i 
 

Exploring food insecurity, food waste, and dietary 
diversity among rural and urban households of 

Lesotho 
 

Maletsie Molapo 
 
 

Dissertation submitted in accordance with the requirements for 
the degree 

 
 

Master of Science in Consumer Science 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences 
 

University of the Free State 
Bloemfontein 

 
Supervisor: Dr Natasha Cronjé 

Co-Supervisor: Prof. Maryna de Wit 
 

 
July 2023



i 
 

DECLARATION 
 

I declare that this thesis, titled Exploring food insecurity, food waste, and dietary 
diversity among rural and urban households of Lesotho, hereby submitted for the 

qualification of Master of Science in Consumer Science at the University of the Free State, 

is my independent work and that I have not previously submitted the same work for a 

qualification at/in another university/faculty.  

I hereby cede copyright to the University of the Free State.      

 

Maletsie Molapo                31/07/2023  

Name        Date 

 



 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
I want to extend my gratitude to my God, who has granted me this opportunity of furthering 

my studies and giving me the strength, health, and patience to complete it. I especially 

want to thank a special woman, my study supervisor, Dr Natasha Cronjé, who walked 

with me on this journey; showing immeasurable patience with all my imperfections, being 

a good listener, always cheering me on, encouraging me, and giving words of affirmation 

to not give up, as well as using her expertise to solve problems. May the good Lord bless 

you and capacitate you to help many others who will follow suit. I would also love to extend 

my gratitude towards my co-supervisor, Prof. Maryna de Wit, for her support, patience, 

and kindness in contributing her knowledge to fine-tune my work in order for it to be 

considered worthwhile. I also want to extend a word of appreciation to the Head of the 

Department of Sustainable Food Systems and Development for all the assistance and 

encouragement during this study journey. 

I would like to thank my director, Dr Lefulesele Lebesa, and my supervisor, Ms Monica 

Lephole, for seeing it fit to allow this opportunity to develop me academically. I also 

appreciate the management of the Agricultural Productivity Programme for Southern 

Africa (APPSA) for financially sponsoring my studies. It would not have been easy without 

that kind of support.  

I also want to acknowledge my family, especially my husband, children, and my mother, 

for their support, encouragement, and prayers. Indeed, your support came in handy when 

the journey was not easy. More thanks to my husband for taking good care of our kids 

while I was away studying; your efforts are appreciated. 

I also want to thank the four District Agricultural Officers (Ms Monica, Mrs Phalatsi, Mr 

Mphanya, and Ms Nyakallo), who gave their assistance and made their districts 

accessible for this study. I especially want to acknowledge all the fieldworkers (Ms 

Malisebo Motsiba, Ms Puleng Molefi, Ms Matlhompho, Ms Palesa Ramohlanka, and Ms 

Moroetsana Letsoisa) who assisted in the collection of data as fieldworkers. I know at 

times it was not easy but they tirelessly devoted their time and effort to make sure that 

the data collection was a success. 



 

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ABSTRACT 
 

Lesotho is one of the sub-Saharan African countries that perpetually struggles with food 

insecurity. Consumers in Lesotho still waste food despite living in a low-income country. 

Most people live under the poverty line of US$1.00 per day and low-income households 

consume meals that are low in diversity, which elevates micronutrient deficiencies. 

Consequently, many children under five years of age experience stunting, obesity, and 

micronutrient deficiencies due to a lack of food or insufficient intake. The study sought to 

explore household food insecurity, estimate the quantity of household food waste, 

determine household dietary diversity, and identify food preservation techniques in rural 

and urban areas of Lesotho.  

The research was conducted in four of the 10 districts of Lesotho, namely Mafeteng, 

Thaba-Tseka, Leribe, and Qacha’s Nek. The sample size was 440 households, and 

stratified random sampling was used for the selection of participating households. A 

mixed-methods approach was utilised and an exploratory descriptive design was 

adopted. Both structured questionnaires and interviews were employed, which 

represented quantitative and qualitative elements. The questionnaire addressed socio-

demographics, the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), food waste, the 

Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS), and food preservation. The consumers who 

participated in the study were 18 years and older. The analysis was conducted using the 

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, and Fisher’s exact test was used to compare 

variables. 

Food insecurity was significantly higher in the rural areas than the urban areas, where 

four categories were measured, namely food secure, mildly food insecure, moderately 

food insecure, and severely food insecure. Indicators of food insecurity were to be being 

a female, being unemployed, and cooking with open fire. Using liquefied petroleum gas 

(LPG) and electricity for cooking significantly were found to reduce food insecurity. 

Total food waste estimations were calculated at 190.9 kg (rural) and 156.2 kg (urban) per 

week, resulting in annual estimated food waste of 13 003.2 kg (rural) and 7 496.8 kg 



 

iv 
 

(urban), totalling 20, 500 kg of household food waste in Lesotho annually. The main ways 

that consumers discard food waste in both rural and urban areas are using compost 

heaps, discarding it in the garbage bin, and burying it. All these were significant predictors 

of food waste even though they had a weak correlation. It is also a common practice to 

give food waste to animals. 

The main reasons for food waste in both the rural and urban areas were that consumers 

like to eat fresh food, they are too busy to cook planned meals, food is left too long in the 

refrigerator/freezer, they buy too much food, they do not check the cupboard or 

refrigerator/freezer before going shopping, and some members of the household do not 

always finish eating their food. Food groups that are not wasted in large quantities in rural 

and urban are fruits, vegetables, milk and dairy products, legumes, and grains. 

The dietary diversity of the rural and urban areas differs significantly, with diversity in the 

urban areas being higher than in the rural areas. Food groups mostly consumed are 

cereals (soft/stiff porridge and bread) and leafy green vegetables (rape, cabbage, and 

spinach). Fruits are mostly consumed when they are in season because they are 

expensive otherwise. Factors that significantly contribute to increasing the HDDS are 

using electricity and LPG for cooking. Factors that significantly decrease the HDDS are 

being female, cooking with an open fire, and purchasing food every two weeks. More 

consumers preserve food in urban areas than in rural areas, and the prominent 

techniques for preserving food are sun drying and bottling, while fewer consumers in both 

rural and urban areas consider salting and freezing. Food insecurity is still high, even 

though diversity is promising. It is therefore recommended that the creation of awareness 

be established, through policies and other platforms regarding, household food waste, 

food security and eating patterns. 

Keywords: food insecurity, food waste, dietary diversity, food preservation, Lesotho  

  



 

v 
 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 

DECLARATION i 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii 

ABSTRACT iii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS v 

LIST OF FIGURES xii 

LIST OF TABLES xiii 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiv 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 

1.1  GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1 

1.2  RESEARCH PROBLEM / PROBLEM STATEMENT 3 

1.3  MAIN AIM OF THE STUDY 5 

1.4  OBJECTIVES 5 

1.7  STRUCTURE OF THESIS 6 

1.8  LIST OF DEFINITIONS 7 

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 9 

2.1  INTRODUCTION 9 

2.2  THE LINK BETWEEN FOOD WASTE AND FOOD SECURITY 9 

2.2.1  The impact of food preservation on food waste 10 

2.3  THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOOD WASTE AND MALNUTRITION 11 

2.4  HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY 12 

2.4.1  Definition of food insecurity and food security 12 

2.4.2  Food Security Pillars 13 



 

vi 
 

2.4.3  Food insecurity situation in Lesotho 15 

2.4.4  Measuring tool for Food Insecurity 16 

2.4.4.1  HFIAS 16 

2.5  DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY 16 

2.5.1  Poverty and low income 16 

2.5.2  Cultivated land size 17 

2.5.3  Level of education 17 

2.5.4  Household size 18 

2.5.5  Age 18 

2.5.6  Gender 18 

2.5.7  Food price / expensive food 19 

2.6  MALNUTRITION AND DIETARY DIVERSITY 19 

2.6.1  Definitions of malnutrition and dietary diversity 19 

2.6.2  Determinants of malnutrition and dietary diversity 20 

2.6.2.1  Age and sex 20 

2.6.2.2  Mother’s Education 20 

2.6.2.3  Mother’s occupation 21 

2.6.2.4  Household income 22 

2.6.2.5  Nutrition knowledge 22 

2.6.2.6  Home gardening 22 

2.6.2.7  Food intake 23 

2.6.2.8  Easy access to markets 24 

2.6.2.9  Food safety 25 

2.6.2.10  Health and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) 25 



 

vii 
 

2.6.2.11  Lifestyle 25 

2.6.2.12  Psychological factors 26 

2.6.2.13  Health-related issues/behaviours 26 

2.6.2.14  Household size 26 

2.6.2.15 Location 27 

2.6.2.16  Household religion 27 

2.6.2.17  The use of Household Dietary Diversity Score 27 

2.7  HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE DETERMINANTS AND CONSUMER 

BEHAVIOUR 28 

2.7.1  Definition of food waste/loss 28 

2.7.2 Food loss and waste (FLW) 28 

2.7.3  Food waste in the food service sector 29 

2.7.4  Food waste at the household level 29 

2.8  DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE 30 

2.8.1  Household size 30 

2.8.2  Gender 30 

2.8.3  Educational level 30 

2.8.4  Household income 31 

2.8.5  Household residency and food waste 31 

2.9  BEHAVIOUR THAT CONTRIBUTES TO HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE 31 

2.9.1  Domestic food storage 31 

2.9.2  Purchasing practices 32 

2.10  FOOD COOKING AND CONSUMPTION PRACTICES 32 

2.10.1  Identification 32 



 

viii 
 

2.10.2  Cooking 32 

2.10.3  Tastes 33 

2.10.4  Dates 33 

2.10.5  Eating out 33 

2.11  CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 34 

2.11.1  Planning 34 

2.11.2  Managing leftovers 34 

2.11.3  Composting 35 

2.11.4  Disposal and the social, environmental, and economic impact of food waste

 37 

2.12 CONCLUSION 37 

CHAPTER3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 38 

3.1  INTRODUCTION 38 

3.2  RESEARCH DESIGN 38 

3.3  POPULATION AND SAMPLING 39 

3.3.1  Sample population 39 

3.3.2  Sampling method 42 

3.3.2.1  Stratified random sampling 42 

3.3.2.2  Purposive sampling 43 

3.4  DATA COLLECTION 43 

3.4.1  Data-collection instruments 43 

3.4.1.1  Questionnaires 44 

3.4.1.2  Semi-structured interviews 46 

3.4.2  Data-collection process 46 



 

ix 
 

3.4.2.1  Quantitative data collection process 47 

3.4.2.2  Qualitative data collection process: 48 

3.5  DATA ANALYSIS 49 

3.5.1  Questionnaires 49 

3.5.2  Semi-structured interviews 49 

3.6  RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY 50 

3.7  ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 51 

3.8  LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 52 

3.9  CONCLUSION 52 

CHAPTER 4:  RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 53 

4.1  INTRODUCTION 53 

4.2  SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE 53 

4.3  THE EXTENT OF FOOD INSECURITY AMONG THE HOUSEHOLDS 56 

4.3.1  The categories of the HFIAS 60 

4.3.2  Correlation / variables that contribute to food insecurity 61 

4.4  DETERMINING THE LEVEL OF FOOD WASTE IN RURAL AND URBAN 

HOUSEHOLDS IN LESOTHO 62 

4.4.1  Estimation of household food waste 62 

4.4.2  Disposal mechanisms for food waste 66 

4.5  IDENTIFICATION OF POSSIBLE PRACTICES THAT LEAD TO FOOD 

WASTE 69 

4.6  FREQUENCY OF DIFFERENT FOOD ITEMS DISCARDED IN 

HOUSEHOLDS 73 

4.7  MOTIVATION FOR AVOIDING FOOD WASTE 77 



 

x 
 

4.8  FREQUENCY AND REASON FOR FOOD BEING DISCARDED IN 

DIFFERENT FORMS 79 

4.9  HOUSEHOLD HANDLING OF LEFTOVERS 83 

4.10  HOUSEHOLD PURCHASE PRACTICES 85 

4.11  PEOPLE RESPONSIBLE FOR COOKING IN THE HOUSE 87 

4.12  FREQUENT PLACES TO PURCHASE FOOD 90 

4.13  HOUSEHOLD PRACTICES BEFORE AND DURING FOOD PURCHASES91 

4.14  DIETARY DIVERSITY AMONG RURAL AND URBAN HOUSEHOLDS 92 

4.15  THE SIGNIFICANT VARIABLES THAT AFFECT THE HOUSEHOLD 

DIETARY DIVERSITY SCORE (HDDS) 94 

4.16  MEAN NUMBERS AND PVALUES PF SERVINGS PER DAY FOR FOOD 

GROUPS 95 

4.17  CONSUMPTION OF SNACKS OUTSIDE OF THE HOME 97 

4.18  PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES AND METHODS USED IN HOUSEHOLDS 

97 

4.19  CONCLUSION 99 

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 100 

5.1  INTRODUCTION 100 

5.2  CONCLUSIONS 100 

5.2.1  Food insecurity among rural and urban households in Lesotho 100 

5.2.2  The level of food waste in the rural and urban households of Lesotho 101 

5.2.3  The dietary diversity of rural and urban households of Lesotho 102 

5.2.4  Food preservation strategies 103 

5.3  RECOMMENDATIONS 103 

5.3.1  Recommendations for policymakers 104 



 

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5.3.2  Recommendations for research and extension 104 

5.3.3  Recommendations for the Ministry of Agriculture, Food Security and Nutrition

 104 

5.3.4 Recommendations for future research 105 

REFERENCES 106 

APPENDICES 166 

APPENDIX A: ETHICAL APPROVAL 166 

APPENDIX B: PROPOSED INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 167 

APPENDIX C: FINAL QUESTIONNAIRE 168 

APPENDIX D: EDITING LETTER 175 

 

 

 

  



 

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LIST OF FIGURES 
 

Figure 3.1: Map of Lesotho and its 10 districts 41 

Figure 3.2 Agro-ecological map of Lesotho                                                                     40 

  



 

xiii 
 

LIST OF TABLES 
 

Table 4.1: Socio-demographic profile of the participants 54 

Table 4.2: Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) 57 

Table 4.3: Categories of the HFIAS in the rural and urban areas 60 

Table 4.5: Conversions for household food waste 62 

Table 4.6: Estimations of food waste per timeframe 63 

Table 4.7: Estimations of household food waste 65 

Table 4.8: Strategies to manage household food waste 67 

Table 4.10: Frequency of food discarded at the household level 73 

Table 4.11: Motivation for avoiding food waste 77 

Table 4.12: Frequency and reason for discarding food in different forms 79 

Table 4.13: Handling of leftovers 84 

Table 4.14: Purchasing practices 86 

Table 4.15: The person responsible for cooking in the household 88 

Table 4.16: Place of choice for regular food purchases 90 

Table 4.17: Household practices before and during food purchases 91 

Table 4.18: Household dietary diversity for urban and rural households 93 

Table 4.20: Mean number of servings per day of different food groups 96 

Table 4.21: Consumption of snacks outside of the home 97 

Table 4.22: Techniques/methods of preservation 98 

  



 

xiv 
 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
 

ATO  Agricultural Technical Officer 

DAO District Agricultural Officer 

DBM  Double burden of malnutrition 

DNO  District Nutrition Officer 

FLW  Food loss and waste 

FSC  Food supply chain 

HDDS  Household Dietary Diversity Score 

HFIAS  Household Food Insecurity Access Scale 

HIV/AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus / acquired immunodeficiency syndrome 

KES  Kenyan shilling 

kg Kilogram(s) 

l Litre(s) 

LPG  Liquefied petroleum gas 

LSL  Lesotho loti 

SDG  Sustainable Development Goal 

SPSS  Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 

UFS  University of the Free State 

UK  United Kingdom 

UN  United Nations 

UNICEF  United Nations Children’s Fund 

US$  United States dollar 

WASH  Water, sanitation, and hygiene 

WFP  World Food Programme 

ZAR South African rand 

 



1 
 

CHAPTER 1: 
INTRODUCTION 

1.1  GENERAL INTRODUCTION 

Food waste in households remains a sustainability challenge that poses environmental 

and social problems (Williams et al., 2020).  Estimations reveal that in one-third of 

produced food, about 1.3 tons is annually wasted worldwide (Anstalt, 2013). Food waste 

and food insecurity negatively affect people’s health, the environment, and the economy 

(Harduth, 2017).  

While a significant part of the global population is food insecure, there is also a systematic 

food loss and food waste problem (Lee et al., 2017). The challenge is to meet the world’s 

growing demand for food in an environmentally sustainable way while simultaneously 

ensuring food security (Cronjé et al., 2018), mitigating the effects of climate change, and 

limiting the expansion of agricultural land and water use (Bradford et al., 2018).  

The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) for sustainable consumption and production, 

SDG 12, Target 3, “aims to halve per capita global food waste by 2030 at the retail and 

consumer level” (United Nations [UN], 2015). Food waste is influenced by psychological, 

social, situational, demographic, and socio-economic factors (Principato et al., 2021). 

Understanding these factors and how they are associated with household food waste can 

provide insight into strategies to minimise food waste (Carroll et al., 2020). Food waste 

management includes practices concerning the disposal of uneaten food, feeding food 

waste to animals, and practices such as home composting. This becomes important as 

certain household practices increase food waste, while others reduce it (Principato et al., 

2021). Research indicates that food waste habits may differ across contexts, which 

suggests the importance of conducting regional studies (Carroll et al., 2020).  

The optimum use of food waste and by-products as raw materials or food additives could 

generate economic gains, contribute to reducing nutritional problems, produce beneficial 

health effects, and reduce the environmental implications of the mismanagement of waste 

(Tores-Leon et al., 2018). Food waste reduction implies reduced resources such as 



 

2 
 

energy and nutrients because a certain amount of nutrients are still present in food waste; 

it could allow consumers to eliminate spending money on unwanted food (Conrad & 

Blackstone, 2021; Tacoli, 2019). Reducing food loss and waste (FLW) could enhance 

food security because more food could be made available for consumption (Irani et al., 

2018). 

The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2023 report, states that in 2022, the 

people who face chronic hunger worldwide were 9.2% as opposed to 2019, which was 

7.9%, and the estimation shows that the population affected in 2022 was between 691 

and 783 million (FAO, 2023).. Food insecurity is defined as the disruption of food intake 

or eating patterns because of a lack of money or other resources (Christian et al., 2020). 

Food security at the household level is the ability of a household to meet the dietary needs 

of its members, and it influences the nutritional status of the members (Kehinde & Favour, 

2020). 

Compared with food-secure counterparts, food-insecure households have a greater 

prevalence of nutrient inadequacy (Conrad & Blackstone, 2021). Lesotho is experiencing 

a major food security crisis due to drought and other factors, as approximately 41% of 

rural families spend more than half of their income on food. Over 30% of the Lesotho 

population across all 10 districts have been facing high levels of acute food insecurity 

(World Food Programme [WFP], 2020).  

Poverty is defined as limited resources that cannot meet the available needs (Brady, 

2023). Poverty and nutrition are interrelated as undernutrition negatively affects 

households’ productivity. The lower-income segments of the population continue to carry 

the burden of malnutrition in all forms. This perpetuates the cycle of poverty, morbidity, 

and mortality, which lead to a reduced lifespan. The poorest households are the most 

vulnerable to food and nutrition insecurity and insecure livelihoods (Headey et al., 2022; 

Food and Nutrition Coordinating Office, 2016).  

Previous studies conducted in Lesotho focused on the contribution of oyster mushroom 

production to household food security (Nkoko, 2020), the impact of COVID-19 on food 

security (Seliane, 2022), the impact of food prices on food security (Crush et al., 2019), 



 

3 
 

establishing the dietary diversity of Basotho households with emphasis on home 

gardening, and measuring consumers’ knowledge and attitudes regarding food waste 

(Chenene, 2020; Fouché, 2018). This study focused on a combination of food insecurity, 

household dietary diversity, and food waste in rural and urban Lesotho to establish 

whether there is a linkage between these factors in the rural and urban contexts.  

1.2  RESEARCH PROBLEM / PROBLEM STATEMENT 

Food insecurity is considered a public health problem, and approximately 25% of people 

in Lesotho are food insecure (WFP, 2022). The National Action Plan for Food Security 

(Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security, 2006) in Lesotho states that poverty and 

unemployment are the leading causes of food insecurity in the country, which is confirmed 

by studies that revealed that poverty, which leads to food insecurity, will cause people to 

become susceptible to diseases as a result of micronutrient deficiencies (Makhorole et 

al., 2022; Sinha et al., 2020; Walsh et al., 2020). Lesotho among other African countries 

has a challenge of food insecurity. Agricultural production is adversely affected by land, 

resulting in poor production which leads to food insecurity. About 65.9% of households 

are food insecure, yet consist of employed household members (Nkoko, 2020). Lesotho, 

with 2.2 million inhabitants, is one of the poorest countries in the Southern African region.  

There is a lack of current research in Lesotho on linking issues of food insecurity, dietary 

diversity, and food waste. Considering dietary diversity, the majority of children under five 

(78%) in Lesotho, are experiencing low dietary diversity, as they afford only to eat four 

groups of food. Furthermore, household dietary diversity is low due to low access and 

availability of fruits and vegetables (Nkoko et al., 2023) Research shows that the inflation 

rate is 6.2%, which is high (Zbelo et al., 2022), while the food inflation rate has been found 

to be 14.3% (Lesotho Vulnerability Assessment Committee, 2021). Although  there is not 

much research done on household food waste in Lesotho, research of Chenene research 

shows that about 67% (urban) consumers waste food through spoilage, whereas in the 

rural areas 34% food waste is experienced likewise (Chenene, 2020). However, Wang et 

al., (2023), states that people with good education and income have more awareness on 

issues of food diversity and this may lead to more food waste in the households of young 



 

4 
 

and old house heads. Contrarily, food diversity awareness contributes to less food waste 

at households with middle-aged household heads. This indicates that dietary diversity 

and food waste are directly linked to food insecurity. This is further unveiled in another 

study where it was found that high level of a country’s food waste emanates from good 

food security, while in contrast, low levels of food waste is derived from food insecure 

countries, (Durán-Sandoval et al., 2023). Approximately 57% of the people in Lesotho 

live below the poverty line, which is living on less than US$1 daily (WFP, 2022). Lesotho 

also loses around 7.13% of its gross domestic product to chronic malnutrition. Many 

people are dependent on food relief and handouts; however, reliance on food aid for food 

security is not a sustainable solution (Rantšo & Seboka, 2019).  

Lesotho is battling with diseases related to micronutrient deficiencies such as vitamin A 

and iron, and, to a lesser extent, iodine deficiency disorder (Food and Nutrition 

Coordinating Office, 2016). Approximately 51% of children aged six to 59 months in 

Lesotho have some level of anaemia. In comparison, more than one in every four (27.3%) 

women aged 15 to 49 years have anaemia (Ministry of Health, 2016), and according to 

the state of Food and Nutrition Security in the world report of 2022/2023, 49% of pre-

school-aged children have anaemia and children from 2years and under who have 

anaemia make 61%, and 25% of pregnant women suffer from anaemia as well (UNICEF, 

2022).   approximately 55% of women in urban areas are obese and overweight, and 42% 

of women in the rural areas are obese and overweight (Food and Nutrition Coordinating 

Office, 2016).  

The state of poverty may affect food security and nutrition adversely, which calls for more 

research to be conducted to develop relevant mitigation strategies. Much deeper insights 

need to be sought around the issues of food insecurity, food waste, and dietary diversity 

to comprehend the dynamics thereof. However, Lesotho among SSA countries, is 

considered as one of those struggling with poor dietary diversity (Walsh et al., 2020; 

Rantšo et al., 2019) Lesotho has rural and urban areas that, if included in research, can 

provide broader knowledge that would reveal a wider picture of the conditions in 

geographical settings. This research could bring to light the underlying challenges, as well 



 

5 
 

as create an open platform where ideas may be generated as to how to bring about 

mitigation efforts into practice.  

1.3  MAIN AIM OF THE STUDY 

The main purpose of this study was to explore food insecurity, food waste, and dietary 

diversity in the rural and urban households of Lesotho.  

1.4  OBJECTIVES 

The following are the objectives of this research: 

Objective 1: To assess food insecurity among rural and urban households in Lesotho. 

o Sub-objective 1a: To determine the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale 

(HFIAS) scores for rural and urban households in Lesotho. 

o Sub-objective 1b: To determine the food insecurity categories for rural and urban 

households in Lesotho. 

o Sub-objective 1c: To identify socio-demographic variables that affect household 

food security. 

Objective 2: To determine the level of food waste in the rural and urban households of 

Lesotho. 

o Sub-objective 2a: To estimate generated household food waste among rural and 

urban households. 

o Sub-objective 2b: To define food waste disposal mechanisms in rural and urban 

households. 

o Sub-objective 2c: To identify possible behaviour and practices that lead to food 

waste at the household level.  

o Sub-objective 2d: To define the frequency and reason for different food items being 

discarded by households. 

o Sub-objective 2e: To describe the motivation that drives the reasons behind 

avoiding food waste. 

o Sub-objective 2f: To establish how households handle leftovers. 



 

6 
 

o Sub-objective 2g: To determine frequencies of food purchasing practices. 

o Sub-objective 2h: To evaluate whether the person responsible for cooking plays a 

role in food waste management. 

o Sub-objective 2i: To identify the places of choice for regular food purchases. 

o Sub-objective 2j: To determine household practices before and during food 

purchases. 

Objective 3: To evaluate the dietary diversity among rural and urban households of 

Lesotho. 

o Sub-objective 3a: To determine the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS). 

1.7 STRUCTURE OF THESIS 

Chapter 1 contains the introduction of the study, a brief background of research on the 

topic, as well as the research problem / problem statement. Furthermore, the context of 

the study is introduced, together with the identified research objectives. It also describes 

the significance of the study to the existing body of knowledge.  

Chapter 2 presents a literature review of several research reports, reviews, and other 

sources. The concepts of food security, food waste, and dietary diversity are discussed 

in detail.  

In Chapter 3, a description of the methodology is articulated and the study’s research 

design is discussed, which delineates the choice of instruments employed. The chapter 

also discusses ethical considerations, data analysis, and the limitations of the study. 

In Chapter 4, an intensive presentation of the research results is outlined, as well as a 

discussion thereof.  

In Chapter 5, conclusions are drawn from what the study accomplished, and 

recommendations are made.  



 

7 
 

1.8  LIST OF DEFINITIONS 

Avoidable food waste: Food that people normally plan to eat (edible) but end up 

discarding (Coudard et al., 2021; Leverenz et al., 2019). 

Dietary diversity: A tool used to assess the variety of foods consumed in a household 

(Tariku et al., 2019).  

Food insecurity: Reduced or inconsistent access to food by people (Brown et al., 2019). 

Food loss: The reduction of dry material or nutritional worth of food that was primarily 

intended for human consumption (Ishangulyyev et al., 2019). 

Food security: The position of having stable access to available food in the correct 

quantities, food quality and food diversity adequately (Azadi et al., 2023; Clapp et al., 

2022). 

Food waste: Any food together with its inedible parts (skin, peels, bones, etc.) removed 

for discarding, whether fresh, decayed, or beyond expiry dates (Ishangulyyev et al., 

2019). 

Food quality: Refers to the properties including freshness of food, its shelf life, sensory 

attributes, as well as microbiological and mechanical influences (Hassoun et al., 2023) 

Greenhouse gases: The gases that affect or cause an increase in temperature and 

global warming by trapping heat in the atmosphere. These gases are mainly carbon 

dioxide and methane (Jeffry et al., 2021). 

Household dietary diversity: It describes every individual living collectively with other 

people in the same house, eating the same food together (Derso et al., 2021). 

Household food waste: Food that was purposed to be consumed by household 

members but end up being destroyed due to poor planning practices such as not making 

a shopping list and not checking the cupboards or refrigerator/freezer before purchasing 

food (Dobernig & Schanes, 2019). 



 

8 
 

Malnutrition: Taking in insufficient nutrients necessary for growth and the avoidance of 

diseases brought on by a shortage or absence of nutrients. It is often recognised through 

stunting, wasting, underweight, and micronutrient deficiencies (Phillips et al., 2020). 

Rural area: A geographical place that is situated away from cities (Benard et al., 2022). 

Unavoidable food waste: Inedible food (fruit peels, etc.) that is usually excluded when 

eating (Nordin et al., 2020). 

Urban area: A region normally encompassing the city, which has suburbs (Bodo, 2019). 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



 

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CHAPTER 2: 
LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.1  INTRODUCTION 

This chapter discusses literature based on the objectives of this study, which were to 

determine food waste, to assess the extent of household food insecurity, to determine 

household dietary diversity, and to identify the storage and preservation of fruits and 

vegetables in rural and urban households of Lesotho. Lesotho among other African 

countries has a challenge of food insecurity. Agricultural production is adversely affected 

by land, resulting in poor production which leads to food insecurity. About 65.9% of 

households are food insecure, yet those households have employment (Nkoko, 2020). 

This is confirmed when the majority (78%) of children in Lesotho, are suffering from low 

dietary diversity, because they only afford to eat four food groups. Household dietary 

diversity is low due to low access and availability of fruits and vegetables (Nkoko et al., 

2023). The findings have put that about 87% (rural) and 72% (urban) consumers do not 

have knowledge on the issues on food waste, and this might expose a lot of people to 

household food waste (Chenene, 2020). 

2.2  THE LINK BETWEEN FOOD WASTE AND FOOD SECURITY 

Food waste, together with food loss, has substantial consequences for food security and 

the atmosphere, but also, and more importantly, for the global, regional, and national 

economies. Food waste is one of the major determinants of food security, and the 

relationship between food waste and food security is that food waste affects the food 

security of a household through food access and availability (Fami et al., 2021). Food 

waste reduction may improve food security brought on by poverty and reduce negative 

climatic conditions created by greenhouse gas emissions (Huho et al., 2020). It is further 

illustrated that a reduction of food waste can result in capacity in feeding the world, and 

thereby securing food security (Trollman et al., 2023).  



 

10 
 

It may also be comforting to store up large quantities of food, for later use and as a result, 

food ends up wasted, affecting food security negatively through minimising food access 

and availability (Santeramo & Lamonaca 2021; Fami et al., 2021). In another instance, 

consumers who have a high income tend to waste more food as they may not just eat to 

fill their stomachs, but also eat for pleasure and this can work negatively against food 

security (Wang et al., 2022). Some consumers have behaviour such as purchasing too 

much food, which maybe lead by lack of planning or throwing away food that are past 

best before date, and all these can lead to scarcity of food which may imply food insecurity 

(Stancu & Lahteenmaki 2022). Emissions like greenhouse gases are the results of food   

which becomes a global concern, not only does food waste affect the world in that area, 

it also affects food security negatively (Metcalfe et al., 2022). 

2.2.1  The impact of food preservation on food waste 

Food preservation is the process that extends the shelf life of food items by suspending 

decay through chemical or biological processes (Huho et al., 2020). Food preservation 

can play a significant role in food waste reduction because it advances the use of food. 

Food preservation techniques can therefore minimise the spoilage of food and enhance 

the use of food at the household level (Martindale & Schiebel, 2017). 

It is of essence to regard food waste minimisation as the ultimate product of consuming 

preserved food for it can enhance the sustainability of prepared meals (Martindale & 

Schiebel, 2017). Suitable food preservation can be implemented to eradicate the food 

waste challenge in developing countries. A variety of food preservation methods is used 

across the world. Some technologies are applied based on certain overall physical 

occurrences such as heat transfer, moisture removal, and inhibition of chemical reactions 

(Joarder & Masud, 2019). 

Women in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly from Kenya, conveyed that traditional methods 

of preservation were not only suitable but also maintainable. Food preservation methods 

adopted by women depend on five factors, namely (1) traditions and culture, (2) climate, 

(3) food accessibility, (4) food-tolerated illnesses, and (5) existing preservation knowledge 

(Huho et al., 2020). Food preservation has the potential to reduce food waste six-fold if 



 

11 
 

food is correctly preserved through freezing (Martindale & Schiebel, 2017). In 2013, 

Lesotho consumers were provided with training on food preservation of fruits and 

vegetables, mainly concentrating on drying and bottling, which are the main preservation 

methods used in the households of Lesotho. The training was composed of 

demonstrations and practical (Daidone et al., 2017).  

2.3  THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FOOD WASTE AND MALNUTRITION 

Millions of people globally suffer from malnutrition, and reducing food waste would be a 

positive step towards alleviating this global problem (Burlea-Schiopoiu et al., 2021). 

Malnutrition in Lesotho is evident through the statistics that show that children who are 

under the age of 5 has increased in stunting from 33% in 2014 to 35% in 2018. 

Furthermore, children aged 6-59 months experiencing micronutrient deficiencies are 

suffering from anaemia at 51% (UNICEF, 2021). 

Striving to achieve the uptake of healthier diets, not only assist in reducing eating too 

much, but also in food waste reduction (Barrera & Hertel 2022). Acquiring skills in nutrition 

knowledge, shopping and cooking could be useful in reduction of food waste, and 

improvement of healthier diets (Metcalfe et al., 2022). 

The social and behavioural aspects of food waste are crucial and have drawn more 

attention when looking into the issues of hunger and malnutrition in the world and the 

quantities of food waste that are produced. Estimations project that approximately one 

billion starving people could be relieved of malnutrition with less than a quarter of food 

that is presently wasted (Facchini et al., 2018). Another aspect that can lead people to 

malnutrition is parts of food that they do not eat due to certain reasons, such as throwing 

away parts that could still be edible, such as bread crust, or other foods that are not eaten 

because they are prepared in a certain way, such as potatoes cooked in their skins 

(Nicholes et al., 2019).  

The SDG for sustainable consumption and production (SDG12-12.3), Target 3, aims to 

halve per capita global food waste by 2030 at the retail and consumer level (UN, 2015). 

According to Principato et al. (2021), food waste may be subject to psychological, social, 



 

12 
 

situational, demographic, and socio-economic factors. Food waste management 

deliberates how to dispose of uneaten food, such as by feeding it to animals, arranging 

practices such as home composting, etc. People who do not recycle or compost any of 

their kitchen waste tend to throw away more food than those who reuse kitchen waste 

(Principato et al., 2021).  

2.4  HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY 

2.4.1  Definition of food insecurity and food security  

Food insecurity is described as inadequate access to sufficient nutrient-dense food for an 

energetic, fit life (Kolovos et al., 2020; Gubert et al., 2016). People who experience severe 

food insecurity can go for days without food due to a lack of or not enough money to 

purchase food (Wolfson & Leung, 2020). Any food insecurity situation, regardless of the 

severity, is stressful and has been correlated with many physical and mental health 

challenges (Wolfson & Leung, 2020; Kolovos et al., 2020; Loopstra, 2018). Food 

insecurity is associated with micronutrient deficiencies such as anaemia and many more, 

and it is a predictor of chronic illnesses such as psychological health disorders and 

suicidal feelings (Men et al., 2020; Thomas et al., 2019).  

Food insecurity in households escalates the chances of depression in parents, which can 

result in the reduced psychological health of their children (Pourmotabbed et al., 2020; 

Koyanagi et al., 2019). . Food insecurity is defined as the interruption of food intake or 

eating arrangements because of an absence of money or other resources (Christian et 

al., 2020; Kehinde & Favour, 2020). It has been proven that socio-economic factors 

influence food security and dietary diversity (Cox, 2021). Food security is described as 

when all people at all times have access to enough safe and nutrient-dense food to satisfy 

their proper needs and wants for a strong and energetic life (Thomas et al., 2019; 

Magaña-Lemus et al., 2016).  

 

 



 

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2.4.2 Food Security Pillars 

There are four pillars of food security, namely; accessibility, availability, utilisation and 

stability. Accessibility refers to as the ability to socially, financially and physically get 

enough, safe, nutritious food at all time for all people to meet dietary needs of individuals 

(Calloway et al., 2023). Availability communicates to available food in good quantities and 

quality for the people (Nguyen et al., 2023), while utilisation delineates making the most 

of nutrients in food, food preparation methods, and eating practices, while considering 

clean water and sanitation, and cultural aspects (Tyczewska et al., 2023). The stability 

communicates to continuous access to food, and this may be affected by unemployment, 

undesirable weather conditions and other economic factors (Calloway et al., 2023; Alabi 

& Ngwenyama 2023).  

Food insecurity and malnutrition remain a global challenge, especially in Africa where the 

number of starving and undernourished people is escalating. Many low-income 

households eat monotonous diets that are of low quality, cereal-based, and lack diversity, 

which increases the danger of micronutrient shortages (Christian et al., 2020; Chakona, 

2020). In 2021 in North Africa, 6.9% of the population were victims of hunger, while in 

sub-Saharan Africa, particularly West Africa, 32.8% of the population experienced 

hunger, while in sub-regions of Africa and in Southern Africa, 13.9% and 9.2% 

experienced hunger respectively (Food and Agriculture Organization, 2022). The task is 

to meet the world’s escalating need for food, in an ecologically maintainable way, to 

ensure food security (Cronjé et al., 2018). Globally, in 2022, people affected are between 

691 and 783 million (FAO, 2023) 

Household food insecurity is a driving force of malnutrition and is responsible for 

approximately 300,000 deaths per annum. Food insecurity remains a public health threat; 

it is rampant in developing countries where a vast number of people continually suffer 

from food limitations and death due to food insecurity. Whereas a varied and balanced 

diet is the essence of alleviating malnutrition, food insecurity sabotages dietary intake 

(Drammeh et al., 2019). 



 

14 
 

Underweight and wasting in young children are meaningfully linked to household food 

insecurity; however, such a linkage has not been found between food insecurity and 

stunting (Pathak et al., 2020). Malnutrition is the highest result of food insecurity. Over 

the past 10 years, approximately 3.5 million children under five in sub-Saharan Africa died 

annually because of inadequate food consumption (Drammeh et al., 2019). 

The results of food insecurity are obvious in vulnerable groups such as women of 

reproductive age and children under five as they are at high risk (Christian et al., 2020). 

Opposing childhood familiarities such as poverty, food insecurity, family stress, and 

abandonment are dangerous factors for early childhood development. Studies have 

discovered that household food insecurity is a powerful stressor with significant 

suggestions for decreased cognitive, memory, attention, problem-solving, and analytical 

skills (De Oliveira et al., 2020). 

Well-being According to Gubert et al. (2016), food insecurity has been linked with 

illnesses such as diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and obesity, probably because 

it influences diet quality, and has also been linked to secondary infection (Loopstra, 2018). 

The irony of food insecurity and obesity has been credited to less healthy food choices 

and limited intake of meals and snacks. It is perceived that food-insecure families may be 

more prone to choosing lower-cost food options, which tend to be energy-packed but lack 

quality proteins and micronutrients (Spoede et al., 2021). 

Food insecurity is more prevalent among older adults, considering the impact of social, 

economic, physiological, and pathological processes that take place during the ageing 

process. Poverty is a determinant of food insecurity; however, among older adults, other 

aspects are just as crucial as the economic aspect, such as multimorbidity, the greater 

value of the management of treating chronic diseases, physical and functional 

restrictions, and neurologic and mental diseases (Pereira et al., 2022; Wolfson & Leung, 

2020). 

Food insecurity in older adults results from a reduction in the amount of food consumed, 

which may induce susceptibility to infections due to decreased intake of nutrients, 

especially proteins, vitamins, and minerals (Pereira et al., 2022). Among older adults, 



 

15 
 

food insecurity can bring forth malnutrition and its consequences, such as cardiovascular 

diseases. Food insecurity and malnutrition pose serious public health threats because of 

their multiple causes, high prevalence, and impact on the quality of life of this population. 

Categorised by an inadequate dietary intake and by a loss of nutrients, malnutrition in 

older adults presents them with a greater risk of death, hospital readmissions, 

vulnerability to infections, and loss of self-sufficiency and independence (Pereira et al., 

2022). 

The food security and the malnutrition position of the most vulnerable population groups 

are likely to decline more due to the health and socio-economic impacts of the COVID-19 

pandemic. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) report of 2020 paid attention to 

diet quality as a serious link between food insecurity and nutrition. Meeting SDG 2 will 

only be possible if people have sufficient food to eat and if what they are eating is healthy 

and affordable (UNICEF, 2020). 

Initiatives in agriculture play a huge role in curbing malnutrition, especially among 

children. Crop-based solutions have proven maintainable outcomes. Livestock production 

can be another solution that can minimise malnutrition by providing nutrient-dense foods, 

as well as financial security as it provides sellable commodities (Hetherington et al., 

2017). 

2.4.3 Food insecurity situation in Lesotho 

About 65.9% of households in Lesotho are food insecure, even though they are securing 

employment (Nkoko, 2020). According to the Food and Nutrition Coordinating Office 

(2016), poverty and nutrition are correlated as undernutrition adversely affects 

households’ productivity. The low-income sections of the population endure malnutrition 

in all forms. This maintains the cycle of poverty, morbidity, and mortality, which leads to 

a reduced lifespan. The poorest households are the most susceptible to food and nutrition 

insecurity and insecure livelihoods. There is evidence that a large number of households 

that receive food aid may still face micronutrient malnutrition due to insufficient diets 

linked with inadequate consumption of micronutrient-rich foods such as fruits and 

vegetables (Lee et al., 2017). 



 

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2.4.4 Measuring tool for Food Insecurity 

2.4.4.1 HFIAS 

Household Food Insecurity Access Scale is a tool that will be used to determine food 

insecurity among the urban and rural areas of Lesotho. This HFIAS questionnaire has 

about nine questions which depicts food quantity anxiety about household food supply, 

food preferences and economic household access to food. These questions include the 

part that requires how often the circumstance occurred (Otekunrin et al., 2021). It 

measures the household food insecurity for the past four weeks. The score is calculated 

for each household by adding up the codes for each frequency of occurrence question 

and the maximum score of all nine questions is 27, while the lowest score is 0. This 

means, the higher the score, the more food insecure the household is experiencing, and 

the lower the score, the minimum food insecurity the household is experiencing (Andarge, 

2022). 

2.5  DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY 

Food insecurity is a multifaceted issue with multiple causes that contribute to its 

existence, including poverty and low income, cultivated land size, level of education, 

household size, age, gender, and food price / expensive food. 

2.5.1  Poverty and low income 

Poverty remains one of the causes that hamper the availability of sufficient food in homes 

with low incomes. Amid other contributing factors such as socio-economic status in poor 

homes, food and other resources are not easily accessed, which exposes the family to 

further hunger. Poverty and food insecurity are intertwined and in combination lead to 

malnutrition (Drammeh et al., 2019). The suppression of famine and lack are the primary 

targets aimed at overcoming food insecurity. It was estimated that during the COVID-19 

pandemic, food insecurity could double from 135 to 265 million people universally (Sinha 

et al., 2020). Around 57.1% of the population in Lesotho live below the poverty line, which 

is linked to unemployment (Nkoko, 2020; Chenene, 2020). 



 

17 
 

In sub-Saharan Africa, income remains one of the most important determinants of food 

insecurity and hunger. Purchasing food items such as milk and meat is usually difficult for 

low-income households, compared to high-income households, and  healthy food such 

as fruits and vegetables cannot easily  be purchased by low-income families (Ahmed et 

al., 2021; Owens et al., 2020; Drammeh et al., 2019). Low household income is one of 

the factors that contributes significantly to food insecurity (Shahzad et al., 2021). 

Households that experience income loss experience food insecurity more than 

households that have a higher income (Ahmed et al., 2020). It is important to have a clear 

understanding of the pressures on household incomes such as the management of health 

and its related expenses. Renting, escalating food costs, and poor financial and food 

management skills add to the chances of experiencing food insecurity. These skills 

nevertheless do not compensate for little or not enough money for food, nor do they keep 

people from feeling anxious about their household food situation (Loopstra, 2018). 

2.5.2  Cultivated land size 

Owning a piece of land is one of the important factors that determines the livelihood 

strategies of low-income people in rural areas (Alam et al., 2018). Households with arable 

land can produce various crops and receive income from their yields, which will enable 

them to purchase food for consumption in their homes (Moroda et al., 2018). 

2.5.3  Level of education 

Education is a factor that defines food security situations in households (Walsh et al., 

2022; Shahzad et al., 2021; Moroda et al., 2018). Education assists farmers by being able 

to familiarise themselves with new agricultural technologies; for example, the right way of 

applying fertilisers for generating income that will make the household more food secure 

(Da Mota et al., 2019; Drammeh et al., 2019; Agidew & Singh, 2018).  

The higher education level of the head of the house, particularly women, impacts correct 

food preparation and eating practices, which reduce child malnutrition in households 

(Drammeh et al., 2019; Agidew & Singh, 2018). Educated household heads are usually 



 

18 
 

familiar with family planning practices and consequently control their family size (Agidew 

& Singh, 2018). Education is a crucial component that drives the chance of creating a 

promising standing for food security (Magaña-Lemus et al., 2016). 

2.5.4  Household size 

The bigger the size of the household, the more food is needed to provide for such a 

household; thus increasing the possibility of food security compared to smaller 

households (Drammeh et al., 2019; Shahzad et al., 2021). However, this can be mitigated 

if other members contribute to the household income (Agidew & Singh, 2018; Alam et al., 

2018; Walsh et al., 2022). The household income in Lesotho is already low because the 

majority (73.4%) of households have a monthly income of LSL100 to LSL1 000 (Turkson, 

2018). 

2.5.5  Age  

The household head’s age is important in decision making. The older the individual, the 

more food production is affected (Shahzad et al., 2021; Agidew & Singh, 2018). Younger 

people are more motivated to be involved in large-scale food production, which increases 

food and income for the household and thus improves food security (Drammeh et al., 

2019; Alam et al., 2018). Also, the older the heads of the house are, the more resilient 

they are. They have more knowledge, and have access to stimulating livestock production 

and other income-generating activities, which render the household more resilient to food 

insecurity (Melketo et al., 2021).  

2.5.6  Gender 

Generally, women play a bigger role in ensuring food availability, accessibility, and 

utilisation in a household than men. Women produce more creative recipes, which means 

they can make a meal out of little food; however, they are more exposed to malnutrition 

than males (Drammeh et al., 2019). Women are more susceptible to food insecurity than 

men, which means that female-headed households are more affected by food insecurity 

than male-headed households (Broussard, 2019; Drammeh et al., 2019). When women 



 

19 
 

are involved in the decision making of a household, there is a high probability that food, 

health, and childcare will be prioritised.  

2.5.7  Food price / expensive food 

There is an indication of reduced quantities of food waste when consumers tend to buy 

discounted food or consider low prices an important factor when buying food (Schmidt & 

Matthies, 2018). Increased food prices place a burden on household food security. The 

lower-income homes in developing countries devote approximately 80% of their income 

to food. Expensive food prevents people from having nutritious food in their homes, which 

negatively affects the status of food security in the household (Drammeh et al., 2019). 

2.6  MALNUTRITION AND DIETARY DIVERSITY 

2.6.1  Definitions of malnutrition and dietary diversity 

Malnutrition involves under nutrition seen in stunting and underweight, poor nutrient 

intake from micronutrients, and all these can result  in overweight, obesity, and diet-

related non-communicable diseases such as diabetes (Du Plessis, 2023). It continues to 

cause diseases, especially in women and children, particularly from low-income and 

middle-income countries (Keats et al., 2021). 

Malnutrition is a product of the incompatibility of nutritional necessities with consumption. 

Many individuals suffering from malnutrition displays a correlated disease-related 

inflammation that influences both necessities and consumption (Keller, 2019). 

Malnutrition is one of the world’s prime health challenges, while undernutrition is when a 

person is not fed enough nutrients (Adebisi et al., 2019). Dietary diversity is several 

different food groups that are micronutrient-rich and consumed by people over time 

(Makate & Nyamuranga 2023; Marron-Ponce et al., 2023). 

Good nutrition is the correct foundation for children for their well-being; they mature, 

develop, acquire knowledge, and play, while malnutrition sabotages their potential, with 

negative repercussions (UNICEF, 2018). 



 

20 
 

2.6.2  Determinants of malnutrition and dietary diversity 

Studies have shown that marital status impacts malnutrition, and there is evidence that 

being unmarried is correlated to an increased risk of developing malnutrition (Bardon et 

al., 2021). Low education levels are linked to malnutrition as compared to the successful 

ageing category (Bardon et al., 2021). 

2.6.2.1  Age and sex 

It has been reported that females have a 45% chance of being malnourished as opposed 

to their male equals, and the reason for this could be that, worldwide, women live longer 

than men. Women also are more exposed to negative social and economic conditions in 

their old age (Bardon et al., 2021). Children who are said to possess a birth weight of 2.5 

to 3.0 kg have more chances of experiencing malnutrition later as compared to those 

weighing 3.1 kg and above. Several aspects are linked to this type of malnutrition, such 

as breastfeeding, post-breastfeeding weaning foods, hygiene, and clinic visits for the 

baby (Ncube et al., 2020). The mother’s age is one of the indicators linked to the double 

burden of malnutrition (DBM) in the home. The danger of a woman who is overweight and 

obese having a child who is malnourished or has nutritional deficiencies escalates as age 

increases, especially after 35 years (Guevara-Romeo et al., 2021; Hong, Lyonga et al., 

2020; Anik et al., 2019). 

Age has an impact on dietary diversity, which manifests in the age of the household head. 

It is perceived that knowledge comes from experience, which includes knowledge that 

improves the understanding of diets and nutrition (Jebessa et al., 2019). 

2.6.2.2  Mother’s Education 

A mother’s level of education is a debatable subject. Some researchers state that a high 

level of education for a mother is a threat. For those who regard a mother’s level of 

education as an important aspect, the mother’s education plays a big role in the status of 

the child’s nutrition. For example, when the mother has some level of education, it is 



 

21 
 

easier for her to become aware of the children’s physical and dietary needs than one who 

is not educated (Guevara-Romero et al., 2021; Biswas et al., 2020; Anik et al., 2019). 

Mothers with limited educational backgrounds do not have proper information on matters 

such as proper food consumption practices. Parental education could bring solutions to 

the problems faced by double-burdened households (Géa-Horta et al., 2016). In the case 

where the educational level is low, homes usually adopt negative eating practices such 

as feeding junk food instead of eating nutrition-rich foods because they are expensive 

(Géa-Horta et al., 2016). 

On another note, other studies have not found a correlation between a mother’s education 

and proper eating practices. It is said that even though a mother can have access to all 

the educational resources directed towards excellent dietary options, their decisions are 

still controlled by income and other expenditure at the household level (Jamaluddine 

et al., 2020; Jayalakshmi & Kannan, 2019). 

It has been found that if the household head has a high education status, high dietary 

diversity in the household will be attained. The education of the mother in the house also 

contributes to dietary diversity. An educated household head will have a clear 

understanding of varying the diet and the health implications or benefits thereof.  

Educated household heads invest in purchasing more diversified foods than those who 

are not educated (Kundu et al., 2022; Derso et al., 2021; Jebessa et al., 2019).  

2.6.2.3  Mother’s occupation 

Whether the setting of the mother’s employment is linked to the DBM at home is still not 

clear (Oddo et al., 2018). It can, however, be concluded that a mother who has a job 

would be privileged enough to buy sufficient and varied food. Oddo et al. (2018) 

discovered that the danger of malnutrition lessens when the mother has a job. However, 

some researchers, such as Saibul et al. (2009), indicate that if mothers are working, their 

time to do quality cooking is limited and they therefore opt for junk/fast food instead of 

home-cooked meals. Linking the mother’s work and its demands with the DBM in some 

homes could be accredited to insufficient time allocation for households. Limited time 



 

22 
 

could hinder meal planning, food choices and cooking, childcare, and feeding practices 

(Guevara-Romero et al., 2021). 

2.6.2.4  Household income 

The issue of household income regarding the DBM is still controversial (Guevara-Romero 

et al., 2021). Some researchers state that the higher the income, the higher the danger 

of the DBM (Biswas et al., 2020; Blankenship et al., 2020; Jayalakshmi & Kannan, 2019; 

Géa-Horta et al., 2016). This stresses the point that families with high income may not 

necessarily focus on obtaining high-quality, nutritious food that would offer adequate 

nutrients to growing children, which would equally lead to adult obesity (Guevara-Romero 

et al., 2021). Also, having an income that is not sufficient to take care of the family gives 

them no choice but to live in unpleasant conditions with poor infrastructure developed 

from inappropriate materials. These settings escalate the danger of infections (Guevara-

Romero et al., 2021). 

High-income households practise achieving dietary diversity more than low-income 

households because they can purchase highly nutritious foods due to the smooth 

facilitation of their income. The money that some households generate from selling crops 

produced from their fields facilitates access to different nutrient-dense food for their 

household members (Kundu et al., 2021).  

2.6.2.5  Nutrition knowledge 

Awareness that comes with information about good nutrition and health is crucial to every 

household member. This represents knowledge of different food items, the good choice 

of items, as well as the ability the prepare food the right way (Huluka & Wondimangegnhu, 

2019). 

2.6.2.6  Home gardening 

Land plays a crucial role in dietary diversity (Derso et al., 2021). Home gardening affects 

dietary diversity positively and a difference is identified between households with home 

gardens and households without gardens. A higher variety of fruits and vegetables is 



 

23 
 

available from such gardens and, as a result, high dietary diversity is achieved (Jebessa 

et al., 2019). 

2.6.2.7  Food intake 

Limited consumption of diverse diets and poor child feeding habits lead to elevated levels 

of child undernutrition, which is more prominent in rural areas in developing countries. It 

leads to low birth weight, short stature, and lower resistance to infection (Derso et al., 

2021). The imaginable factor for the cohabitation of maternal overfeeding and child 

underfeeding may be linked to variances in the family’s eating routines (Hauqe et al., 

2019). Numerous households decide to change from their traditional foods to diets 

packed with saturated fats and sugar and the minimum fruits and vegetables (Guevara-

Romero et al., 2021).  

The situation in most developing countries is that they are experiencing Stage 4 of the 

nutrition evolution, where consumers have a diet composed of high-energy and 

processed foods while eliminating nutritious foods such as fruits and vegetables, pulses 

and legumes, and meat with low or no fat content (Fouché, 2018). Some minerals such 

as sodium play an important role in providing balance in blood circulation processes; it is 

normally available in foods such as table salt, milk, snack items, fish, and condiments. 

However, improper use of sodium may contribute to acquiring chronic illnesses that can 

negatively impact the circulation system (Shaabe, 2019). 

A family whose food choices are derived from energy-rich foods is set to have malnutrition 

because these types of food do not contain many beneficial nutrients (Mahmudiono et al., 

2018). Aspects that influence the intake of food, such as the quantity of food consumed 

or the ability to eat, seem to be correlated with malnutrition. Lack of appetite seems to be 

linked with malnutrition too, which can be the result of many factors, including depression, 

cognitive decline, chewing or swallowing problems, and sensory alterations (Bardo et al., 

2021).  

Adequate intake of vitamins A and C has a positive impact on iron status, while insufficient 

intake of folate and vitamin B12 can lead to forms of anaemia. However, the content of 



 

24 
 

iron in food is not the only factor that determines the good use of iron in the body; the 

ability of the body to absorb iron or any other nutrient brings positive benefits to the body 

(Abu, 2015).  

The insufficient intake of fruits and vegetables, which is generally low dietary diversity, 

and living without physical activity lead to non-communicable diseases in sub-Saharan 

Africa (Mabena, 2021; Van den Berg et al., 2019). Legumes, grain crops (maize, wheat, 

and sorghum), and vegetables enhance the dietary diversity of the diet, which improves 

the diet and promotes good nutrition and health (Gerrano et al., 2022). Dietary diversity 

is determined by the adults in a household, and children under six years do not influence 

dietary diversity; however, children from seven to 17 years contribute to determining 

dietary diversity (Fouché, 2018).  

Diet value and amount play a role in malnourishment (Forgie et al., 2020). Compromised 

mouth health condition plays a significant role in influencing the choice of food and intake 

of nutrients, which all lead to malnutrition (Azzolino et al., 2019). Having few or no teeth 

can bring unpleasant results to the quality of the diet as highly nutritious foods may be 

avoided in favour of softer, more calorie-dense food with fewer nutrients (Bardon et al., 

2021). Participating in dietary counselling and oral healthcare may be beneficial to 

managing the complications of older people, while approaches to prevention throughout 

life could preserve both oral and muscle function for a later stage (Azzolino et al., 2020). 

2.6.2.8  Easy access to markets 

Access to markets to sell produced crops would suggest that market linkages could 

enable smallholder farmers to consume diverse diets through demand and supply (Gupta 

et al., 2020). A long distance between the home and the market can be a prohibiting factor 

that discourages the household head to vary the diet at home. Short distance, as well as 

transport availability, may assist in motivating consumers to purchase nutritious food and, 

as a result, improve nutrition through high dietary diversity (Derso et al., 2021; Jebessa 

et al., 2019). 



 

25 
 

2.6.2.9  Food safety 

Ingesting unsafe food and water has an impact on diarrhoea incidences. Steps taken to 

remedy contamination could end up leading to preferring soft drinks over water, and 

highly processed foods over fresh food, particularly in urban areas where these types of 

foods are mostly available. These types of dietary modifications can expose people to 

overweight and obesity and various diseases (Pradeilles & Holdsworth, 2019).  

2.6.2.10  Health and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) 

WASH practices have been related to food and nutrition security (Van Cooten et al., 2019; 

Pritchard et al., 2019). The prominent relationship between less quality of WASH and 

undernutrition is demonstrated by episodes of diarrhoea, which can represent the reason 

for or the result of malnutrition. Diarrhoea negatively affects the absorption of nutrients 

and plays a role in reduced food intake (Momberg et al., 2020; Van Cooten et al., 2019). 

Studies have revealed that contaminated water, poor sanitation and hygiene, and hunger 

can be highly detrimental. They can cause diarrhoea, cholera, etc., which can be the 

product of dehydration and a hindrance to the absorption of nutrients from food. This 

creates a cycle because malnutrition causes the immune system to be weak, which 

makes the body vulnerable to diseases (O’Driscoll, 2018). Natural and health tragedies, 

such as drought, flooding, and cholera outbursts, have produced further demands for 

access to basic WASH services (UNICEF, 2017). 

2.6.2.11  Lifestyle 

Reports concerning lifestyle aspects such as drinking alcohol, smoking, physical exercise, 

and malnutrition remain feeble. Insufficient linkages have been conveyed for physical 

activity as a protective factor and smoking as a cumulative threat (Bardon et al., 2021). 

Williams et al. (2019) discovered that less body movement or an inactive lifestyle 

escalates the possibility of women gaining more weight, whereas other studies (Sassi et 

al., 2019) indicate that it does not correlate with the DBM in the home or contribute to 

obesity, and that the advantage of physical exercise is manifested in a healthy 

cardiovascular system (Cox, 2021). 



 

26 
 

2.6.2.12  Psychological factors 

The occurrence of malnutrition is meaningfully higher among individuals with dementia, 

irrespective of age (Bardon et al., 2021). Foods with high-energy content reduce the 

stress response under the influence of multifaceted metabolic passageways involving the 

hormone cortisol and other signalling fragments. Within the body, these metabolic 

responses are correlated with poorer cardiometabolic profiles, including insulin fighting, 

raised blood pressure, and blood clots. Insulin resistance and continued escalations in 

appetite also result in additional weight increase, which leads to chronically amplified food 

intake (Wells et al., 2021). There are also various changes in behaviour, such as disturbed 

sleep patterns, lower levels of physical activity, faster eating behaviour, and minimised 

sociality around meals. The relationship between stress and appetite generates a 

generally elevated demand for high-energy foods (Wells et al., 2021).  

2.6.2.13  Health-related issues/behaviours 

It is stated that failure to breastfeed is a factor that is linked to the DBM (Hong, 

Winichagoon et al., 2020; Williams et al., 2019; Anik et al., 2019; Géa-Horta et al., 2016). 

Several studies have highlighted that breastfeeding protects against the DBM (Hong, 

Winichagoon et al., 2020). It is generally accepted that exclusive breastfeeding for six 

months is very beneficial for any child. Moreover, Anik et al. (2019) emphasise that the 

true benefits take place between 24 and 59 months. These DBM issues surface 

throughout all age groups, while illnesses such as cancer and osteoporosis only manifest 

within the accelerated ageing group. Malnutrition is prevalent among elderly people with 

cancer, alternating from 30% to 85% prevalence subject to the cancer type (Bardon et 

al., 2021). 

2.6.2.14  Household size 

Household size is linked with a higher probability of undernutrition and anaemia but a 

lesser probability of being overweight at the household level (Christian & Dake, 2022). 

Studies state that as the number of members in a single household grows, there is a 

higher chance of DBM threats in the same household (Lokossou et al., 2021; Alaofè & 



 

27 
 

Asaolu, 2019; Das et al., 2019). Das et al. (2019) indicate that when there are many 

children in the household, especially under five years old, they could suffer due to 

unavailable food (Fooken & Vo, 2021). Blankenship et al. (2020) elaborate that big 

families increase the economic obstructions to successfully attaining proper child nutrition 

and enhanced living conditions in households.  

2.6.2.15 Location 

Some studies have revealed that living in rural areas is a leading cause of the DBM at 

home (Alaofè & Asaolu, 2019; Tydeman-Edwards et al., 2018), while others state that the 

risk escalates if people live in rural areas (Fooken & Vo, 2021; Das et al., 2019; 

Mahmudiono et al., 2018). Some researchers, however, profess that the risk may be the 

same in both rural and urban areas (Hong, Winichagoon et al., 2020; Jayalakshmi & 

Kannan, 2019). Peri-urban areas are places in between rural and urban areas and they 

may pose a threat to acquiring the DBM because their infrastructure is not ideal for human 

settlements. Many such settlements are acquired illegally and do not offer conducive 

conditions and resources such as electricity, drinking water, etc. (Guevara-Romero et al., 

2021; Lokossou et al., 2021). 

2.6.2.16  Household religion 

Religiosity is defined as a belief in God or a deity and adhering to the principles believed 

to be set by God or the deity. Food is important in religion because it provides a way to 

fill hungry stomachs and celebrate unique events; food also characterises certain 

religions or religious practices through the eating of certain foods at allocated times 

(Filimonau et al., 2022). Various religions such as Christianity and Islam view food as a 

blessing from God and its wastage is highly discouraged. Religions motivate people to 

share food to display a level of caring (Elhoushy & Jang, 2021).  

2.6.2.17 The use of Household Dietary Diversity Score 

It is a calculation that is done through the number of food groups consumed in the home 

and outside the home, within 24 hour and 7 days respectively. The food groups are 12, 



 

28 
 

consisting of cereal; white tubers and roots; fruits; vegetables; legumes; nuts and seeds; 

fish/seafood; meat; eggs; oils and fats; milk and milk products; sweets, spices; 

condiments and beverages (Althaiban et al., 2023). The households should be divided by 

three score groups being low (0-4 food groups), medium (5-8 food groups), and high (9-

12 food groups), (Kasimba et al., 2018). A higher score signals high dietary diversity 

indicating high food security, while lower score signals low dietary diversity which 

indicates low food security (Banna et al., 2022). 

2.7  HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE DETERMINANTS AND CONSUMER 
BEHAVIOUR 

2.7.1  Definition of food waste/loss 

Food waste is defined as both food and related inedible parts that are removed from the 

food supply chain (FSC) (Rolker et al., 2022). Types of food waste include avoidable food 

waste and non-avoidable food waste. Avoidable food waste is edible food that has been 

discarded for certain reasons. It is food that is thrown away that was acceptable at some 

point before disposal, such as a slice of bread, apples, and meat (Teigiserova et al., 

2020). Non-avoidable food waste is inedible food that originates from food preparation 

such as bones, skin, shells, etc. Food waste is part of food loss and happens when edible 

food is not eaten (Ishangulyyev et al., 2019). 

2.7.2 Food loss and waste (FLW) 

Agricultural food crops undergo several handling practices before reaching the consumer 

and food loss may occur during these processes. Food loss may occur because of 

machine-driven damage, infection by microorganisms, and attacks by pests, rodents, and 

birds (Gashu et al., 2019). Food loss is a reduction in the quantity and quality of food that 

was primarily created for people to eat, and a reduction at all levels of the FSC in the 

quantity of food primarily produced for people (Ishangulyyev et al., 2019). 

In developing countries, a great amount of FLW occurs during food production and post-

harvest; however, in developed countries, it takes place through the distribution and 



 

29 
 

consumption phases of the FSC. For instance, FLW in handling and storing produce 

12.7% and 1.3% in the consumption phase in sub-Saharan Africa respectively (Wang et 

al., 2021). It has also been found that in developing countries, FLW are generated through 

inadequate harvesting methods, a shortage of modern and suitable rural set-ups, climatic 

situations, and inadequate post-production practices. In developed countries, FLW are 

the result of consumer behaviours and retailers’ lack of information transmission in the 

FSC (Wang et al., 2021). 

In developing countries, FLW occur mostly in warm and humid climates, due to 

inadequate food storage and inefficient processing in these climates. In Rwanda, Ghana, 

Benin, and India, farmers lose 30% to 80% of their harvest before it reaches the consumer 

because of temperature, packaging, poor field health, and prolonged time before reaching 

the market (Wang et al., 2021). 

2.7.3  Food waste in the food service sector 

The food service sector is a broader sector that constitutes the hospitality industry, 

catering, restaurants, fast food chains, cafés, cafeterias, and dining halls. Others include 

hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, school canteens, enterprises’ cafeterias, and prisons 

(Lemaire & Limbourg, 2019). All these sectors experience food waste at some stage, and 

it is important to note that hospitals are considered to produce more than twice the food 

waste of other food service sectors (Dias-Ferreira et al., 2015).  

Another reason for food waste includes staff not being provided with the required training 

for internal routines such as purchasing, storing, and freezing food (Martin-Rios et al., 

2018). Food waste in the food service sector depends mostly on the administration’s 

beliefs, knowledge, goals, and actions (Martin-Rios et al., 2018). This study, however, 

focused on food waste at the household level. 

2.7.4  Food waste at the household level 

The major reasons for food waste at the consumer level are lack of knowledge about the 

availability of food, the location of the desired food, and the customers’ experience with 



 

30 
 

food waste practices. FLW take place because of food purchasing and consumption 

habits (Lemaire & Limbourg, 2019). Some consumers lack knowledge of the extent of 

food waste, while others experience feelings of guilt when engaging in food waste 

(Schanes et al., 2018). 

Food waste and food insecurity have undesirable effects on individuals’ health, the 

environment, and the economy (Harduth, 2017). Lee et al. (2017) state that while a 

substantial part of the population is food insecure, there is also an organised FLW 

challenge. 

2.8  DETERMINANTS OF HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE 

2.8.1  Household size 

The size of the household influences food waste development. Houses that have children 

create more food waste than households that do not have children, because children have 

a tendency to not finish the food on their plates (Thyberg & Tonjes, 2016). Huho et al. 

(2020) found that households with more than four members waste more food than 

households having three, two, or one member. 

2.8.2  Gender 

Women are regarded to waste more food than men do, especially women who live alone 

(Thyberg & Tonjes, 2016). However, in contradiction, Huho et al. (2020) state that men 

waste more food than women. This is further emphasised by Visschers et al. (2016), who 

found that women are associated with less food waste, while Heidari et al. (2020) found 

that gender does not have a significant influence on food waste.  

2.8.3  Educational level 

Regarding food waste production, it has been found that households with a university 

education experience less food waste as opposed to households with a secondary 

education and households with no education background (Abdelradi, 2018). 



 

31 
 

2.8.4  Household income  

Food waste is incurred transversely in various phases and income levels (Thyberg & 

Tonjes 2016). Low-income households waste more food because they tend to buy large 

quantities of low-quality food that often decays before they can be consumed (Li et al., 

2021).  

2.8.5  Household residency and food waste 

It has been discovered that more food is wasted in urban areas than rural areas in sub-

Saharan Africa (Huho et al., 2020). Urbanisation and demographic variations are causing 

escalations in food waste development in homes; however, the reasons why behaviour 

and preferences affect the actions of consumers who reside in urban areas remain 

unknown (Hatab et al., 2022).  

2.9  BEHAVIOUR THAT CONTRIBUTES TO HOUSEHOLD FOOD WASTE 

2.9.1  Domestic food storage 

Storage practices are primarily linked to consumers’ ability to store and preserve food 

after purchasing it. When consumers do not store food correctly, there is a high probability 

that it will decay (Bravi et al., 2020). Storage practices seem to be one of the crucial 

components that affects household food waste. Refrigerators are filled to their maximum 

capacity, yet more food is added. Fresh produce is traditionally not kept in the refrigerator, 

which causes food to spoil in a few days; generally, this occurs when people lack food 

preservation skills and knowledge (Farr-Wharton et al., 2014). 

Refrigerators and freezers play a major role in the convenience, freshness, and safety of 

food. The way that food is placed and moved in the refrigerator is important for food waste 

visibility and well-timed consumption. One solution to minimise food waste rests upon the 

improvement of information, labelling, and motivation to influence consumers to 

refrigerate and freeze their food to reduce food waste (Hebrok & Boks, 2017). 



 

32 
 

2.9.2  Purchasing practices 

Consumers generally do not check what they have before they go shopping, which could 

lead them to purchase food they already have at home (Farr-Wharton et al., 2014; 

Principato et al., 2021). Prepared consumers do planning such as compiling a shopping 

list that coincides with planned meals (Farr-Wharton et al., 2014). Overprovisioning of 

food is also linked to the perceived storing of more-than-needed quantities of food 

(Schanes et al., 2018). The habit of creating a shopping list has been proven to be a 

working strategy for minimising food waste by up to 20% (Principato et al., 2021). 

The burden of the COVID-19 pandemic brought about changes that led to unplanned 

shopping and overstoring, while travel restrictions also affected normal routines. 

Consequently, these changes increased food waste by cooking more than needed, going 

beyond storage time for frozen food, and buying more than needed (Burlea-Schiopoiu et 

al., 2021). Purchasing habits such as buying too much food and being tempted by 

promotions have a negative effect on household food waste. In addition, a lack of planning 

before buying food and information on how to store food correctly can exacerbate the 

situation (Chenene, 2020). 

2.10  FOOD COOKING AND CONSUMPTION PRACTICES 

2.10.1  Identification  

Many people find it difficult to distinguish whether food is fresh or decayed, especially with 

stored leftovers. The quality of food comprises food that is acceptable to consumers in 

terms of appearance, texture, and packaging. Food labelling provides concise information 

on the quality of the food item. Canned and frozen food products are added to the market 

because low-income consumers tend to purchase these food items because they are the 

less expensive option (Jin & Lu, 2021).  

2.10.2  Cooking 

Food waste is common in most households. Improper handling and cooking practices 

lead to food waste (Hatab et al., 2022). Furthermore, expired food and cooking more food 



 

33 
 

than required are some of the causes of household food waste (Huho et al., 2020). Some 

people cook big meals to eat for several sessions, while others cook big meals that they 

cannot finish in a single session and they end up discarding such food (Principato et al., 

2021; Schanes et al., 2018; Farr-Wharton et al., 2014). Approximately 90% of households 

in sub-Saharan Africa use firewood to cook meals, especially in rural areas. Cooking 

systems through the use of gas stoves save time and fuel, as well as reduce emissions 

(Njenga et al., 2019). 

2.10.3  Tastes 

Different tastes among family members can result in purchasing too much food in an 

attempt to accommodate each member. Furthermore, when family members normally eat 

food that is regarded as unhealthy, they purchase a lot of healthy, perishable food that 

decays quickly in an attempt to feel less guilty (Schanes et al., 2018).  

2.10.4  Dates  

Food becomes unsafe if consumed after a specified date. Best-before dates on food 

products inform consumers that food is in its best state before a specific date, but food 

can often still be eaten safely after this date (Principato et al., 2021). When the food item 

is approaching the expiry date, consumers envisage that it is not suitable for consumption. 

Consumers tend to overlook the expiry dates and confuse them with best-before or use-

by dates, which leads to vast amounts of food waste (Bravi et al., 2020).  

2.10.5  Eating out  

Consumers who mostly eat out in restaurants waste more with a lower expression of guilt. 

Eating out is not an indication of spending less on groceries and it is often unplanned. 

This behaviour leads to unused groceries and food waste (Schanes et al., 2018). On the 

other hand, it has also been discovered that people who eat out reduce food waste, 

specifically in the food service sector such as restaurants (Kim et al., 2020). 



 

34 
 

2.11  CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR 

2.11.1  Planning 

A demanding lifestyle and a home with children make it challenging to plan properly for 

provisioning, meals, and food stock. However, it is not only families with children that do 

not attempt to plan; it is an overarching theme among consumers (Hebrok & Boks, 2017). 

Precise planning of food purchases is a good strategy to avoid overbuying, which leads 

to increased food waste (Brennan & Browne, 2021; Schanes et al., 2018).  

Recommended planning tools include a shopping list, advance meal plans, and checking 

what is needed before making purchases (Principato et al., 2021; Schanes et al., 2018). 

Another crucial factor is date labels. Having clear knowledge that the best-before date is 

connected to food quality, while the use-by date is connected to food safety, is important 

to capacitate consumers to be wiser when they buy food (Bravi et al., 2020).  

Planning solutions such as creating a shopping list, creating meal plans, and checking 

the cupboards and refrigerator/freezer before buying groceries will reduce food waste 

(Chenene, 2020; Bravi et al., 2020; Enos, 2019). Consumers who do not make a habit of 

making a shopping list and checking what is needed before buying fall into the trap of 

overestimating what they need (Chenene, 2020). A shopping list functions as a prompt 

more than a thorough plan of items to buy (Hebrok & Boks, 2017). 

2.11.2  Managing leftovers 

Food wastage by young consumers is influenced by a lack of food management skills in 

terms of purchasing, storing, and preparing food, as well as handling leftovers.  

Cooking skills make a huge contribution to possible food waste produced using leftovers. 

Food management skills that contribute to reducing the chances of food being wasted 

involve being familiar with the right portion sizes to prepare and serving the correct 

quantity of food on plates (Karunasena et al., 2021). 

People are generally good at storing and eating leftovers. They prepare large quantities 

of food because they find it difficult to ration. What happens with leftover food is decided 



 

35 
 

by the material and socio-cultural aspects of food consumption. These may pertain to the 

preferences of other members of the family and what is appealing to them (Hebrok & 

Boks, 2017). Making use of leftovers is regarded as one of the most valuable practical 

ways to alleviate household food waste. Some households, however, tend to worry about 

the safety of leftovers, which makes them reluctant to use them (Schanes et al., 2018). 

2.11.3  Composting 

Compost and vermicomposts are supported as nutrient sources for plants, but they are 

still low-grade in nutrition compared to inorganic fertilisers. For example, urea has 46% 

nitrogen, and compound fertilisers such as 3:2:2 (35%) have 42.8% phosphorus and 28% 

potassium, while homemade compost is reported to have as low as 0.8% nitrogen, 0.27% 

phosphorus, and 0.08% potassium (Katakula et al., 2022).  

A market investigation of the composting worm farm business in two countries, South 

Africa and India, was conducted, which established that the Indian market could supply 

over 70 000 kg of worms per month, while for the South African market, this was 3 000 kg. 

Both markets have the potential to double their production or more (Furlong et al., 2017). 

Composting can minimise the price of placing biological waste and provides profits 

because of its composition, which is beneficial for the improvement of the soil (Azis et al., 

2022; Atif et al., 2020).  

Utilising compost may provide a maintainable way of refining soil organic carbon and soil 

fertility, particularly for smallholder farms. The impact of compost differs with soil type, 

compost type, compost quality, and application method. An extensive variety of fresh 

ingredients (including organic waste, crop residue, and livestock and poultry manure) are 

utilised as feedstock in the production of compost (Maselesele et al., 2021).  

There are various reasons for farming earthworms, such as bait for fishing or to sell to 

others, to control livestock manure or crop residues on farms, to process food scraps 

gathered on-site, to make vermicast to produce healthier food, or to generate an income 

from vermicomposting (Sherman, 2018).  



 

36 
 

Food waste habits may differ across settings, which proposes the significance of 

conducting regional studies (Carroll et al., 2020). Proper use of food waste and by-

products as raw materials or food additives could create economic gains, contribute to 

alleviating nutrition problems, produce beneficial health effects, and reduce the ecological 

impact of mishandling of waste (Tores-Leon et al., 2018). The food date labelling process 

relies on the projected increase of decay bacteria, but inconsistencies in accounting for 

eco-friendly issues such as temperature variations play a role in food waste.  

A dominant concern for the 21st century is to continue to provide food for the increasing 

human population in a sustainable manner while accepting the effects of climate change 

and controlling the increase in agricultural land and water use (Bradford et al., 2018). It is 

projected that just 25% of the global food waste would be sufficient to feed all hungry 

people globally (Garcia-Garcia et al., 2017). Food waste in households remains a 

sustainability problem that poses environmental and social difficulties (Williams et al., 

2020). 

Individuals who do not engage in reusing or composting the food waste from their 

households tend discarding more food than those who recycle their food waste 

(Principato et al., 2021). Compost is used as a soil fertiliser that produces healthier plants 

normally consumed by humans (Pearson et al., 2017). How food is discarded impacts the 

quantity of self-reported food waste. A generous quantity of food waste is given to 

animals, and emphasis on disposal practices such as reprocessing or composting often 

decreases people’s enthusiasm for waste avoidance because they do not regard food 

given to animals or composted as wasted food (Principato et al., 2021; Schanes et al., 

2018).  

Recently, research has paid more attention to improved organic fertilisers in maintainable 

agriculture such as vermicomposts, which utilise solid organic materials such as food 

waste, animal waste, and processed sewage sludge (Katakula et al., 2022).  



 

37 
 

2.11.4  Disposal and the social, environmental, and economic impact of food waste 

Leachate is any liquid caused by waste in a landfill and its creation level has a bearing on 

the leachate level. Leachate develops over time and is determined by the state of filling 

and solidity (Chen et al., 2021). Open dumping of solid waste is rampant in developing 

countries, especially in urban areas, which results in leachate and bad odours (Ongia et 

al., 2021). Landfilling is usually utilised for the disposal of municipal solid waste, which 

comprises more food waste in developing countries. The prime cause of 

geoenvironmental problems in landfills with high food waste content is quick leachate and 

landfill gas generation (Chen et al., 2021). 

Among the consequences of disposal of food waste in landfills is the methane and carbon 

dioxide produced by the usual food spoiling process, which results in impurities in the air 

that cause in global warming, which in turn contributes to climate change. The production 

of food also has an impact on the environment because it creates greenhouse gas 

emissions from farm to transport, storage, distribution, and retail proceedings (Madondo 

et al., 2022; Huho et al., 2020). 

People and social wellbeing are the foundational strongholds of sustainability. The two 

are connected to the environment and the economy. The sustainability of the economy is 

supported by the health of both the environment and society. When considering the 

economic consequences of food waste and achieving significant monetary savings, the 

sustainability of the environment should come first. Looking across the FSC, especially 

the household level, the reduction of avoidable and unavoidable food waste directly 

impacts final waste disposal expenses, which are borne primarily by the environment 

(Madondo et al., 2022). 

2.12 CONCLUSION 

This chapter explored the literature on the three aspects of food security, food waste and 

dietary diversity. It also unpacked the real challenges in those three areas exploring the 

global situation together with the current national situation in Lesotho. It also introduced 

the tools that were employed in the data collection process, HFIAS and HDDS. 



 

38 
 

CHAPTER3: 
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

3.1  INTRODUCTION 

This chapter describes the activities undertaken to conduct this study. It provides an 

outline of the research design, study population, sampling, data-collection methods, and 

data-analysis techniques. It also highlights the study’s limitations, validity and reliability, 

as well as the ethical considerations. Mixing the quantitative and qualitative research 

methods enables investigators to gain in-depth understanding of the topic at hand, while 

compensating for the weaknesses of each approach (Mukumbang, 2023). 

3.2  RESEARCH DESIGN 

Research design is defined as a set of issues that guide the researcher’s decisions on 

how to gather the research data, analyse and interpret it, and ultimately answer the 

research question as clearly as possible (Rezigalla, 2020). This study adopted an 

exploratory descriptive design because this type of research enables gaining insight 

(Nyampundu et al., 2020) as limited research is available on this topic. A mixed-methods 

approach was adopted whereby both quantitative and qualitative research was 

conducted. This approach aimed to provide deeper understanding of the underlying 

factors of food insecurity, food waste, and dietary diversity. For the quantitative method, 

a structured questionnaire was used, while for the qualitative component, semi-structured 

interviews were conducted.  

 The mixed method was done concurrently when the questionnaires were administered, 

and the participants interviewed at the same time. A mixed-methods design implied 

components of both quantitative and qualitative research (Bergman, 2016), where the 

findings were integrated to conclude with the help of both approaches (Palinkas et al., 

2019).  

The qualitative approach sought to provide deeper understanding of the underlying 

factors and to answer the “why” questions related to the study topic (Headley & Plano 



 

39 
 

Clark, 2020; Mukumbang, 2023), particularly food waste, food insecurity, and dietary 

diversity in rural and urban areas. Quantitative research follows a specific system and 

avails answers to research questions by collecting measurable data and using 

mathematical procedures for analysis (Panthee, 2020).  

An exploratory design seeks to find the reasons behind challenges, but do not present 

solutions. It is used to identify the problem through a deeper unveiling of the challenge 

and providing more insight (Mathee, 2020). An exploratory design was appropriate for 

this study since limited data are available concerning similar research in Lesotho.  

A descriptive design was used because it would reveal the frequencies and percentages, 

expressed in tables regarding food waste, food insecurity, and dietary diversity. A simple 

way that a descriptive study is conducted is by utilising questionnaires in a survey 

(Schanes et al., 2018). This study also adopted an exploratory design as the topic 

required more insight to assist in finding the causes of and reasons for food waste, and it 

would allow the participants to share their experiences and views (Nyampundu et al., 

2020) of food insecurity, household dietary diversity, and food waste, which was captured 

through interviews. 

3.3  POPULATION AND SAMPLING 

3.3.1  Sample population 

Lesotho (see Figure 3.1) is a small landlocked Southern African country with a population 

of 2.2 million. It consists of 10 districts, namely Mokhotlong, Leribe, Maseru, Berea, 

Mafeteng, Mohale’s Hoek, Qacha’s Nek, Quthing, Thaba-Tseka, and Butha-Buthe. For 

this study, the research was conducted in the rural areas of four districts of Lesotho, that 

are representative of the four agro-ecological zones, namely Mafeteng and Leribe, 

representing the urban areas, and Thaba-Tseka and Qacha’s Nek, which represented the 

rural areas. 

The selected urban districts experience low income and job loss, which are exacerbated 

by the recent COVID-19 pandemic (Lesotho Vulnerability Assessment Committee, 2021), 

and they also have a high prevalence of HIV/AIDS of approximately 25%. The selected 



 

40 
 

rural areas have a high prevalence of stunting in children under five; 40% in Thaba-Tseka 

and 33% in Qacha’s Nek (Ministry of Health, 2016). The other factors that prompted the 

motivation for the choice of study locations were poverty, low income, low food security, 

and a high percentage of female-headed households (Nkoko, 2020; Chenene, 2020). The 

four districts also represent distinct agro-ecological zones in Lesotho. 

The overall sample size was 456, which consisted of 110 household respondents from 

each district that participated in the questionnaires, and four participants per district for 

the interviews. The participants/respondents were adults older than 18 years, capable of 

purchasing and cooking food. This was done with a 95% level of significance, 80% power, 

50% defects, and 0.05 margin of error (Aragaw et al., 2023; Sekgala, 2020). Sample size 

means the number of participants selected from among people who particularly possess 

features to represent and make conclusions about the population (Madondo et al., 2022).  

The sample size per district was calculated using the following formula:  

n = NC2 ÷ [C2 + (N-1) e2]   

= [number of households] x 0.32 ÷ [0.32 + ((number of households-1) x 0.022)]  

= number of households to be sampled 

Where n=sample size; N=population size; C=Coefficient of variation which is ≤ 30%; 

e=margin of error which is fixed between 2-5% (Ali-Olubandwa, 2010; Nassiuma, 2000).  

The rural and urban areas of Lesotho constitute four districts, which represent distinct 

agro-ecological zones. These zones are the mountains (Thaba-Tseka) or highlands, the 

foothills, the Senqu River valley, and the lowlands (New Partnership for Africa’s 

Development & Food and Agriculture Organization, 2005). Thaba-Tseka represented the 

mountains with 33, 089 households; the foothills consisted of the Leribe district, which 

has a total number of 90,157 households; Senqu River valley was represented by 

Qacha’s Nek district with 20, 210 households; and the lowlands was represented by the 

Mafeteng district, with 46,379 households (Bureau of Statistics, 2016). Based on the 

sample size calculations using the above formula, Thaba-Tseka provide a sample of 223 



 

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households, Qacha’s Nek 222 households, Leribe 224 households, and Mafeteng 223 

households, and all these summed up to a total of 892.  

Due to unforeseen shortage of resources from the study sponsor, the sample had to be 

reduced by calculating 51% of 892 to get 456 as the final sample used. A total number of 

440 respondents participated in the questionnaire survey, while an additional 16 

participants participated in the face-to-face interviews, w