qualification
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Doctorate (N = 3)
Mean 0/0
Activity 1 4,00 80,00
Authority 2 4,00 8000
Colleagues 3 4,00 80,00
Independence 4 4,00 80,00
Moral values 5 4,00 80,00
Responsibility 6 4,00 80,00
Social service 7 4,00 80,00
Social status 8 4,00 80,00
Achievement 9 3,60 72,00
Working conditions 10 3,40 68,00
Variety 11 2,80 56,00
Creativity 12 2,40 48,00
Recognition 13 2,40 48,00
Supervision-technical 14 2,20 44,00
Ability utilisation 15 2,20 44,00
Departmental policies & 16 2,00 40,00
practices
Compensation 17 2,00 40,00
Security 18 2,00 40,.00
Supervision-human relations 19 1,80 36,00
Advancement 20 1,60 32,00
Overall level: Doctorate 60,40%
131
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results of the research
From Table 4.44 it is clear that the respondents with a doctorate as their highest
academic qualification were either satisfied or very satisfied with some job
satisfaction indicators. However, they were dissatisfied with 50% of the indicators
considered, in particular advancement and supervision-human relations.
Table 4.45: Ranking the indicators according to their contribution to the overall
level of job satisfaction of the respondents with other academic qualifications
Job satisfaction indicators Rank Other (N = 2)
Mean 0/0
Social service 1 3,80 76,00
Moral values 2 3,70 74,00
Achievement 3 3,50 70,00
Recognition 4 3,50 70,00
Colleagues 5 3,40 68,00
Independence 6 3,40 68,00
Working conditions 7 3,40 68,00
Ability utilisation 8 3,20 64,00
Activity 9 3,10 62,00
Responsibility 10 3,10 62,00
Authority 11 3,00 60,00
Supervision-human relations 12 3,00 60,00
Supervision-technical 13 3,00 60,00
Social status 14 2,90 58,00
Variety 15 2,80 56,00
Creativity 16 2,80 56,00
Compensation 17 2,10 42,00
Security 18 2,10 42,00
Departmental policies & 19 1,90 38,00
practices
Advancement 20 1,80 36,00
Overall level: Other academic qualifications 59,50%
132
Chapter 4 Presentation, analysis and interpretation of
results of the research
Table 4.45 indicates an overall dissatisfaction with the job. Although social values
and moral values contributed most to the overall level of satisfaction, respondents
were dissatisfied with advancement, departmental policies and practices, security,
compensation, creativity, variety, social status and supervision technical.
For this biographic group, compensation, departmental policies and practices,
advancement and security were the major sources of dissatisfaction. Otherwise,
respondents were generally satisfied.
4.5 CONCLUSION
The results of this study on the current level of job satisfaction of the academic staff
revealed some strong and weak points. Respondents seem to agree on the job
satisfaction indicators frequently rated by respondents as the most satisfying or
dissatisfying aspects of the job. Job satisfaction indicators frequently rated as the most
satisfying include social service, moral values, independence, colleagues and activity.
Job satisfaction indicators frequently rated as the most dissatisfying include
compensation, advancement, departmental policies and practices, security and
working conditions.
In the next chapter, an attempt will be made to state the findings on the current level
of job satisfaction with a view to recommending certain guidelines towards improving
the current situation in the colleges of education in the Free State.
133
Chapter 1
ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The new constitution of South Africa makes tertiary education a nationalcompetence that all colleges offering higher education programmes, including
colleges of education, have to be incorporated into the higher education sector
(Department of Education, 1998:i). Based on that, the Green Paper on higher
education attempts to expand and transform the system of higher education within the
reality of limited resources. According to this paper, the need to transform higher
education in this country stems from factors of two origins (National Department of
Education, 1996: 10). Firstly, the historical legacy of inequity and inefficiency which
inhibits its ability to meet the moral, social and economic demands of the new South
Africa, and secondly, a context of unprecedented national and global opportunities
and challenges. The transformation of higher education requires reorientation and
innovation of these factors (National Department of Education, 1996: 10).
In preparation of the transformation, the report of the Research Institute for Education
Planning (RIEP) at the University of the Orange Free State (Strauss & Van der Linde,
1998:22) outlines the following recommendations on the colleges of education in the
Free State province:
1. The number of educators trained in the province must be decreased.
2. It is necessary to scale down on the training capacity of the province.
3. Educator to student ratio needs to be increased to at least 1:18.
Chapter 1 Orientation
4. The transformation of colleges of education should go hand in hand with the
transformation of the programme (curriculum) for teacher training.
5. The possibility of incorporating some colleges (in Thaba Nchu and Bloemfontein
areas) into one or more of the universities and/or technikon has to be investigated.
6. The reorganisation of the remaining colleges (in Phuthaditjaba area) into one Free
State College of Education.
There is therefore no doubt that the present situation regarding the colleges of
education in this province calls for a change. Apparently, a lot of money is spent to
produce teachers not needed in the schools.
"That the largest portion of the educational budget is spent on salaries
further necessitates an in-depth look at the number of educators
actually needed in schools in years to come, taking into account the
present urgent need for the training of teachers in specialised areas"
(Strauss & Van der Linde, 1998:20).
While bodies such as RIEP were targeted to investigate the background report,
identifying the implications and outlining implementation strategies that would
facilitate the incorporation process, the academic staff at these colleges have little
clarity as to their fate. This creates feelings of uncertainty and insecurity, considering
that people have needs which they fulfil by virtue of being employed. Consequently
the level of their performance, interest and commitment may drop, as may the
achievement of educational goals. When changing the system, educational leaders
should be concerned about the aspects which can affect the job satisfaction of the
staff.
A teacher training college has to produce good teachers, well equipped to educate the
children of the community it serves. The quality of the product of any organisation,
education in this study, determines the quality of the service offered by the
organisation. The needs of the community which is served by an institution, exert
pressure on the institution and type of student it produces. Student achievement
should therefore be a concern to educators. According to Hage in Marra (1978:6)
educator job satisfaction and student production are legitimate school goals. Educator
job satisfaction is based on the needs fulfilment and professional and personal growth
2
Chapter I Orientation
of the teaching staff. Student production is based on providing for students' needs,
growth and development.
Marra (1978:6) suggests that the two goals are inseparable and interdependent, the
success of the latter depending on the former. Conversely, counter-productive
behaviour of educators can undoubtedly affect the level of student achievement
negatively. The present period of uncertainty at colleges of education requires the
particular attention of educational leaders. Moreover, the quality of teachers produced
by these institutions is a concern of the time.
From the above it is clear that job satisfaction among the academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State has not received significant attention while the
incorporation of these colleges into the higher education system is being investigated
and strategised. Yet, motivation to achieve high performance levels in any job
requires satisfaction with the job (Mullins, 1989:20).
1.2 DELIMIT ATION OF THE FIELD OF STUDY
The scientific field of study of this research is Educational Management, a sub-
discipline of Education comprising those regulative tasks or actions which allow
formative education to take place (Van der Westhuizen, 1991 :43-53). The
management tasks include planning, organising, guiding and control. These are
executed by a person in a position of authority in the various management areas. One
such area is personnel management, which deals with the physical and psychological
needs of the staff members with a view to achieving the goals of the institution.
Satisfaction of staff needs ensures job satisfaction and the well-being of the individual
staff members. Also, it motivates them to have a positive attitude towards learning
and educational activities. Van der Westhuizen (1991:183) regards motivation as a
supportive action (sub-task) of guiding staff to carry out specific tasks in the teaching-
learning process. Although many of the management tasks and areas will receive
attention, the main focus of this study will be on job satisfaction, which is closely
linked to the motivation of staff as a sub-section of the staff management area.
3
Chapter I Orientation
At present, three types of institutions in the Free State province train teachers. These
are the universities: Vista, Uni-Qwa and the University of the Orange Free State; the
Free State Technikon and the colleges of education. This study focuses on the
colleges of education, namely Bonamelo, Tshiya, Lere-la- Tshepe and Sefikeng in
Qwaqwa; Kagisanong and Bloemfontein College in Bloemfontein, Thaba-Nchu
College at Thaba-Nchu and Mphohadi at Kroonstad. This study involves all academic
staff at the colleges. It attempts to analyse the current state of job satisfaction among
the academic staff with the aim of establishing the culture of teaching and learning at
these colleges.
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The era in which we live, brings endless change. As the needs of man change, so do
the education needs. Consequently, man continually changes, arranges and adapts his
social structures and surroundings (Niemann, 1997:24). The school is one such
structure that was designed to meet man's need for education. Educational systems
change to cope with technology, new systems, methods and techniques, economic and
political changes. This stresses the need for true educators; those fully prepared and
equipped with knowledge, skills and values to meet the demands and challenges of
the time.
Since the beginning of democratisation in South Africa in 1994, a range of changes
has taken place in the education system. The incorporation of colleges of education
into the higher education sector is one such change in process. An unanswered
question is: What is the net impact of these changes on the level of job satisfaction of
the staff?
In every organisation professional satisfaction eo-determines the individual's
effectiveness and efficiency. The academic staff at the colleges of education is no
exception. High job satisfaction of teachers is closely connected to their efficacy as
educators (Van der Westhuizen, 1991 :295). Therefore, the organisational climate
4
Chapter I Orientation
should inspire and motivate the staff to perform at the top of their capabilities in order
to achieve educational goals.
In administering the process of education, educators must be concerned with those
factors that may motivate students to learn. These may affect students directly or
indirectly as long as they may produce satisfaction and success. Students have to
participate in the education process of which they are both beneficiaries and products.
This indicates the significance of a satisfied staff member and a motivated student.
The quality of the working life is directly proportional to the ability to overcome
obstacles to effective performance. To clarify the significance of the role job
satisfaction plays in the current situation at colleges of education in the Free State, the
following questions may be put forward:
1. What does job satisfaction entail?
2. What is the current level of job satisfaction among the academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State?
3. What recommendations can be given to improve the current level of job
satisfaction among academic staff at these colleges?
1.4 THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The study is aimed at analysing the level of job satisfaction among the academic staff
at the colleges of education in the Free State with the aim of improving the current
level.
This overall aim gives rise to the following specific objectives:
1. To grve a theoretical background of what job satisfaction entails, establish
indicators of job satisfaction in a formal organisation and determine the
consequences of job satisfaction.
2. To establish the present state of job satisfaction among academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State.
5
Chapter I Orientation
3. To provide recommendations for improving the current level of job satisfaction
among staff to increase performance at these colleges.
1.5 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
To achieve these objectives, the following research methods were used:
1.5.1 Literature study
1.5.1.1 Primary sources
A selection of relevant primary sources was studied. These included educational bills,
acts and original departmental publications.
1.5.1.2 Secondary sources
Relevant secondary sources were studied in order to obtain sufficient knowledge of
job satisfaction indicators in a formal organisation. Most of the information,
especially research findings, were on primary and secondary schools. Very little could
be found on the job satisfaction of staff at tertiary institutions such as colleges of
education. However, colleges of education are formal organisations like schools, only
at a higher level of vertical academic advancement. Therefore, the secondary sources
on schools have been used and have provided sufficient information for the basis of
this study.
1.5.2 Questionnaire
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Weiss, Dawis, England & Lofquist,
1967: 110) was used as the main data-collecting instrument. This questionnaire
consists of 100 questions identifying 20 job satisfaction indicators in clusters of five
questions per indicator. Each indicator refers to a factor that influences an employee's
satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the work environment. It was distributed to the
eight colleges of education in the Free State Province. This involved 385 academic
6
Chapter 1 Orientation
staff members. Of the 385 questionnaires distributed, 182 were recovered and the
responses of 170 could be used.
1.6 OUTLAY OF THE RESEARCH
This study is divided into five chapters:
Chapter 1 highlights the problem and the objectives and gives an overview of the
study.
Chapter 2 focuses on the literature review on job satisfaction, mainly in educational
organisations with reference to teacher motivation, job satisfaction indicators, role
clarity and leadership behaviour.
Chapter 3 focuses on the consequences of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction for an
educational institution like a college of education.
Chapter 4 focuses on the current level of job satisfaction of academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State, based on the information obtained through the
Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire.
Chapter 5 provides recommendations for improving the current level of job
satisfaction of the academic staff at the colleges of education in the Free State and the
culture of teaching and learning to increase performance.
1.7 CONCLUSION
The education system of South Africa is at present undergoing a process of
transformation, from the previous system, which did not meet the needs of most
people, to the present unitary one. For this system to meet the demands of all South
Africans, it should be in the hands of good educators at all levels. The quality of
teachers produced by the colleges of education is directly proportional to the quality
of the academic staff at the colleges. The latter also plays an important role in
7
Chapter I Orientation
determining the culture of teaching and learning at both primary and secondary school
levels; thus, it is of great importance that the staff should be satisfied with their job.
The present situation, its consequences and how it may be improved, is the main
concern of the research.
8
Chapter 5
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE
CURRENT LEVEL OF JOB SATISFACTION IN
COLLEGES OF EDUCATION
5.1 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS
The following findings and conclusions are based on the results of the survey onjob satisfaction as reported in chapter 4.
5.1.1 Findings and conclusions regarding the overall level of job satisfaction of
the target population
5.1.1.1 The majority of the academic staff members at the colleges of education
are generally satisfied with their job
The responses of this survey revealed that the overall level of job satisfaction of
educators at the colleges of education in the Free State is 64,73%, implying that they
are satisfied. However, the overall job satisfaction level cannot be used as a measure
of the satisfaction level of each individual sub-group since some variables of job
satisfaction may satisfy a particular individual or sub-group but not the other (see
2.4.4.1). Also, this does not reveal the level of job satisfaction at each college and
does not provide adequate information about the situation at colleges (cf. Table 4.3).
Chapter 5 Findings, conclusions and recommendations for
improving the level of job satisfaction
From these results, it is clear that the overall job satisfaction is not a useful measure
for comparing sub-groups.
Although the overall level of 64,73% implies that the majority of the respondents are
satisfied, it must be pointed out that a level of below 60% signifies dissatisfaction on
the five-point scale used. Much improvement is therefore required to bring the level
up to above 80%, which is the minimum score for a "very satisfied" level.
5.1.1.2 The job satisfaction indicators frequently rated as the most satisfying
came largely from the intrinsic aspects of the job
The results of ranking the job satisfaction indicators according to their contribution to
the overall satisfaction revealed that the respondents frequently rated certain
indicators as the most satisfying (cf. Table 4.1 to Table 4.45). The respondents feel
they are given a chance to be "somebody" in the community (social service). They are
able to do things that are not against their conscience (moral values). They have the
chance to work alone on the job (independence). They get along with each other
(colleagues). They are able to keep busy all the time (activity). Most of these
indicators come from the intrinsic aspects of the job and what Herzberg refers to as
the motivating factors (cf. 2.3.2.1 (b)).
5.1.1.3 Job satisfaction indicators frequently rated as the most dissatisfying came
largely from the extrinsic aspects of the job
Certain job satisfaction indicators were rated as the most dissatisfying by the
respondents (cf. Table 4.1 to Table 4.45). The respondents are all dissatisfied with
their salary compared with the amount of work they do (compensation); their chances
of advancement in this job; the way departmental policies are put into practice; the
way their job provides for steady employment and their working conditions. Most of
these indicators come from the extrinsic aspects of the job as described by Herzberg's
hygiene factors (cf. 2.3.2.1 (b)).
135
Chapter 5 Findings, conclusions and recommendations for
improving the level of job satisfaction
5.1.2 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction at
individual colleges
5.1.2.1 There are big differences in the level of job satisfaction at the individual
colleges
Although the overall level of job satisfaction is 64,73%, the responses per college
revealed that the level of job satisfaction ranged from 78,43% for the college with the
highest job satisfaction to 49,27% for the college with the lowest level (cf. Table 4.1).
The difference between these two colleges is indicative of the difference in the level
of job satisfaction per college. The various job satisfaction indicators contribute to the
overall level of each of these colleges in a manner unique to that college. For
example, the staff at one college can be very satisfied with working conditions while
another college is dissatisfied with the same job aspect (cf. Table 4.4 and Table 4.5)
5.1.2.2 At one of the eight colleges respondents indicated that they are
dissatisfied with their job
The overall level of job satisfaction for college 6 is 49,27%, indicating that
respondents are dissatisfied with their job. Of the eight colleges, college 6 has the
lowest level of job satisfaction. Respondents at this college were dissatisfied with
most of the 20 job aspects considered with the exception of moral values, social
service and independence. Moreover, the level of job satisfaction was as low as
32,88% for some indicators (working conditions). This level signifies dissatisfied
respondents on the five-point scale. On the other hand, moral values have the highest
job satisfaction level (66,44%) yet on this scale, this value is closer to 60% (neutral)
than 80% (lowest level of very satisfied). The academic staff at this college is
therefore generally dissatisfied with the job (cf. Table 4.9).
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5.1.2.3 The respondents at the majority of the colleges agree on the indicators of
job satisfaction frequently rated as the most satisfying aspects of the job
The results revealed that the respondents at different colleges give more or less the
same indicators as the source of satisfaction in the job (cf. Tables 4.4 to 4.11). The
majority of respondents are mostly satisfied with having the chance to do things for
other people, being able to do things that do not go against their conscience and the
chance to work alone on the job (cf. Table 4.6, 4.9 and 4.10). Some respondents find
the way they work with colleagues, being able to keep busy all the time and having
the chance to try their own methods of doing the job as equally satisfying if not more
satisfying (cf. Table 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8). Most of these indicators are Maslow's higher-
order needs and Herzberg's motivating factors (cf. 2.3.2.1). However, these came in
different orders of importance per college, for example, college 2 ranked moral values
as the most satisfying while college 3 felt that relationships among colleagues are in
that position and college 4 put independence instead (cf. Table 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7).
5.1.2.4 The respondents at the majority of the colleges agree on the indicators of
job satisfaction frequently rated as the least satisfying aspects of the job
The results indicate that respondents at the different colleges agree on the job
satisfaction indicators frequently rated as the most dissatisfying aspects of the job (cf.
Tables 4.4 to 4.11). Although the order varies per college, the least satisfying
indicators are compensation, departmental policies and practices, advancement,
working conditions and job security (cf. Table 4.4 to 4.11). These factors correspond
to a large extent to Herzberg's hygiene factors and Maslow's lower-order needs (cf.
2.3.2.1). The level of job satisfaction with these job aspects tends to be very low at
some colleges irrespective of how satisfied respondents may be with other factors.
5.1.2.5 College 1 is the only college which included extrinsic aspects of the job
among the indicators frequently rated as the most satisfying
College 1 has the highest level of job satisfaction (78,43%) of all the colleges. The
majority of respondents at this college frequently rated supervision-human resource
and working conditions among the most satisfying indicators, a feature unique to this
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college (cf. Table 4.4). Moreover, the results reveal that some job aspects referred to
as the most satisfying at other colleges are ranked low at this college, for example, the
relationship with colleagues is ranked first at some colleges (cf. Table 4.6) while it is
is" for this college (cf. Table 4.4). However, it is also clear that the respondents at
this college are satisfied with all the indicators considered, with the exception of job
security, compensation and advancement in the job (cf. Table 4.4).
Based on the results of this college, one may argue that much as satisfaction with one
job aspect does not necessarily guarantee satisfaction with the job, some job aspects
can have a direct or indirect influence on others. For example, satisfaction with
working conditions and supervision-human relations (unique to this college) can
affect the smoothness with which processes and activities are run (cf. 2.5). Working
conditions at this college could be providing a favourable learning-teaching
environment which other colleges seem to lack, a factor which can determine the
culture of learning significantly. In addition, the supervision-human relations were
indicative of sound and effective leadership and management (cf. 2.5.3).
5.1.3 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction according
to gender
5.1.3.1 Male respondents are more satisfied than their female colleagues
Although the results indicate that both male and female respondents are satisfied with
their job, male respondents are more satisfied (65,53%) than the female respondents,
63,78% (cf. Table 4.12). The difference could be small but indicative of a factor or
factors impacting more on female than male staff members, thus it is worth noting.
5.1.3.2 Both male and female respondents frequently rated the same indicators of
job satisfaction as the most satisfying aspects of the job
The majority of respondents in both sub-groups frequently rated the following
indicators as the most satisfying aspects of the job: social service, independence,
moral values, colleagues, activity and responsibility (cf. Table 4.13 and 4.14).
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However, the ranking for male respondents differs from that of the female
respondents, indicating the difference in the importance attached to each factor by the
individual sub-group. For example, male respondents rank moral values higher than
independence, while female respondents rank independence higher than moral values.
5.1.3.3 Both male and female respondents frequently rated the same indicators of
job satisfaction as the most dissatisfying aspects of the job
The responses indicate that both male and female respondents are dissatisfied with the
same indicators although they ranked them differently (cf. Table 4.13 and 4.14). For
both groups, the most dissatisfying aspects of the job are in agreement with the view
of the target population (cf. Table 4.1). These include compensation, departmental
policies and practices, security, working conditions, advancement and recognition.
5.1.4 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction according
to post level held
5.1.4.1 The post level held by respondents influence their level of job satisfaction
The results reveal that the higher the post held by the respondent, the higher the level
of job satisfaction (see 3.2.2). Rectors holding the highest posts are the most satisfied
(72,20%) with their job, while the lecturers (63,57%) are least satisfied (cf. Table
4.15). When comparing the two groups, one notes that rectors are better paid, have
relatively good working conditions and make fuller use of their abilities. Moreover,
they have more power to change whatever they are not satisfied with from the
management side (cf. 2.5.3 and 3.2.6).
5.1.4.2 Senior staff are more satisfied with their jobs than junior staff members
The senior staff members are the rectors, vice-rectors and heads of departments. The
level of job satisfaction for these sub-groups is higher than that of the target
population. The junior staff members, lecturers, on the other hand, are less satisfied.
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Their level of satisfaction is 1,16% lower than that of the target population and even
much lower than the levels of the senior staff members (cf. Table 4.15).
5.1.4.3 The job satisfaction of lecturers as a group is slightly lower than the
overall level of job satisfaction of the target population
The level of job satisfaction of lecturers is 1,16% lower than the level of the target
population. Although this difference is small, it indicates that special attention is
required to improve the level of satisfaction of lecturers as compared with the senior
staff member sub-groups (cf. Table 4.15).
5.1.4.4 The majority of post level sub-groups agree to a large extent on the
indicators of job satisfaction rated as the most satisfying aspects of the job
The results reveal that the majority of the respondents as per sub-group are mainly
satisfied with the intrinsic aspects of the job. The rectors are mainly satisfied with
having the chance to do things for other people, things that make use of their abilities,
their chance to try their own methods of doing the job, tell other people what to do
and being able to keep busy all the time (cf. Table 4.16). In addition, the heads of
departments are satisfied with having freedom to use their judgement and the feeling
of accomplishment they get from the job (cf. Table 4.18). The lecturers, on the other
hand, are not as happy with making use of their abilities, telling other people what to
do or using their judgement and they do not have a feeling of accomplishment.
Rather, they rank their relationship with colleagues higher than both rectors and heads
of departments (cf. Table 4.19).
The vice-rectors rank their relationship with colleagues even higher than the lecturers
do. Moreover, they rank supervision-human resource higher than the rest of the sub-
groups (cf. Table 4. 17). This comes from extrinsic aspects of the job, a feature unique
to this sub-group, since rectors, heads of departments and lecturers are mainly
satisfied with indicators of intrinsic origin.
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5.1.4.5 The majority of post level sub-groups agree to a large extent on the
indicators of job satisfaction rated as the least satisfying aspects of the job
All the respondents in this group seem to agree that the sources of dissatisfaction are
related to compensation, working conditions, the way departmental policies are put
into practice, their advancement in the job and security of employment provided by
their job (cf. Table 4.15 to 4.18). These indicators come largely from the extrinsic
aspects of the job and include Herzberg's hygiene factors (cf. 2.3.2.1 (b)).
5.1.5 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction according
to age groups
5.1.5.1 The level of job satisfaction is influenced by the age of respondents
The responses reveal that although respondents of all age groups are generally
satisfied with the job, the level of job satisfaction tends to increase with the age of the
respondents (cf. Table 4.20). The respondents older than 60 years form the most
satisfied group, 73,85%, while those between the age of 31 and 40 are the least
satisfied (cf. Table 4.20).
5.1.5.2 The level of job satisfaction of the age group 31 to 40 years is below the
overall level of the target group
Of all the age groups, it is the only one with the level of job satisfaction below the
overall level of the target population (2,95% lower). This difference is both negative
and significant. When compared with the group of respondents older than 60 years,
the group with the highest job satisfaction level, respondents aged 31 to 40, are
12,07% lower. Therefore a great deal of attention has to be given to ways and means
of improving the level of job satisfaction of this group.
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5.1.5.3 The majority of the age sub-groups agree to a large extent on the
indicators of job satisfaction rated as the most satisfying aspects of the job
The results reveal that the respondents agree on the importance of their social service
and moral values as sources of satisfaction across the sub-groups (cf. Table 4.21 to
4.25). However, respondents aged between 30 and 50 years are satisfied with having
the chance to work alone on the job, which respondents over 60 years old rated very
low. The sub-groups 31 to 40 years and 41 to 50 years old are also satisfied with their
relationship with their colleagues, while the respondents aged over 60 years (cf. Table
4.25) rank the relationship with colleagues even higher.
5.1.5.4 The majority of the age sub-groups agree to a large extent on the
indicators of job satisfaction rated as the least satisfying aspects of the job
From the results, it is worth noting that the respondents aged 30 years and younger are
dissatisfied with their job security, compensation and departmental policies and
practices (cf. Table 4.21). In addition to that, respondents aged 31 to 40, 41 to 50
years and 51 to 60 years are unhappy with the chances they have for advancement in
the job. However, respondents aged over 60 years are satisfied with all the indicators
considered but one, departmental policies and the way they are put into practice (cf.
Table 4.25).
5.1.6 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction of groups
according to teaching experience of respondents
5.1.6.1 The level of job satisfaction tends to increase with the number of years of
teaching experience of respondents
The responses reveal an increase in job satisfaction which corresponds to the increase
of teaching experience of respondents (cf. Table 4.26). Deviations from the overall
level of job satisfaction for the target group (64,73%) range from -2,74% for
respondents with 11 to 20 years to 9,27% for those with 31 to 40 years' experience.
Respondents with 10 years or less teaching experience indicated a level of job
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satisfaction higher than that of the sub-group 31 to 40 years. One may argue that this
group includes respondents who hardly have enough experience to complain about
anything (3.2.1.2). For example, they may blame a lack of professional advancement
on the fact that they have just joined the college. When advancement opportunities do
not seem possible with time, then they will naturally start feeling unhappy and
dissatisfied.
5.1.6.2 There is a big difference between the levels of job satisfaction of different
sub-groups according to teaching experience
The level of satisfaction of the sub-group with the lowest job satisfaction (11 to 20
years of teaching experience) is 2,74% lower than that of the target group. Compared
with the sub-group with the highest level of job satisfaction (the sub-group with 31 to
40 years teaching experience), this sub-group is 12,01% lower. Therefore efforts
made to improve the level of job satisfaction for the entire population should include
addressing those factors contributing to the increase of job satisfaction with years of
experience. That is, efforts should first aim at improving satisfaction with each job
aspect at the individual colleges to balance out the existing inter-colleges differences
even before improving the overall level further.
5.1.6.3 The majority of the sub-groups according to teaching experience agree to
a large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction rated as the most
satisfying aspects of the job
The results reveal that the chance respondents have to try their own methods of
teaching together with other intrinsic aspects of the job, is associated with high
satisfaction in all the sub-groups. Of those indicators rated as the main source of
satisfaction, independence and the relationship with colleagues tend to decrease with
increasing years of teaching experience (cf. Tables 4.27 to 4.30).
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5.1.6.4 The majority of the sub-groups according to teaching experience agree to
a large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction rated as the least
satisfying aspects of the job
The responses reveal that across the sub-groups, the respondents seem to agree on the
importance of certain job aspects. These include compensation, their advancement on
the job, departmental policies and the way they are put into practice, their security in
the job and working conditions as the main sources of dissatisfaction (cf. Tables 4.27
to 4.30). Most of these satisfaction indicators come from the extrinsic aspects of the
job as suggested by Herzberg (2.3.2.1 (b)).
5.1.7 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction of groups
according to the professional qualifications of respondents
5.1.7.1 The level of job satisfaction is influenced by the professional qualifications
of the respondents
The level of job satisfaction according to the professional qualifications of
respondents ranges from -4, 36% for the B.Ed. group to 6,74%, for the group with a
doctorate in education (cf. Table 4.31). The range provides significant argument in
favour of this deduction. In between these two fall respondents with a further or
second diploma (1,61%) and M.Ed. (0,79%) as their highest professional
qualification. The sub-group with other professional qualifications cannot be judged
against other sub-groups since it is bound to differ from them by virtue of not having
a teaching qualification. On the other hand, the overall level of job satisfaction of
respondents with a teacher's diploma as their highest professional qualification is
equal to that of the target population (cf. Table 4.31).
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5.1.7.2 The majority of the sub-groups according to professional qualification
agree to a large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction rated as the
most satisfying aspects of the job
The sub-groups according to professional qualifications agree on some indicators of
job satisfaction as the most satisfying job aspects (cf. Table 4.32 to 4.38). Social
service and relationship with colleagues are among these for all the sub-groups except
for respondents with an M.Ed. degree as the highest professional qualification.
Independence and moral values are also frequent although the sub-group with a
doctorate in education ranked independence much lower than any other sub-group.
This sub-group also ranked working conditions and social status higher than the rest
of the sub-groups.
5.1.7.3 The majority of the sub-groups according to professional qualifications
agree to a large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction rated as the
least satisfying aspects of the job
All the sub-groups agree that compensation, advancement, departmental policies and
practices, and job security are the main sources of dissatisfaction (cf. Tables 4.32 to
4.38). With the exception of the sub-group with a doctorate in education as the highest
professional qualification (see 5.1.7.3), all the sub-groups included working
conditions among the least satisfying indicators of job satisfaction. The former sub-
group included ability utilisation instead (cf. Table 4.37).
5.1.8 Findings and conclusions regarding the level of job satisfaction of groups
according to the academic qualifications of respondents
5.1.8.1 The level of job satisfaction varies according to academic qualifications of
respondents
The level of job satisfaction for the sub-groups according to the highest academic
qualification varies in no particular order. It ranges from 59,50% to 65,68% (cf. Table
4.39). The level of job satisfaction for the sub-group with other academic
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qualifications is 5,23% lower than the level for the target population and it constitutes
the lowest. The level of job satisfaction of the sub-group with a bachelor's degree as
the highest academic qualification is the highest, 65,68%. According to the means,
there is a big difference between the level of satisfaction with the job aspects of
respondents with other highest academic qualifications than education.
5.1.8.2 The level of job satisfaction of four of the six sub-groups according to
highest academic qualification is lower than the overall level of the target
group
The level of job satisfaction for most of the sub-groups is lower than the level for the
target population (cf. Table 4.39). The sub-group with other academic qualifications is
5,23% lower than the level of the target population and the lowest of all the sub-
groups. The sub-group with a bachelor's degree as the highest academic qualification
is 0,95% while that with an honours degree is 0,20% above the level of the target
group. On the other hand, respondents with a bachelor's degree are the sub-group
with the highest job satisfaction level.
5.1.8.3 The majority of the sub-groups according to the highest academic
qualification agree to a large extent on some indicators of job satisfaction
rated as the most satisfying aspects of the job
Respondents of these groups agree that social service, moral values, independence
and colleagues are the most satisfying indicators of job satisfaction, although the sub-
groups also differ. Examples of these are the following: the sub-groups with their
highest academic qualification as an honours and a master's degree ranked colleagues
lower than the rest of the sub-groups. Staff members with matric and an honours
degree as the highest academic qualification ranked ability utilisation as a job
satisfaction indicator. Those with the highest academic qualification a bachelor's and
master's degree were also satisfied with activity. The sub-group with a doctorate as
the highest academic qualification ranked activity first followed by authority. The
sub-group with other academic qualification was satisfied with recognition, which the
sub-group with a master's degree ranked first (cf. Tables 4.40 to 4.45).
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5.1.8.4 The majority of the sub-groups according to the highest academic
qualification agree to a large extent on the indicators of job satisfaction
rated as the least satisfying aspects of the job
Although the order differs, most respondents in all the sub-groups according to the
highest academic qualification seem to agree on the least satisfying aspects of the job.
These include compensation, advancement in the job, working conditions, security
with the job and departmental policies and the way they are put into practice (cf.
Table 4.40 to 4.45). The respondents with a doctorate as their highest academic
qualification ranked working conditions higher than the other sub-groups. On the
other hand, they were least satisfied with supervision-human resource (cf. Table
4.44).
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE CURRENT LEVEL OF
JOB SATISFACTION
5.2.1 Introduction
To improve the current level of job satisfaction, the needs of the individual sub-
groups of academic staff should be identified and fulfilled. Based on the findings of
this survey, the following were identified as the main sources of dissatisfaction across
the sub-groups:
o Compensation;
o Departmental policies and practices;
o Advancement;
o Working conditions;
o Job security.
Much as these job satisfaction indicators were identified as the least satisfying aspects
of the job, respondents from the different sub-groups rated them differently.
Moreover, their contribution towards the overall level of job satisfaction per college
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varies. For example, compensation contributed 52,42% at college 1 (cf. Table 4.4)
while it contributed 39,66% at college 4 (cf. Table 4.7).
Furthermore, these job satisfaction indicators signify the needs of the respondents and
the extent to which these needs are not met by the individual colleges. Findings of this
nature should be communicated to the colleges to make college leaders as well as the
Department of Education aware of the expectations of the academic staff members.
Each institution can then attempt fulfilling these expectations. Moreover, the
Department of Education should also attempt to assist college management in
directing the efforts towards the fulfilment of these needs. The behaviour of the
academic staff members should be directed and strengthened constructively towards
improving the culture of learning and teaching at the colleges of education (cf. 2.2.1).
All 20 job satisfaction indicators of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire used in
this survey were judged to be at least moderately important for the academic staff
members' overall feeling of satisfaction (cf. 2.4). Therefore, the least satisfying job
satisfaction indicators should be improved to at least the level of the most satisfying
or the overall level of job satisfaction for the target population. In this regard, the
following specific recommendations can be made:
5.2.2 Recommendations regarding compensation of educators at the colleges of
education
Researchers seem to agree that workers tend to behave constructively when this
behaviour guarantees a valuable reward (cf. 3.2.9). Receiving a valued reward in turn
becomes a motivator and a source of satisfaction (cf. 2.3.1 and 2.4). On the other
hand, dissatisfaction is an indication that the academic staff members perceive their
compensation as lower than those offered by other professional organisations of the
same type as the college (cf. 2.4). The following recommendations to improve the
compensation of educators at the colleges of education can therefore be made:
o The reward system in place at the colleges should be competitive with other
professional sectors. This implies that the Department of Education should
evaluate and adjust the current reward system (cf. 2.3.3 and 2.4).
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D The adjustments to the current reward system should attempt to strike a balance
between reward and performance. Hardworking educators should be identified
and rewarded to recognise their good performance (cf. 2.3.3). In this regard also
refer to recommendations under 5.2.4.
D The hardworking educators should be given preference in any departmental
empowerment strategies and opportunities for professional advancement such as
in awarding study bursaries.
D The review of the reward system must take into account the financial and fiscal
realities of the country (cf. 2.5.4). Therefore non-monetary rewards should be
attended to. These may include:
Prompt positive feedback as a means of recognising the individual staff
member's contribution.
Effective communication and participation especially In formulating
didactic and educational policies (cf. 5.2.3).
Providing adequate information regarding changes that may affect the staff
Providing support when it is needed.
Creating an atmosphere that the staff would enjoy working in.
D There should be frequent meetings at which all stakeholders, especially academic
staff representations and their unions, can present their needs and concerns
regarding their dissatisfaction with any job aspect. Even if money hinders changes
such as improving the remuneration package, the staff should feel respected by the
Department of Education through its efforts to negotiate within the means
possible.
5.2.3 Recommendations regarding departmental policies and practices that
affect educators at the colleges of education (cf. 2.3.2)
D The staff should be involved in the formulation of the departmental policies that
affect them as well as the way these are put into practice (cf. 2.3.2.1).
Participation in decision-making ensures that:
Individual staff members feel important enough to be involved by the
department in bringing about changes that affect them.
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They accept ownership and feel responsible for the departmental policies
and are therefore more likely to put them into practice and protect them.
Their self-respect will be boosted by the fact that they feel responsible for
these policies.
They will be involved and thus recognised for their contribution.
This can give an element of achievement and high status to those who
contribute.
Their abilities will be utilised and they will have the opportunity to be
creative in putting these policies into practice.
They perceive the changes brought about by the proposed policies as
having the potential to improve their work.
o Management at all levels should provide adequate information regarding the
educational policies and practices in good time and ensure that these are
effectively communicated through follow-up procedures (cf. 2.5.3.2). These
procedures may include using shorter communication channels and involving
fewer individuals in evaluating the success of communication strategies
employed.
5.2.4 Recommendations regarding advancement of educators at the colleges of
education (cf. 2.3.2)
o The staff should have adequate information on every opportunity there is in the
Department of Education for advancement such as the availability of financial
support and the criteria used for selection (2.3.2.1).
o The Department of Education must be fully responsible for the career pathing of
all educators, especially the high performers (cf. 3.2.9).
o Advancement of educators must be based on performance as established by an
objective appraisal system (cf. 2.3.3).
o The existing financial recognition (the bonus given by the department on
recognition of professional advancement) should go hand in hand with duties and
responsibilities that will recognise the advancement, such as delegating an
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educator for a leadership role after completing a course in leadership. In this way
he/she is more likely to feel somebody different (cf. 2.3.2).
o There must be staff evaluation by the Department to determine and identify areas
which need to be developed to meet the demands and challenges of the ever-
changing environment in which we live (cf. 2.3.2.1).
o The Department of Education should provide a continuous and active professional
support to the staff to ensure their advancement in the job in terms of technology,
new methods and procedures and discoveries of the day (cf. 2.3.2.1 (bj), This can
be done through in-service training and other development opportunities for the
staff. These development opportunities should address technical skills such as
didactics skills, and human (life) skills such as communication skills, conflict
resolution skills, time management skills, stress management skills and skills for
managing change.
5.2.5 Recommendations regarding conditions under which educators work at
the colleges of education (cf. 2.5)
o Educational leaders should be empowered with adequate skills to enable them to
motivate and support their staff members, to create an environment of which
every member feels part and enjoys working, to communicate information
effectively to all staff members and control and monitor educational activities and
staff performance (cf. 2.5.3).
o The Department of Education should hold meetings at the individual colleges to
identify the specific source of dissatisfaction regarding working conditions to be
given priority since some may be behavioural, for example leadership style; these
are non-monetary and can be changed quickly (cf. 2.5).
o Frequent and regular meetings aimed at controlling and monitoring the
organisational climate (cf. 2.5.3.1) must be held with staff representatives to try
and maintain a balance in the general work environment of the institutions.
o Other working conditions that must be improved may include (cf.2.5A):
Improving buildings and furniture.
Improving water, lights and telephone facilities.
Supplying adequate study materials.
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Reducing the educator:student ratio in classes where classses are too big to
manage.
5.2.6 Recommendations regarding job security of educators at the colleges of
education (cf. 2.3.2.1)
o The Department of Education must ensure that the work of each academic staff
member provides for steady employment by communicating adequately and
effectively to them about their possible fate in relation to changes in the
Department (cf. 2.5.3.2).
o Processes of change must not be dragged out. This leads to uncertainty, frustration
and a feeling of insecurity (cf. 1.1). For example, the processes of rationalisation
and transformation of the colleges of education to either higher or further
education in the Free State are currently the main source of insecurity among
employees at the colleges.
o Details of changes in process must be communicated to employees, especially
those who will be affected by such changes either directly or indirectly. For
example, the staff at the colleges of education is aware that the transformation
process will result in retrenchment of some while others will have to relocate or
retire early (cf. 1.1). But they are not clear about the criteria which will be used. It
is therefore strongly recommended that the department should clarify the fate of
each of these individuals (cf. 2.5.2).
o Further attention must be given to sources of insecurity in educators since this can
affect motivation negatively and therefore reduce educator performance (cf.
2.3.2.1). Moreover insecurity may force educators to consider alternative jobs (cf.
3.2.1).
5.2.7 The current level of job satisfaction at the colleges of education should be
further investigated
This study should serve as an initial report to develop our understanding that the
academic staff at the colleges of education are experiencing job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction from different aspects of the job. Furthermore, the differences observed
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between the sub-groups are indicative of the complexity of job satisfaction and the
individuality among lecturers, warning against the identical treatment which these
educators or any workforce normally receive from their leaders. It is therefore
recommended that the level of job satisfaction at the colleges should further be
investigated to better identify the primary issues associated with the satisfaction and
dissatisfaction of staff as well as isolating their causes and effects on the education
process. Further investigation may include:
Employee absenteeism and turnover: Improving job satisfaction, especially job
security, to reduce employee absenteeism and turnover (cf. 2.4.2, 3.2.1 and Table
4.26).
Career commitment: Addressing growing work related frustrations that educators
experience to improve their career commitment (cf. 3.2.2).
Unionisation: Providing opportunities for educators to have an influence on their
working conditions, changes that affect them and their expectations from the job, to
prevent them from initiating interest in unions based on dissatisfaction mainly (cf.
3.2.3).
Counter-productive behaviour: Involving educators in decision-making to instill in
them a feeling of ownership, acceptance and respect with the aim of reducing or
preventing counter-productive behaviour (cf. 3.2.4).
Mental and physical well-being: Improving job satisfaction to ensure the personal
well-being of educators (cf. 3.2.5).
Burnout: Reduce pressures that result in the burnout of educators (cf. 3.2.6).
Occupational level: Provide opportunities for the advancement of the individual
educator so that he/she can advance to the next occupational level (cf. 3.2.7 and Table
4.l5).
Life satisfaction: Improve satisfaction with the job to prevent educators from
deriving satisfaction from other life aspects such as alcohol and drugs (cf. 3.2.8).
Productivity: Supporting hardworking educators to ensure good performance,
productivity and student achievement (cf. 3.2.9 and 3.2.10).
153
Chapter 5 Findings, conclusions and recommendations for
improving the level of job satisfaction
5.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The level of job satisfaction of the academic staff at the colleges of education in the
Free State province is influenced by various aspects of their job. Although this study
does not claim to have identified all aspects of job satisfaction at these colleges, the
results reveal that the level of job satisfaction varies per college and biographic
groups considered, and that the staff is satisfied with some job aspects but dissatisfied
with others. Moreover, these groups ranked and rated the indicators differently
although they agreed to some extent on the most and least satisfying aspects of the
job. It is also apparent that there are job aspects significantly affecting staff
satisfaction at these colleges. These findings largely correspond to Herzberg's theory
of motivation.
From the survey, it is apparent that efforts to improve compensation, departmental
policies and practices, staff advancement, working conditions, job security and
provision of extra-organisational involvement for the academic staff at the colleges
~ may deserve more time and attention.
154
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,.---
't
Appendix A
rf
.__
FREE STATE PROVINCIAL GOVERNMENT
PROVINSIALE REGERING VAN DIE VRYSTAAT UNIVERSITY OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE
MMUSO WA POROFENSI YA FOREISETATA --
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
CR swart Building, 55 Elizabeth Street, Private Bag X20565, BLOEMFONTEIN, 9300 SKOOL VIR OPVOEDKUNDE VAN DIE
DEPARTEMENT VAN ONDERWYS SCHOOL OF EDUCATION OF THE
CR Swart Building, Elizabethstraat 55, Privaalsak X20565, BLOEMFONTEIN, 9300
LEFAPHA LA THUTO
Moaho wa CR Swart, 55 Elizabeth Street, Privale Bag X20565, BLOEMFONTEIN, 9300 FAKULTElT GEESTESWETENSKAPPE
•
FACULTY OF THE HUMANITIES
EnquiriesINavrae/Botsa ho: MrW.B. van RooyenlTM
Rel.Nerw.lTshupo 0.1/11/3/3 BI 339 BLOEMFONTEIN 9300 REPUBLIEK VAN SUID·AFRIKAlREPUBLlC OF SOUTH AFRICA
Fax: (051) 407 4032 W (051) 4012293 Faks/Fax: (05 I) 4480363
Tel: (051)405 5504
Navrae/Enquiries: Department Comparative Education and Education Management
29 May 1998
Prof. R.R. Brazelle 1 June 1998
School of Education
Faculty of the Humanities TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
Universny of the Orange Free State
P.O. Box 339 RESEARCH PROJECT: THE CURRENT LEVEL OF JOB SATISFACTION OF
BLOEMFONTEIN TEACHERS IN THE FREE STATE
9300
Dear Prof. Brazelle 1. Your Department granted permission to our university to undertake the above
research project. Please refer to the attached copy of the letter from the Free
REQUEST TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN THE FREE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDVCA nON State Education Department.
I. Your request dated 28 May 1998 refers. 2. The objective of the project is to establish the current level of job satisfaction
2. Research title applied for: The job satisfaction of teachers jn the Free State. Eastern Cape and of teachers in our province. The results of the survey may assist the
Western Cape. Department to take remedial actions if and where required.
0\
00
3. Pennission is granted to the following students under your supervision to conduct research in the Free 3. Your school is one of those selected at random to participate in the project.
State Department of Education. Mr N.S. Nkonka. Mr C.P. van der Vyver, Mrs G.M. Bohloko. The questionnaire should be completed by all teachers, including principals,
deputy principals and heads of department. You are therefore kindly requested
4. The following conditions are valid:
4.1 The names of teachers must be provided by the principals. to assist our researchers by completing both sections of the attached
4.2 Teachers participate voluntarily in the project. questionnaire.
4.3 The names of the schools and teachers involved remain confidential in all respects.
4.4 Completion of questionnaires must take place outside normal tuition time of the school. 4. The responses to the questions will be used for research purposes only. No
4.5 This letter must be shown to all participating persons individual or school will be identified and all information provided will be kept
4.6 A report on this study must be donated to the Free State Department of Education after strictly confidential.
completion of the project where it will be accessed in the Education Library, Bloemfontein
4.7 You must address a lener to the Head: Education. for attention
W.B. van Rooyen 5. We regret that the questionnaire may not be in your home language. We had
Room 1211 to use the original English version to ensure validity and reliability of the
C.R. Swart Building responses.
BLOEMFONTEIN
9301 6. Thank you for your appreciated co-operation and assistance.
accepting the conditions as laid down.
5. We wish you every successwith your research.
Yours sincerely ~.'1..'.1.. .~
Prof R R Brazelle
PROJECT SUPERVISOR
Ngolla ho: Hlooho ya lefapha la Thuto . octsa nomoro ya Ishupo
Rig korre,pondensie aan: Die Hoof: Departement van Onderwys en meld verwysingsnommer
Address correspondence to: The Head: Department of Education and quote reference number
IQUESTIONNAIRE ~
SECTION A
Answer the following questions by circling the number corresponding to the appropriate answer
1. Your gender
1.1 Male 1
1.2 Female 2
2. Your current post level
2.1 Rector 1
2.2 Vice-rector 2
2.3 Head of Department 3
2.4 Lecturer 4
3. Your present age 1
3.1 30 years or younger 2
3.2 31 to 40 years 3
3.3 41 to 50 years 4
3.4 51 to 60 years 5
3.5 Older than 60 years 6
4. Your total teaching experience in years
4.1 10 years or less 1
4.2 11 to 20 years 2
4.3 21 to 30 years 3
4.4 31 to 40 years 4
4.5 More than 40 years 5
5. Your highest professional qualification
5.1 Teachers Diploma (e.g. PTD; STD) 1
5.2 Further or second Diploma (e.g. FDE) 2
5.3 Integrated Degree (e.g. BA(Ed.); 3
B.Com(Ed.);B.Sc.(Ed.))
5.4 B.Ed. Degree 4
5.5 M.Ed. Degree 5
5.6 Doctorate in Education 6
5.7 Other (Specify) 7
6. Your highest academic qualification
6.1 Matric 1
6.2 Bachelors Degree (e.g. BA; B.Com.; B.Sc.) 2
6.3 Honours Degree 3
6.4 Masters Degree 4
6.5 Doctorate 5
6.6 Other (specify) 6
169
SECTIONB
I MINNESOTA SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE
The purpose of this questionnaire is to give you a chance to tell how you feel about your
present job, what things you are satisfied with and what things you are not satisfied with.
On this basis of your answers and those of people like you, we hope to get a better
understanding of things people like and dislike about their jobs.
On the following pages you will find statements about your present job.
• Read each statement carefully
• Decide how satisfied you feel about the aspect of your job described by the statement.
Keeping the statement is mind:
if you feel that your job gives you more than you expected, mark the box under
"Very Sat." (Very satisfied) with an X
if you feel that your job gives you what you expected, mark the box under "Sat."
(Satisfied) with an X
if you cannot make up your mind whether or not the job gives you what you
expected, mark the box under "N" (Nether Satisfied nor Dissatisfied) with an X
if you feel that your job gives you less than you expected, mark the box under
"Dissat." (Dissatisfied) with an X
if you feel that your job gives you much less than you expected, mark the box
under "very Dissat." (Very Dissatisfied) with an X.
• Remember: Keep the statement in mind when deciding how satisfied you feel about
that aspect of your job.
• Do this for all statements. Please answer every item.
Be frank and honest. Give a true picture of your feelings about your present job.
170
Ask yourself: How satisfied am I with this aspect of my job?
Very Sat, means I am very satisfied with this aspect of my job.
Sat, means I am satisfied with this aspect of my job.
N means I can't decide whether I am satisfied or not with this aspect of my job.
Oissat, Means I am dissatisfied with this aspect of my job.
Very Oissat, Means I am very dissatisfied with this aspect of my job.
Very Dissal N Sal Very
On my present job, this is how I feel about ...... Dissal Sal
1. The chance to be of service to others.
2. The chance to try out some of my own ideas.
3. Being able to do the job without feeling it is morally wrong.
4. The chance to work by myself.
5. The variety in my work.
6. The chance to have other people look to me for direction.
7. The chance to do the kind of work that I do best.
8. The social position in the community that goes with the job.
9. The policies and practices towards employees of this
department.
10. The way my_sUQervisor and I understand each other.
11. My job security.
12. The amount of pay for the work I do.
13. The working conditions (heating, lighting, ventilation, etc.) on
this job.
14. The opportunities for advancements on this job.
15. The technical "know-how" of my supervisor.
16. The spirit of cooperation among my colleaques.
17. The chance to be responsible for planning my work.
18. The way I am noticed when I do a good job.
19. Beinq able to see the results of the work I do.
20. The chance to be active much of the time.
21. The chance to be of service to people.
22. The chance to do new original things on my own.
23. Being able to do things that don't go against my religious
beliefs.
24. The chance to work alone on the job.
25. The chance to do different things from time to time.
26. The chance to tell other people how to do things.
27. The chance to do work that is well suited to my abilities.
28. The chance to be "somebody" in the community.
29. Departmental policies and the way in which they are
administered.
30. The way my boss handles his/her staff.
31. The way my job provides for a secure future.
32. The chance to make as much money as my friends.
33. The physical surroundinqs where I work.
34. The chance of getting ahead on this job.
171
Ask yourself: How satisfied am I with this aspect of my job?
Very Sat, means I am very satisfied with this aspect of my job.
Sat, means I am satisfied with this aspect of my job.
N means I can't decide whether I am satisfied or not with this aspect of my job.
Dissat, Means I am dissatisfied with this aspect of my job.
Very Dissat, Means I am very dissatisfied with this aspect of my job.
Very Dissat N Sat Very
On my present job, this is how I feel about ...... Dissat Sat
35. The competence of my supervisor in making_decisions.
36. The chance to develop close friendship with I1lY_colleagues.
37. The chance to make decisions on my own.
38. The way I set full credit for the work I do.
39. Beinq able to take pride in a lob well done.
40. Being able to do something much of the time.
41. The chance to help people.
42. The chance to try something different.
43. Beinq able to do things that don't go against my conscience.
44. The chance to be alone on the job.
45. The routine in my work.
46. The chance to supervise other people.
47. The chance to make use of my best abilities.
48. The chance to "rub elbows" with important people.
49. The way employees are informed about departmental
policies.
50. The way my boss backs up his/her staff (with the
department).
51. The way my job provides for steady employment.
52. How my pay compares with that for similar jobs in other
companies.
53. The pleasantness of the working conditions.
54. The way promotions are given out on this job.
55. The way my boss delegates work to others.
56. The friendliness of I1lY_colleagues.
57. The chance to be responsible for the work of others.
58. The recoqnition I qet for the work I do.
59. Beinq able to do somethlnq worthwhile.
60. Beinq able to stay busy.
61. The chance to do things for other people.
62. The chance to develop new and better ways to do the job.
63. The chance to do things that don't harm other j>_eQQie.
64. The chance to work independently of others.
65. The chance to do something different every day.
66. The chance to tell people what to do.
67. The chance to do something that makes use of m_ya_bilities.
68. The chance to be important in the eyes of others.
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Ask yourself: How satisfied am [ with this aspect of my job?
Very Sat, means I am very satisfied with this aspect of my job.
Sat, means [ am satisfied with this aspect of my job.
N means [ can't decide whether [ am satisfied or not with this aspect of my job.
Dissat, Means [ am dissatisfied with this aspect of my job.
Very Dissat, Means [ am very dissatisfied with this aspect of my job.
Very Dissat N Sat Very
On my present job, this is how I feel about ...... Dissat Sat
69. The way_the departmental policies are put into practice.
70. The way my boss takes care of the complaints of his/her
staff.
71. How steady my job is.
72. My pay and the amount of work I do.
73. The physical working conditions of my job.
74. The chance for advancement on this job.
75. The way my boss provides help on hard problems.
76. The way my colleagues are easy to make friends with.
77. The freedom to use my own iudqernent,
78. The way they usually tell me when I do my job well.
79. The chance to do my best at all times.
80. The chance to be "on the go" all the time.
81. The chance to be of some small service to other people.
82. The chance to try my own methods of doing the job.
83. The chance to do the job without feeling I am cheating
anyone.
84. The chance to work away from others.
85. The chance to do many different things on the job.
86. The chance to tell others what to do.
87. The chance to make use of my abilities and skills.
88. The chance to have a definite place in the community.
89. The way the department treats its employees.
90. The personal relationship between my boss and his/her
staffs.
91. The way layoffs and transfers are avoided in my job.
92. How my pay compares with that of other workers.
93. The workina conditions.
94. My chances for advancements.
95. The way my boss trains his/her staff.
96. The way my colleaques eet along with each other.
97. The responsibility of my job.
98. The praise I qet for doinq a qood job.
99. The feeling of accomplishment I get from the job.
100 Being able to keep busy all the time.
Thank you for your assistance! ~
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Summary
Since its democratisation in 1994, South Africa continues to transform to address itshistoric inequalities and meet national and global opportunities and challenges. The
transformation process includes the education system.
Educator job satisfaction and student training are legitimate school goals. Educator job
satisfaction is based on the need fulfilment and professional and personal growth of the
academic staff. Student training, on the other hand, is based on providing for students'
needs, growth and development. These goals require particular attention of the
educational leaders in order to motivate both educators and students to achieve high
performance levels. However, the motivation of educators requires their satisfaction with
the job. This study focuses on the level of job satisfaction of the academic staff at the
colleges of education in the Free State.
The concept of job satisfaction involves both the people doing the job and the job itself.
Generally job satisfaction is associated with personal feelings about job aspects and the
affective response to facets of the work situation. These are likely to result from
motivation which is in turn determined by a perceived difference between what is
expected as a fair and reasonable return, and what is experienced in relation to
alternatives in a given situation. Job satisfaction and motivation are interrelated concepts.
Behavioural scientists approach job satisfaction through motivation theories. These
theories focus on human needs and how they can be satisfied at the workplace. Working
then brings about satisfaction if it helps fulfil these needs.
The discrepancy, equity and expectancy approaches have been considered. The
discrepancy theories identify workers' needs that are likely to influence their satisfaction
with the job. Workers are then motivated to work depending on the extent to which the
"
job allows the fulfilment of the individual worker's needs. Equity theories focus on how
satisfaction is determined by one's perception about the relation between work input and
output. The expectancy theories focus on job outcomes, taking into account individual
differences to accommodate individual preferences. All these theories agree that a job
aspect can be either a satisfier or a dissatisfier, depending on how it is perceived by the
individual worker.
For this study the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire was used as an instrument for
gathering information. Synthesising motivational theories and job satisfaction indicates
that factors of these theories correlate with the indicators of job satisfaction of this
questionnaire. Therefore, the questionnaire can be used to predict satisfaction or
dissatisfaction in the workplace such as the colleges of education. The implications of the
motivational theories require the attention of the educational leaders. Human needs have
to be identified in each work situation, as well as how they can best be satisfied. Other
factors that influence job satisfaction include locus of control, role tensions and
leadership style. An understanding of these factors is necessary to reduce conflicts,
understand attitudes of workers towards work and provide favourable working
conditions. Certain indicators of job satisfaction in the teaching profession have to be
considered to address the current situation at the colleges of education.
Chapter 3 deals with the consequences of job satisfaction and determines the impact of
each on the level of job satisfaction. Although some direct relationships are still not very
clear, research done provides evidence of some kind of relation. It is therefore necessary
to bring these work variables as a means of addressing satisfaction of workers to the
attention of educational leaders.
In chapter 4 the results of the empirical research regarding the overall level of job
satisfaction in the target population, per college and per biographic group, are reported.
The satisfaction indicators were ranked according to their contribution towards the
overall levels. The levels and ranking of the indicators vary but there was agreement to
some extent on the most and least satisfying aspects of the job. Recommendations for
improving the least satisfying job aspects among the academic staff at the colleges of
education in the Free State are provided.
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Opsomming
Sedert die demokratisering van Suid-Afrika in 1994, is daar voortgegaan mettransformasie om die historiese ongelykhede aan te pak en nasionale en globale
geleenthede en uitdagings te baat te neem. Die transformasieproses sluit ook die
onderwysstelsel in.
Die werksbevrediging van opvoeders en die onderrig van studente is legitieme doelwitte
van die kollege. Opvoederwerksbevrediging is gebaseer op die vervulling van behoeftes
sowel as die professionele en persoonlike groei van die akademiese personeel. Studente-
onderrig, aan die ander kant, is gebaseer op die voorsiening vir studente se behoeftes,
groei en ontwikkeling. Hierdie doelwitte verg spesiale aandag van onderwysleiers ten
einde beide opvoeders en studente tot hoë vlakke van prestasie te motiveer. Die
motivering van opvoeders vereis egter dat hulle bevrediging uit hulle werk put. Hierdie
studie handeloor die vlak van werksbevrediging by die akademiese personeel van
onderwyskolleges in die Vrystaat.
Die begrip werksbevrediging sluit beide die persoon wat die werk doen en die werk self
in. Werksbevrediging word gewoonlik geassosieer met persoonlike gevoelens omtrent
aspekte van die werk en die affektiewe respons op fasette van die werksituasie. Dit is 'n
waarskynlike resultaat van motivering, wat op sy beurt bepaal word deur die waargenome
verskil tussen wat verwag word as 'n billike en redelike voordeel en wat ervaar word in
verband met alternatiewe in 'n gegewe situasie. Werksbevrediging en motivering is
verweefde konsepte. Gedragswetenskaplikes benader werksbevrediging by wyse van
motiveringsteorieë. Hierdie teorieë fokus op menslike behoeftes en hoe dit by die werk
bevredig kan word. Werk bring dan tevredenheid mee as dit help om hierdie behoeftes te
vervul.
Die diskrepansie-, gelykheid- en verwagtingsteorie IS In die studie ondersoek. Die
176
diskrepansieteorieë identifiseer die behoeftes van werkers wat waarskynlik hulle
tevredenheid met die werk sal beïnvloed. Die werkers is dan gemotiveer om te werk
afhangend van die mate waarin die werk die behoeftes van die individuele werker kan
vervul. Die gelykheidsteorieë fokus op die wyse waarop werksbevrediging bepaal word
deur die werker se persepsie van die verband tussen werksinset en -uitset. Die
verwagtingsteorie fokus op die resultate van die werk, en neem die individuele verskille
in ag om individuele voorkeure te akkommodeer. AI hierdie teorieë stem saam dat 'n
werksaspek óf tot werksbevrediging kan lei, óf nie, afhangend van hoe dit deur die
individuele werker beleef word.
In hierdie studie is die Minnesota Werksbevredigingsvraelys gebruik as instrument om
inligting in te samel. 'n Sintese van motiveringsteorieë en werksbevrediging toon aan dat
die faktore van hierdie teorieë korreleer met die indikators van werksbevrediging in dié
vraelys.
Die vraelys kan derhalwe gebruik word om tevredenheid of ontevredenheid met die werk
te voorspel, soos by 'n onderwyskollege. Die implikasies van die motiveringsteorieë verg
die aandag van onderwysleiers. Menslike behoeftes moet in elke werksituasie
geïdentifiseer word, sowel as die wyse waarop hulle ten beste vervul kan word. Ander
faktore wat werksbevrediging beïnvloed, sluit in lokus van kontrole, rolspanning en
leierskapstyl. Hierdie faktore moet verstaan word ten einde konflik te verminder, die
houding van werkers tot hulle werk te verstaan en gunstige werkstoestande te skep.
Bepaalde indikators van werksbevrediging wat in die onderwys professie geïdentifiseer
is, verdien aandag ten einde die huidige situasie by onderwyskolleges te verbeter.
Hoofstuk 3 handeloor die gevolge van werksbevrediging en bepaal die impak van elk op
die vlak van werksbevrediging. Hoewel sekere direkte verbande nog nie duidelik is nie,
dui die navorsing wat gedoen is, op 'n verband van die een of ander aard. Dit is derhalwe
nodig om hierdie werksveranderlikes onder die aandag van onderwysleiers te bring as 'n
middelom die werksbevrediging onder werkers te verhoog.
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In hoofstuk 4 word die resultate van die empiriese navorsing aangaande die oorhoofse
vlak van werksbevrediging onder die teikenpopulasie, per kollege en per biografiese
groep, weergegee. Die indikators van werksbevrediging is gerangskik volgens hulle
bydrae tot die oorhoofse vlakke. Die vlakke en rangorde van die indikators wissel, maar
tot In sekere mate is daar ooreenstemming oor die werksaspekte wat die meeste en die
minste bevrediging bied. Aanbevelings word gemaak met die oog op die verbetering van
die aspekte met die laagste werksbevrediging onder die akademiese personeel van
onderwyskolleges in die Vrystaat.
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Key words
1. Job satisfaction
. 2. Job satisfaction indicators
3. Approaches to job satisfaction
4. Consequences of job satisfaction
5. Theories of moti vation
6. Motivation and job satisfaction
7. Free State education
8. Colleges of education
9. Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire
10. Implications of job satisfaction
Il. Improving the level of job satisfaction
179