LIVED EXPERIENCES OF MOTHERS LODGING AT A PUBLIC 

HOSPITAL IN SOUTH AFRICA 

 

by 

 

MATSHEDISO JULIA NTULI 

 

(Student number:1995633342)  

 

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements in respect of the degree 

 

Master of Nursing     

in the 

School of Nursing 

in the 

Faculty of Health Sciences 

at the  

UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE 

 

November 2022 

 

Supervisor: Dr Cynthia Spies



ii 
 

DECLARATION 

I, Matshediso Julia Ntuli, declare that the Master’s Degree research dissertation that I 

herewith submit for the Master’s Degree qualification Master of Nursing at the 

University of the Free State is my independent work, and that I have not previously 

submitted it for a qualification at another institution of higher education. 

 

 30/11/2022 

Signature                                                                         Date 

 

  



iii 
 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

I would like to thank the Almighty God, my refuge and strength, for wisdom and 
understanding. I thank you heartily, Father, for each person who contributed to the 
success of this research, in every way, both great and small. I thank you sincerely, 
Father, for sustaining me through this hard work until I reached the goal.   

I would also like to convey my appreciation to my supervisor, Dr Cynthia Spies. A 
special thank you goes to you for sharing your ideas and enthusiasm, and directing me 
by helping me move forward when I felt stuck in the process. I am grateful not only for 
your constant and encouraging assistance but also for your patience and 
understanding. Your mentorship and insightful feedback made me grow and motivated 
me to work harder towards achieving my goal. 

Free State Department of Health, thank you for granting me the opportunity to conduct 
the study at a public hospital.  

The Health Science Research Ethics Committee at the University of Free State, thank 
you for the ethical clearance, without which my study would not have been possible. 

My sincere thanks to Mr Jabulani Wally Ntuli, my beloved husband. I thank you for 
being part of my life and career growth. I would not have achieved this feat without 
your love, encouragement and support. Thank you for taking care of our two beautiful 
daughters during my demanding studies. I love you. 

To my beautiful daughters, Rebaona and Remoabetswe Ntuli, I am profoundly grateful 
for your understanding and for affording me the time to accomplish my dream. 

My dearest friend, Dr Molaodi Matobako, my greatest supporter when I needed it the 
most. You gave laughs and encouragements when they were most needed. Your 
support and stimulation went beyond estimate. You stood behind me in this process 
by providing structure, support and motivation when needed. 

I would like to acknowledge the Postgraduate School for my bursary that I was granted 
to pay part of my tuition fees. 

Lastly, a big thank you goes to the participants of the study. There would not have 
been a study without your participation. Thank you.  



iv 
 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

DECLARATION .............................................................................................................. ii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. iii 

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ iv 

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... ix 

CLARIFICATION AND APPLICATION OF CONCEPTS .............................................. x 

ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................. xii 

ABSTRACT.................................................................................................................. xiii 

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY .................................................................. 1 

1.1 Introduction and Background ................................................................................. 1 

1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................. 5 

1.3 Research Question ................................................................................................. 6 

1.4 Purpose .................................................................................................................. 6 

1.5 Paradigmatic Perspective ....................................................................................... 6 

1.6 Research Design and Method ................................................................................ 7 

1.6.1 Population and unit of analysis ...................................................................... 8 

1.6.2 Recruitment.................................................................................................... 9 

1.6.3 Explorative interview ...................................................................................... 9 

1.6.4 Data collection ............................................................................................. 10 

1.6.5 Data analysis ............................................................................................... 10 

1.7 Role of the Researcher ........................................................................................ 11 

1.8 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................... 11 



v 
 

1.9 Methodological Rigor of the Study ....................................................................... 12 

1.10 Study Limitations .................................................................................................. 13 

1.11 Layout of the Dissertation ..................................................................................... 13 

1.12 Summary .............................................................................................................. 13 

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................................. 16 

2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 16 

2.2 Paradigmatic Perspective ..................................................................................... 16 

2.2.1 Ontology ....................................................................................................... 17 

2.2.2 Epistemology ............................................................................................... 17 

2.2.3 Methodology ................................................................................................ 18 

2.2.4 Axiology ....................................................................................................... 18 

2.3 Research Design and Method .............................................................................. 19 

2.3.1 Qualitative research approach ..................................................................... 19 

2.3.2 Descriptive phenomenology ........................................................................ 20 

2.4 Population and Unit of Analysis ............................................................................ 22 

2.4.1 Accessible population and sampling ........................................................... 22 

2.4.2 Selection of participants ............................................................................... 23 

2.4.3 Inclusion criteria ........................................................................................... 23 

2.4.4 Exclusion criteria .......................................................................................... 23 

2.4.5 Recruitment of participants .......................................................................... 24 

2.5 Data Collection ..................................................................................................... 24 

2.5.1 Explorative interview .................................................................................... 25 

2.5.2 Process of data collection ............................................................................ 25 



vi 
 

2.6 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 27 

2.7 Role of the Researcher ........................................................................................ 30 

2.8 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................... 31 

2.8.1 Beneficence and non-maleficence .............................................................. 31 

2.8.1.1 Right to freedom from discomfort ................................................... 32 

2.8.1.2 Right to protection from exploitation ............................................... 32 

2.8.2 Respect for dignity and autonomy ............................................................... 32 

2.8.2.1 Right to self-determination .............................................................. 33 

2.8.2.2 Right to full disclosure..................................................................... 33 

2.8.3 Justice .......................................................................................................... 33 

2.8.3.1 Right to fair treatment ..................................................................... 34 

2.8.3.2 Right to privacy ............................................................................... 34 

2.9 Methodological Rigor ............................................................................................ 34 

2.9.1 Credibility ..................................................................................................... 35 

2.9.2 Dependability ............................................................................................... 36 

2.9.3 Transferability .............................................................................................. 38 

2.9.4 Authenticity .................................................................................................. 39 

2.10 Summary .............................................................................................................. 40 

CHAPTER 3: RESULTS AND LITERATURE CONTROL .......................................... 41 

3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 41 

3.2 Description of the Participants .............................................................................. 41 

3.3 The Process of Data Analysis .............................................................................. 42 

3.4 Discussion of the Findings ................................................................................... 43 



vii 
 

3.4.1 Lodging environment ................................................................................... 44 

3.4.2 Emotional experiences ................................................................................ 51 

3.4.3 Nursing care of babies ................................................................................. 59 

3.4.4 Interaction with staff ..................................................................................... 63 

3.4.5 Participant perspectives ............................................................................... 68 

3.5 Summary .............................................................................................................. 74 

CHAPTER 4: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..................................... 76 

4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 76 

4.2 Response to the Research Problem .................................................................... 76 

4.3 Deductions from the In-Depth Interviews ............................................................. 76 

4.3.1 Lodging environment ................................................................................... 77 

4.3.2 Emotional experiences ................................................................................ 78 

4.3.3 Nursing care of babies ................................................................................. 78 

4.3.4 Interaction with staff ..................................................................................... 79 

4.3.5 Participant perspectives ............................................................................... 79 

4.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 79 

4.4.1 Hospital management and staff ................................................................... 80 

4.4.2 Free State Department of Health ................................................................. 81 

4.4.3 Recommendations for further research ....................................................... 81 

4.5 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................ 82 

4.6 Contributions of the Study .................................................................................... 82 

4.7 Final Reflections ................................................................................................... 83 

4.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................ 84 



viii 
 

List of References ....................................................................................................... 86 

ADDENDUM A: Participant information leaflet and consent form ....................... 103 

ADDENDUM B: Pampitshana ya tlhahiso-leseding ya banka- karolo le foromo ya 

tumello........................................................................................................... 107 

ADDENDUM C: Inligtingsblaadjie vir deelnemer en toestemmingsvorm ........... 111 

ADDENDUM D: Approval letter from Health Science Research Ethics Committee, 

University of the Free State ........................................................................ 115 

ADDENDUM E: Letter to the Head of the Department of Health of the Free State

 ....................................................................................................................... 116 

ADDENDUM F: Approval letter from the Free State Department of Health ........ 117 

ADDENDUM G: Letter to the Chief Executive of the Hospital .............................. 119 

Addendum H: Editor’s letter .................................................................................... 120 

 

  



ix 
 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1.1: Philosophical assumptions of interpretivism ............................................... 7 

Table 2.1: The four steps of descriptive phenomenology .......................................... 21 

Table 2.2: Tesch's eight steps in coding qualitative data ........................................... 27 

Table 2.3: Ethical principles applied in the study ....................................................... 31 

Table 2.4: Trustworthiness criteria applied in the study ............................................. 35 

Table 3.1: Participants’ ages and lodging duration .................................................... 42 

Table 3.2: Categories and subcategories of the participants’ lodging experiences ... 43 

  



x 
 

CLARIFICATION AND APPLICATION OF CONCEPTS 

Below are listed relevant concepts referred to in this study. The concepts are clarified 

per definition, and where necessary, an operational definition is provided to show its 

meaning and application in this study. 

Baby 

A baby is a child under 28 days old (World Health Organization [WHO], 2018). Only a 

small portion of the average person’s predicted lifespan is spent in infancy, but this 

period is marked by significant physiological, physical and psychological changes, 

many of which are visible to the untrained eye (Bornstein, 2013). A baby is also referred 

to as a neonate and is regarded as such from birth to 28 days (South Africa. DoH, 

2012a:2). An infant is referred to as a child aged one month to approximately twelve 

months of age (South Africa. DoH, 2012a:2). A baby in this study is a newborn or 

someone who was just born, from day one of life to more than one month, and was 

either born prematurely or sick and therefore required admission to the neonatal care 

unit (NCU). A neonate or an infant will be regarded as a baby in the study, because 

the participants who reflected on their lived experiences referred to their newborns as 

“baby”. 

Lived experiences 

The process of learning a skill or information via seeing and doing something is referred 

to as experience (Roth & Jornet, 2013:107). The concept of lived experiences relates 

to people’s choices and feelings in their everyday lives. These feelings include how 

individuals remember and feel about situations they come across daily (Botma et al., 

2010:190). Brink et al. (2018:105) describe lived experiences as ways through which 

people are involved in the world, with the focus thus being on what is happening in that 

individual’s life, what aspects of the experience are most important, and what changes 

are required. For this study, lived experiences reflect those day-to-day experiences of 

mothers lodging at a public hospital, with their babies having been admitted to the 

NCU. 

Lodging mothers 

In this study, the term lodging mothers refers to mothers who are accommodated at 

the hospital premises while their ill babies are taken care of in the NCU. Lodging 



xi 
 

mothers are women in the post-delivery period and who would, in normal 

circumstances, be at home with their newborn babies. However, due to their babies’ 

illness and hospitalisation, they are “lodging” to be near them. These lodging facilities 

are usually within walking distance of the NCU. 

 
Lodging residence 
 
A typical definition of a lodging house/residence is that it is a place where people can 

rent rooms to live in or stay in (Collins English Dictionary, 2023: online). In this study, 

the lodging residence (also referred to as the lodging ward) is the facility that was 

designed to accommodate mothers who must stay near the Unit or Ward where their 

sick baby(s) was admitted to at a public hospital. This residence is supervised by a 

dedicated person who ensures cleanliness. Residents are expected to make their own 

beds and wash their own clothes as the institution does not offer these services.  

Neonatal care unit 

An NCU is a specially equipped unit typically consisting of an intensive care unit (ICU) 

and a high care unit. The ICU caters for the specialised care of seriously ill patients 

and where medical and specially trained professional nursing staff are available at all 

times (South Africa. DoH, 2015:24). The high care unit caters for babies who are small 

but stable enough to be carried by their mothers for kangaroo care. District hospitals 

transfer neonates who need assisted life support to regional or tertiary hospitals where 

they are cared for by paediatricians in an NCU (South Africa, DoH. 2014a:23). For this 

study’s purposes, the NCU is referred to as a ward that caters for both specialised care 

and high care cases at a specific public hospital that admits premature or sick neonates 

who are too ill for the general hospital ward. Babies in the NCU are usually in the 

neonatal period (the first 28 days after birth). 

Public hospital 

A public hospital, often known as a government hospital, is a facility that has the staff 

and resources necessary to diagnose illnesses, treat patients medically and surgically, 

and provide for their housing while receiving care. It often also serves as a centre for 

research and teaching (Piercey et al., 2020:1). According to the DoH (South Africa, 

2012a:50), a public hospital provides secondary and tertiary care services and central 

referral services. In addition, it may provide national referral services, train healthcare 



xii 
 

providers, perform research, receive patients from other provinces who are sent there, 

and serve as the primary teaching platform for a medical school. For this study, a public 

hospital is a hospital such as described by the DoH above.  

 

 

ACRONYMS 

DoH Department of Health 

FSDoH Free State Department of Health 

HSREC Health Sciences Research Ethics Committee 

KMC Kangaroo mother care 

NCU Neonatal care unit 

 

  

  



xiii 
 

ABSTRACT 

The lived experiences of mothers who must make use of lodging residences while their 

sick babies have been admitted to a neonatal care unit (NCU) is understudied. The 

challenges that these mothers face daily is not well documented. To explore and 

understand the phenomenon of lodging at a public hospital in South Africa, this study 

focused on mothers and their experiences while waiting for the recovery of their babies. 

The research question to be answered was: What are the lived experiences of mothers 

lodging at a public hospital while their babies have been admitted to an NCU?  

Since little is understood about lodging and its challenges, the researcher selected a 

qualitative approach through which data could be obtained from participants who had 

first-hand experience of lodging. A sample of 13 mothers participated in the study. The 

research phenomenon was investigated using data obtained from in-depth individual 

interviews. The findings of the study included five categories with relevant 

subcategories. The five major categories were: lodging environment, emotional 

experiences, nursing care of babies, interaction with staff, and participant perspectives. 

From the data, it was inferred that participants experienced many challenges and 

multiple causes of stress during the lodging period and that they were not well 

supported by the service providers.  

In terms of recommendations, the institution providing the lodging should commit to 

developing support programmes and policies for mothers who must endure being away 

from family and social support structures. Extended research into the phenomenon of 

lodging mothers might lead to the development of a unique institutional approach that 

will ensure a stay as pleasant and supportive as possible. In turn, satisfied mothers 

and supportive staff relations may reflect positively on the well-being and health 

outcomes of the babies. 

Key concepts: lodging mothers, lived experiences, lodging residence, neonatal care 

unit, public hospital.  

 



1 

CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 

1.1 Introduction and Background  

The admission of a newborn baby to a neonatal care unit (NCU) is often unexpected. 

There are several reasons for admitting neonates to an NCU. For example, preterm 

babies are admitted immediately after birth to support their immature organs. Other 

reasons include babies with a birthweight of 1 to 1.99 kg, full-term babies who are 

unwell, or babies that have significant gastrointestinal abnormalities, such as 

omphalocele and gastroschisis (South Africa. Department of Health [DoH], 2014b:47). 

The unforeseen birth and admission of a sick or premature baby may lead to anxiety, 

stress and intense emotions in family members, especially the mother (Abuidhail et al., 

2017:156; Davim et al., 2010:713–714,866). Parents, especially mothers, whose 

newborns are in the NCU can find it psychologically difficult to have a sick baby, to 

worry about losing their baby, and to not fulfil the expectations of traditional parenting 

(Mizrak et al., 2015:1). 

Studies have shown that mothers and babies should stay together after birth 

(Crenshaw, 2007:1; De Araujo & Rodrigues, 2010:866). The early separation of mother 

and baby can have a substantial negative impact on mother-baby bonding and may 

lead to long-term difficulties for the mother in adapting to the parenting role (Chellani 

et al., 2018:103; Cleveland & Horner, 2012:164). Identified sources of stress for the 

mothers include having limited access to their babies, especially when they are 

premature and critically ill. In addition, inadequate spousal support, lactation 

difficulties, insufficient health information, financial constraints and loneliness add to 

the daily worries of these mothers (Abeasi & Emelife, 2020:4; Cleveland & Horner, 

2012:164; Lomotey et al., 2019:1).  

Admission of their babies to an NCU challenges mothers to undertake the duty of 

raising children with unidentified professionals at an unplanned location (Shimizu & 

Mori, 2017:4). These mothers often require individual support to ensure mother-baby 

bonding and maternal role development. Although mothers may perceive their babies’ 

hospitalisation as stressful, they can help in a variety of ways with newborn care. These 



2 

include ensuring routine baby hygiene, feeding the baby and practising kangaroo 

mother care (KMC).  

KMC is referred to as “a package of interventions”, which includes holding the baby, 

maternal skin-to-skin contact after the baby has been stabilised, and close observation 

of the baby (Lomotey et al., 2020:9). Through KMC, normal body temperature is 

maintained. Numerous benefits of the KMC technique have been scientifically 

validated. A few of these are better mother-child interactions, increased milk 

production, ideal baby growth and development, improved physiological stability in 

babies, decreased pain, increased mother confidence, and improved care-taking of the 

baby by the mother (South Africa, DoH, 2012b:3, 2014b:58). Apart from promoting 

bonding between mother and baby and helping the baby to feel secure (Bamford, 

2012:49), KMC may lead to early discharge from the NCU (Fonseca et al., 2013:261). 

At the public hospital where the research was conducted, the hospital policy allows all 

mothers whose babies are admitted to the NCU to lodge in a unit specifically designed 

for this purpose. 

Apart from the benefits of KMC, maternal presence alone may improve the baby’s 

weight gain and possibly neurodevelopmental outcomes (Kritzinger & Van Rooyen, 

2014:2). However, in order to have the mothers nearby, most of them will have to find 

a place to stay while their babies are being hospitalised – especially those mothers 

who are from other towns or provinces. Providing for mothers to have daily access to 

the NCU has the potential to achieve the positive outcomes mentioned (Lomotey et al., 

2020:2). According to Chellani et al. (2018:103), there is sufficient evidence from six 

developed countries that neonatal outcomes improve because of increased parent-

baby interaction in an NCU. Mother-baby contact not only encourages frequent 

personal contact with the baby, it also offers an opportunity for health professionals to 

support the mother and family members (De Araujo & Rodrigues, 2010:866).  

The practice of providing lodging for mothers, especially for mothers whose babies are 

admitted to an NCU, complies with the Statute of the Child and Adolescent (SCA) 

(Fonseca et al., 2013:261). The SCA also applies to South Africa and states that the 

mother’s accommodation is a space that permits the mother’s full-time stay during the 

baby’s hospitalisation. The SCA caters for pregnant and nursing mothers and 

stipulates that even during pregnancy, mothers have the right to life and health, and 



3 

assures care at different levels of public health services. In this regard, the government 

of South Africa must also provide food to nursing mothers. Watts and Wilton (2015:2) 

state that in public hospitals, healthy mothers who are discharged from inpatient 

midwifery care are liable for lodging. 

A typical lodging residence has a maximum of three rooms, accommodating twelve 

patients per cubicle where mothers stay (South Africa. DoH, 2015:60). This residence 

is supervised to ensure cleanliness and security, but nursing care for the mother is not 

needed (Bettercare Learning Programme, 2019:24). The mothers are provided with a 

bed, a place to sit and relax, and a locker to stow their clothes and personal belongings. 

According to the DoH (South Africa, 2015:7), it is not expensive to accommodate 

mothers at a lodging residence.  

The mothers of this study who reside at the lodging residence do not pay any fees to 

stay there - therefore, lodging is an option for those whose babies are in an NCU. 

Otherwise, mothers from other towns or provinces (refer to study context here below) 

may incur travelling costs after being discharged if they want to see their babies 

regularly. In such case, to keep mother and baby together, the mother must travel daily, 

which is not feasible if she stays out of town and cannot afford transportation to visit 

her baby regularly. This situation may result in mothers having less contact with their 

babies and not being able to provide KMC or breastmilk as required for the health of 

the baby.   

Study context: The research site was selected based on the researcher’s access 

to the population. The lodging residence in this study refers to the living space 

established near the NCU to allow mothers easy access to their sick babies. The 

mothers walk approximately 120 meters outside the hospital building before reaching 

the NCU. Mothers visit the NCU to express breastmilk and to assist with routine tasks 

such as feeding and changing nappies. The residence is at a public hospital in the Free 

State province (one of the nine provinces in South Africa). The hospital is situated in 

the Motheo District (one of five districts in the Free State). Since the hospital accepts 

referrals from the surrounding districts in the Free State, a neighboring province 

(Northern Cape) and a neighboring country (Lesotho), some mothers live out of town 

and need a place to reside while their babies are admitted to the NCU. All the mothers 

who participated in this study were from out of town at the time of the interviews. 



4 

The researcher of this study has been working at the public hospital at the NCU and 

with lodging mothers for the last 11 years. The NCU can accommodate 24 babies. Five 

beds are for babies with surgical conditions, five for babies with medical conditions, 

and two for babies with infections and that require nursing in an isolated cubicle. 

Another 12 beds are specifically for low-weight babies who do not need specialised 

care and those who have recovered and are stable enough to receive KMC by their 

mothers. Mothers are allowed to visit their babies regularly on a three-hourly basis. 

Even though there are determined visiting hours, they can visit at any time if no 

procedures are done on their babies. When the babies’ condition improves and they 

no longer need specialised care, they are transferred to a unit that caters for stable 

babies who are nearly well enough to go home but are waiting to gain weight or to be 

weaned from oxygen.  

Throughout the years, the researcher has observed that, as the literature states, 

maternal presence seems to contribute to a faster recovery of premature and sick 

babies (De Araujo & Rodrigues, 2010:866; Davim et al., 2010:714). The researcher 

has also noted that not all personnel treat mothers who are lodging alike. Some older 

personnel seem impatient when mothers ask questions or hold their babies, and 

sometimes even deny them access to touch their babies, change their diapers or 

practise KMC. On the other hand, the younger staff seemingly like to involve lodging 

mothers by providing health education and allowing mothers to touch their babies, 

change baby diapers and practise KMC. Nurses who work with newborn babies need 

to be aware of both stress and sources of support for parents (Davim et al., 2010:715). 

The researcher has also observed a lack of support from families for mothers who are 

from other provinces. Often, the mothers do not have enough clothes to change into 

because they did not know that their babies would have some complications after birth. 

They often bring only pyjamas to the hospital, thinking that they may be discharged the 

following day, but due to unforeseen complications, the babies had to be referred to a 

tertiary institution for further management. 

From observation, mothers do not seem to be prepared emotionally for a sudden 

change in their babies’ condition or sudden transfer to another institution. The 

researcher has noticed that mothers lodging at the hospital appear sad and 

demotivated. Some mothers have expressed worry about losing their babies, 



5 

especially when babies get an infection. Some mothers have even said they did not 

want to go home to visit their family members because they worried they might receive 

bad news about their babies while at home. These observations interested the 

researcher in gaining a deeper understanding of what mothers are experiencing while 

lodging at the hospital so that appropriate support can be provided where necessary. 

1.2 Problem Statement 

Babies are usually admitted to an NCU when they are critically unwell or prematurely 

born. Patients receive intense care in this highly advanced setting from specialised 

medical teams and highly technical equipment, prioritising preservation of life (O’Brien 

et al., 2013:1). Emergency and surgical treatments, resuscitation, intubation and 

ventilation, drug administration, and other standard procedures are all included in care. 

These activities often result in mothers being separated from their babies (O’Brien et 

al., 2013:1). Mother-baby separation can stress the baby unnecessarily, impede 

attachment and bonding, and result in poor motor and neurological development 

(Sullivan et al., 2012:3). Lack of attachment and bonding may have lifelong adverse 

effects on the baby, such as poor relationship building, poor psychosocial skills 

development, and feelings of abandonment and neglect. Bonding and attachment play 

a role in the growth of emotional intelligence as well as in the development of the brain. 

Decreased stress, easier bonding, and possibilities for attachment between the 

mother, family, and newborn are therefore essential (Kuo et al., 2011:298), all of which 

may be improved by allowing the mother to lodge at the hospital.  

Providing mothers whose newborns are admitted to hospital with lodging residences 

emerged as a gradual, structured process of KMC and to inspire these mothers as 

caregivers in an NCU. Motherly presence and caregiving are supervised by the NCU 

staff (Bracht et al., 2013:115; O’Brien et al., 2013:1). Ideally, mothers receive training, 

assistance, and participation in non-invasive tasks like feeding, basic healthcare, 

changing diapers and reporting care given. In so doing, the mothers become active 

members of the healthcare team, of their babies, by contributing in decision-making 

and their physical care (Galarza-Winton et al., 2013:335; O’Brien et al., 2013:1). 

Since the hospitalisation of a newborn is often unexpected, mothers may feel 

separated from their babies and may experience difficulty with mother-baby bonding 



6 

during this time (Ncube et al., 2016:2). For reasons mentioned in the introduction, it 

would be preferable for mothers whose babies are admitted to an NCU to stay as close 

as possible to their sick babies in a lodging residence (South Africa. DoH, 2015:39). 

Literature on how mothers experience having to lodge for unknown periods is scarce. 

Most literature focuses on the mothers’ lived experiences with rooming-in babies and 

not those of mothers who are separated from their sick babies (Crenshaw, 2007:2; 

Lomotey et al., 2020:1). It is therefore necessary to explore how mothers experience 

lodging while their babies are admitted to the hospital. Although the lived experiences 

of mothers whose babies were admitted to the NCU have been explored before 

(Lomotey et al., 2020:1; Steyn et al., 2017:1), there is still a research gap on the lived 

experiences of mothers lodging at or nearby the hospital while their babies have been 

admitted to the NCU. As the topic has not been studied in depth, it is difficult to know 

what kind of challenges these mothers are facing and how they could be supported to 

make their stay as pleasant as possible. 

1.3 Research Question  

What are the lived experiences of mothers lodging at a public hospital while their 

babies have been admitted to an NCU?  

1.4 Purpose  

The purpose of the study was to explore and describe the lived experiences of mothers 

lodging at a public hospital while their babies have been admitted to an NCU. 

1.5 Paradigmatic Perspective 

An interpretivist paradigmatic perspective guided this descriptive phenomenological 

research about the lived experiences of lodging mothers. Phenomenology flows from 

interpretive philosophy (Savin-Baden & Howell-Major, 2013:26). The philosophical 

assumptions, ontology, epistemology, methodology and axiology of interpretivism are 

summarised in Table 1.1.  

 

 



7 

Table 1.1: Philosophical assumptions of interpretivism  
Paradigmatic perspective Application in this study 
Ontology 
The nature of reality: assumptions about the 
nature of being, and reality. 

The subjective reality of how lodging affects 
mothers while their babies are very sick and 
have been admitted to an NCU. 

Epistemology 
The nature of knowledge: the relationship 
between the researcher and participants; 
assumptions about the nature of knowledge 
and knowing; the relation between the 
knower and the would-be known. 

Individual meaning-making through the lived 
experiences of lodging mothers and the 
researcher’s understanding of lodging 
mothers’ lived experiences. 

Methodology 
How evidence is best obtained: assumptions 
about “how things are done”; systematic 
inquiry. 

In-depth individual interviews to discover the 
essence and meaning of the participant’s 
lived experiences of being a lodging mother 
at a specific public hospital. 

Axiology 
Values and ethics: the role of values and 
ethics; assumptions about the nature of 
ethics and values. 

Values are essential and are stated clearly 
and in detail in section 2.2.4. Principles will 
be followed to ensure ethical research 
practice. 

Compiled from Botma et al. (2010:42–43), Mertens (2015:11) and Polit and Beck (2017:10) 

 

The application of the paradigmatic perspective is presented in more detail in 

Chapter 2, section 2.2. The following section offers a summary of the research 

methodology, the population and units of analysis, and data collection and analysis. A 

detailed description of the research method is provided in Chapter 2. 

1.6 Research Design and Method 

The researcher selected a qualitative approach to guide the design of the study. 

Descriptive phenomenology was employed as a tradition of inquiry to answer the 

research question relating to the lived experiences of lodging mothers. Participants’ 

lived experiences were not only interpreted or understood but also explored (Polit & 

Beck, 2017:472). The study was exploratory to offer a deeper understanding of the 

lived experiences of participants.  

Descriptive phenomenology was applied in this study to understand the meaning of 

participants’ lived experiences. The inquiry process included lodging mothers’ 

experiences in the same hospital setting (Brink et al., 2018:105; Creswell, 2007:57−58; 

Polgar & Thomas, 2013:78). The inquiry included gathering information from 

participants to understand lodging through the researcher’s observation and 



8 

introspective reflection (Polit & Beck, 2017:471). A descriptive design entails the 

methodical gathering of data about the phenomenon of interest, which is a crucial step 

in the development of nursing knowledge about the problem (Botma et al., 2010:194). 

Four steps of descriptive phenomenology were adopted, as mentioned by Polit and 

Beck (2017:471), and are presented in detail in Chapter 2 (see Table 2.1).  

1.6.1 Population and unit of analysis  

The population of this study includes all individuals or sum of cases that meet certain 

criteria for inclusion and who are available for research (Botma et al., 2010:200). Brink 

et al. (2018:116) describe population as the total group of people or subjects who are 

of interest to the researcher and who meet the requirements for the research and have 

access to relevant and adequate information. The individual or entity from which the 

researcher collects data, including groups of people, is the unit of analysis (Kumar, 

2018:70−71). 

The accessible population in this study were all lodging mothers whose babies had 

been admitted to an NCU at a specific public hospital from December 2020 to April 

2021. Approximately 27 mothers lodge at the lodging residence of the hospital per 

month. Mothers who had lodged for at least two weeks at the time of data collection 

were asked to participate, because those who lodged less than that might not have 

provided the rich data that the researcher sought. Interviews were conducted for data 

collection from 31 March to 4 April 2021. Lodging mothers who appeared emotionally 

unstable and depressed during the postpartum period, or who were confirmed to have 

postpartum psychosis, were not asked for interviews to protect their emotional 

vulnerability. Additionally, mothers who were physically unwell during the postpartum 

period (e.g., high blood pressure, extreme pain) were not asked for an interview unless 

they were comfortable enough to consent to an interview. Since the researcher was 

directly involved in caring for some of the prospective participants’ babies, an 

independent person with good interviewing skills was requested to conduct as many 

interviews as were required to attain data saturation (Polgar & Thomas, 2013:35). This 

arrangement excluded possible coercion of participants.  



9 

1.6.2 Recruitment 

Access to the participating lodging mothers was obtained by the researcher, who 

handed out information leaflets to them in their language of choice (Addenda A – C). 

The researcher briefed the prospective participants about the study and informed them 

that their participation was voluntary and that they could withdraw at any time. 

Subsequently, the independent interviewer made appointments with mothers who had 

agreed to participate and obtained informed consent on the day of the interview. 

Interviews were conducted at a time that was most suitable for the participants and 

when it was not required of them to nurse their babies. 

The participants were chosen through purposeful sampling. In this kind of 

non-probability sampling, the researcher used her discretion to select participants from 

the population (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:96). Prospective participants were included 

due to their lodging experience, their willingness to participate in an individual 

interview, and their ability to reflect on and communicate effectively about the feelings 

they experienced (Botma et al., 2010:200). Maximum variation was used by including 

a variety of participants with different ages, gravidity, parity, background and cultural 

heritage to explore the diversity of individual experiences (Polit & Beck, 2017:499). 

Participants were interviewed in the language of their choice, which were Sesotho, 

Afrikaans or English.  

1.6.3 Explorative interview 

An explorative interview was conducted to test the interview question(s) and practise 

the interview process (Botma et al., 2010:291). Simultaneously, the research question 

was tested. The interviewer conducted an individual explorative interview with a mother 

whose baby had been admitted to the NCU at the same public hospital where all the 

other interviews were conducted. Privacy was ensured by using a quiet seminar room 

near the NCU without interference from other staff (Brink et al., 2018:115). According 

to the interviewer, the question(s) seemed clear to the participant, and she stayed 

within the allocated timeframe of 30 to 45 minutes for the interview. As Botma et al. 

(2010:291) suggest, the explorative interview would be repeated were amendments 

made to the research question or interview process, but in this case, the explorative 

interview was used as part of the data analysed because of the rich information 

obtained.  



10 

1.6.4 Data collection 

The interviewer’s abilities and experience as a qualitative researcher and an advanced 

midwife made her a suitable interviewer. An independent interviewer was asked to 

conduct the interviews to mitigate bias and to allow the participants the opportunity to 

express themselves freely, as the interviewer was not directly responsible for their 

babies’ nursing care. In this way, in-depth interviewing allowed participants to respond 

freely to questions and to describe and explain situations that provided rich descriptive 

data (Abeasi & Emelife, 2020:3). 

The interviews with a small number of lodging mothers aimed to explore and 

understand the participants’ experiences from their point of view (Botma et al., 

2010:207). A guiding, open-ended question was asked during the interviews: Please 

tell me in detail the feelings you had as a lodging mother while your baby was admitted 

to the NCU? Based on the responses, comments and reactions of participants, the 

interviewer asked additional questions (Savin-Baden & Howell-Major, 2013:359). The 

interviews were audio-recorded with permission by the participants. The researcher 

ensured that the audio recorder was in good working order to ensure reliable recorded 

data. The interviewer used an interview guide as explained by Boyce and Neale 

(2006:5). An in-depth discussion of the interview process is presented in Chapter 2.  

Only the researcher, the transcriber and the study supervisor had access to the raw 

data, which were kept in a locked cabinet. Data will be destroyed five years after the 

publication of this research. Audio recordings of interviews were downloaded onto an 

electronic storing device and placed in the locked cupboard for safe-keeping. 

Recordings were erased from the original device as soon as they were downloaded on 

a secure device. 

1.6.5 Data analysis 

When analysing qualitative data, researchers organise the information they have 

gathered and consider the significance of the participants’ words and actions (Polgar 

& Thomas, 2013:181). Understanding participants’ lived experiences included listening 

to their thoughts and observing what they said. Coding entails line-by-line reading 

through the transcribed data to separate it into meaningful analytical units (Maguire & 

Delahunt, 2017:3353). The preferred way to analyse qualitative data is to read the 

transcribed data throughout the data collection process, as the researcher does not 



11 

know what would be discovered or what the final analysis would be like (Merriam & 

Tisdell, 2016:197).  

An experienced, independent transcriber transcribed the audio-recorded interviews as 

soon as possible after the interviews. Sesotho transcripts were translated into English 

and provided a permanent record of what was said during the interviews. Verbatim 

transcribing meant recording word for word what was said by the participants (Maguire 

& Delahunt, 2017:3353). The data analysis process was done according to Tesch’s 

eight steps in the coding process (Creswell, 2014:198), and is described in more detail 

in Chapter 2.  

1.7 Role of the Researcher  

The researcher formulated the research question, selected the research design and 

method, and obtained the necessary approval to conduct the research. It was the 

researcher’s duty to gain entry to the research site and address all the ethical issues 

concerned with this research (refer to section 2.8). Another task for the researcher was 

to choose the population and recruit the participants (see sections 2.4.2 and 2.4.5). 

Since the researcher was employed as a registered nurse at the NCU of the research 

site, she requested an independent, experienced interviewer for data collection to 

minimise bias. Prior to the interviews, the researcher and the interviewer agreed that 

the interviewer will make notes of the process that she followed during the interviews. 

This was necessary because the researcher had to ensure that the interviews were 

conducted in a standard relevant to rigorous research. Since the researcher was not 

directly involved in data collection, it was necessary to verify the content of the 

interviews and the transcriptions with the interviewer (see section 2.5.2). 

1.8 Ethical Considerations 

The actual process of conducting interviews only commenced after the necessary 

permission had been granted and the Health Sciences Research Ethics Committee 

(HSREC) of the University of Free State had granted approval for the study (refer to 

Addendum D). The researcher sought approval from the Free State Department of 

Health (FSDoH) to access the research site (refer to Addendum F). The researcher 



12 

took a letter requesting permission to conduct the study to the hospital management 

(Addendum G), and approval was granted verbally by the CEO of the hospital.  

Ethics refers to how people and animals are treated when participating in research and 

how they gain from their participation, even if only indirectly. These are crucial issues 

that need to be maintained at the forefront of all considerations (Van Zyl, 2014:85). If 

an ethics committee approves a research project after reviewing the research question, 

study design, and implementation strategies, it is deemed approved (Polgar & Thomas, 

2013:43). 

Ethical principles assist an ethics committee in identifying and protecting research 

participants’ interests in various research contexts and promoting the development of 

high-quality knowledge that may benefit future generations. The rights to self-

determination, privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality, as well as those to fair selection 

and treatment and protection from discomfort and injury, all need to be upheld in 

research. These principles are articulated in national and international research ethics 

guidelines (Gray et al., 2017:273–274). 

The researcher was responsible for her work and had to advance South African moral 

and ethical values (Brink et al., 2018:27). Ethical principles of beneficence and non-

maleficence, justice, and respect for persons were adhered to throughout the study 

and are summarised in Chapter 2 (see Table 2.3). The ethical considerations must be 

adhered to because they guide the researcher and protect the participants (Polit & 

Beck, 2017:138; South Africa. DoH, 2015:36). A thorough description of the ethical 

considerations related and applied to this study is presented in Chapter 2.  

1.9 Methodological Rigor of the Study 

The study could clarify how mothers of newborn babies experienced lodging and what 

assistance can be made available to support them while their babies are in the NCU. 

Based on the results, new standard operating procedures could be developed and 

implemented at the institution under research. The self-esteem of some lodging 

mothers might improve when seeing that their feelings have been heard and issues 

have been addressed by the hospital management and nursing personnel. 



13 

The researcher intends to share the research results with the healthcare staff of the 

NCU and collaborate on ways to provide lodging mothers with the support they need. 

The institution under study will benefit from increased research capacity, and the 

researcher may benefit by being recognised as a valued researcher in her field of work. 

1.10 Study Limitations 

A perceived study limitation may be that only one public hospital was explored in the 

study, and the findings may not be exhaustive to other public and private healthcare 

systems. The findings were systemic in nature and may not be transferable to other 

situations. In addition, this study was conducted in Motheo district, Free State province 

in one hospital only. Furthermore, during the literature search, not many articles were 

found related to the study topic or specifically the phenomenon of “lodger mother”, 

hence making it difficult to support the results with recent literature. The researcher did 

not compare the experiences of participants based on their length of stay at the lodging 

residence. In retrospection, such an analysis and comparison could have added depth 

to the findings and the represented the “voice” of the participants more distinctly.  

1.11 Layout of the Dissertation  

Chapter 1: Overview of the study 

Chapter 2: Research methodology  

Chapter 3: Results and literature control 

Chapter 4: Conclusions and recommendations 

1.12 Summary 

This chapter provided an overview of the study. The introduction and background to 

the study, the problem statement, research question and purpose of the study were 

discussed. The research design and method, population and unit of analysis, data 

collection and analysis, and structure of the dissertation were outlined. In the following 

chapter, the researcher will provide an overview of the method and design selected.  



14 

Since it was a challenge to locate sufficient literature about the phenomenon of 

mothers lodging at a public hospital – even with the assistance of an experienced and 

qualified librarian – the researcher and her supervisor selected not to include a 

literature chapter but to incorporate literature control together with data interpretation 

in Chapter 3. This decision was also based on guidance (and debate) from other texts 

and researchers who prefer not to include a literature chapter in phenomenological 

studies: 

• Inductive approach: “The researcher begins by gathering detailed information 

from participants and then forms this information into categories or themes. 

These themes are developed into broad patterns, theories, or generalization’s 

that are then compared with personal experiences or with existing literature on 

the topic” (Creswell & Creswell, 2018:109). 

• Debate surrounding literature reviews in research: “It could be argued that 

a literature review constitutes an integral part of the research process in both 

the qualitative and the quantitative paradigm, given that it serves to inform the 

researcher of the present state of knowledge on the topic to be investigated” 

(Fry et al., 2017:12). 

• The literature review within the qualitative paradigm: “…that a literature 

review should be avoided in an attempt to elude being ‘contaminated’ by 

previous research knowledge…”; “…a literature review can condition your 

thinking about your study and the methodology you might use, resulting in a 

less innovative choice of research problem and methodology…”  “For this 

reason, a systematic literature review involving an in-depth critical examination 

of the existing literature is often not undertaken at an early stage in the research” 

(Fry et al., 2017:12). 

• The use of literature: “One of the chief reasons for conducting a qualitative 

study is that the study is exploratory. This usually means that not much has 

been written about a topic, and the researcher seeks to listen to participants and 

build an understanding based on what is heard” “In some of the qualitative 

research strategies the literature is reviewed after data collection and analysis 

so that the literature does not influence the researcher’s objectivity” (Botma et 

al., 2010:197). 



15 

• Literature reviews in qualitative research: “Quantitative researchers almost 

always do an upfront literature review, but qualitative researchers have varying 

opinions about reviewing the literature before doing a new study” (Polit & Beck, 

2021:83). 



16 

CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY  

2.1 Introduction  

In the introductory chapter, the researcher provided a summary and an outline of 

processes followed to gather data on the lived experiences of mothers lodging at a 

public hospital during their babies’ admission to an NCU. The mother’s presence has 

many benefits to the baby, the family, the institution and the nursing staff. The study 

was undertaken to understand the lodging experiences of these mothers. The 

researcher viewed the experiences of lodging mothers as vital to the future 

implementation of support structures. In this chapter, the researcher describes the 

research methodology selected to answer the research question: What are the lived 

experiences of mothers lodging at a public hospital while their babies have been 

admitted to an NCU? The chapter further elaborates on and motivates the 

paradigmatic perspective that guided the study, the research design, the research 

population and steps taken to collect and analyse the data. The chapter concludes with 

a detailed description of ethical considerations and methodological rigor that were 

applied in this research. 

2.2 Paradigmatic Perspective  

An individual’s place and range in the world and their many interactions with it are 

defined by a set of beliefs called a paradigm (Žukauskas et al., 2018:127). According 

to Kamal (2019:1388), all research has a paradigm, which is defined as “systems of 

beliefs that guide action”. To gain a deeper understanding of the lived experiences of 

lodging mothers, an interpretivist paradigm was selected (Savin-Badin & Howell-Major, 

2013:220). In so doing, the phenomenon under study could be explored in its unique 

context instead of trying to generalise what all lodging mothers might experience. An 

advantage of working within the interpretivist paradigm is that the researcher can 

gather valuable data about the participant’s perceptions, views, feelings and thoughts 

(Savin-Badin & Howell-Major, 2013:220). To this end, researchers often use in-depth 

interviews to interact with participants and to provide participants the opportunity to 

express their experiences (Creswell, 2009:181). 



17 

Within the interpretivist paradigm, the researcher selected descriptive phenomenology 

as the strategy of enquiry, as it could best answer the research question about how 

the participants experienced the phenomenon of lodging. Application of the research 

paradigm included the norms of how reality was observed (ontology), the nature of the 

methods (methodology), the nature of knowledge (epistemology), and how value-laden 

the study is (axiology) (Savin-Baden & Howell-Major, 2013:63). Each of these norms 

is briefly discussed below. 

2.2.1 Ontology  

Ontology is defined as “the study of being”. It is concerned with “what kind of world we 

are investigating, with the nature of existence, with the structure of reality as such” 

(Scotland, 2012:10). Furthermore, the ontological assumptions are those that respond 

to the question “What is there that can be known?” or “What is the nature of reality?” 

(Scotland, 2012:10). Ontology, which is essentially a social universe of meanings, was 

used by the researcher. In this world, the researcher had to assume that the world she 

investigated was a world populated by lodging mothers who had their own thoughts, 

interpretations and meanings. The usage of the in-depth interview effectively 

demonstrated the researcher’s investigation into this world, which helped to focus on 

the participants’ lived experiences, opinions, feelings and inner thoughts.  

In this study, the researcher explored the participants’ reality from their point of view 

and not her own (Holmes, 2020:1). A discoverable reality existed independently of the 

researcher and the participants. The subjective reality on how lodging affected mothers 

while their babies were very sick and admitted to an NCU was different from the 

researcher’s understanding. The interaction between the researcher and the 

participants allowed for the creation of mutually beneficial discoveries within the 

context of the situation that necessitates the investigation (Goundar, 2012:19). In this 

study, the researcher assumed that the participants revealed their own understanding 

and meaning of their experience of lodging at a public hospital.  

2.2.2 Epistemology  

Epistemology focuses on the nature and forms of knowledge (Gringeri et al., 2013:55; 

Hussain et al., 2013:2376). More specifically, epistemology emphasises that humans 

create reality by interpreting and interacting with their environment. According to this 



18 

epistemology, although things have a nature that exists independently of people, they 

do not have a meaning; instead, individuals create their own reality by assigning 

meaning to things (Wener & Woodgate, 2013:3). It focuses on the types of knowledge 

and understanding that a person, as a researcher or knower, may be able to acquire 

in order to be able to extend, broaden, and deepen understanding in their field of 

research (Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017:26). 

To uncover new knowledge, the researcher positioned herself within the context based 

on what was known. Individual meaning-making through the lived experiences of 

participants and the researcher’s understanding of the participants’ experiences were 

explored. The interaction between the researcher and the data gathered about lodging 

mothers’ experiences developed a kind of knowledge that led her to construct an 

interpretation and meaning of these experiences (Botma et al., 2010:288).  

2.2.3 Methodology  

This study was based on the assumption that mothers of newborn babies would create 

meaning and understanding based on their experiences of lodging and that they would 

be willing to share these experiences with the interviewer. In-depth individual 

interviews were used to gather meaningful data on the participants’ lived experiences. 

It was believed that useful information about the participant's experiences may be 

obtained, by conducting a qualitative descriptive study using in-depth individual 

interviews (Creswell, 2009:181; Guest et al., 2013:113). In order to comprehend the 

phenomenon of lodging, the researcher employed inductive reasoning, and while 

entering the participants’ environment, “reduction” was applied. Reduction entails 

giving significance to some parts of the data before categorising it (Namey et al., 

2008:139).  

2.2.4 Axiology  

The axiological assumption upholds that the study has biases and that it is value-laden 

(Kivunja & Kuyini, 2017:28). As seen by the steps she took to ensure credibility, the 

researcher used the axiological assumption by acknowledging the interpretivistic 

nature of the study and by seeking to minimise biases in it (described in section 2.9.1). 

Axiology focuses on the ethical issues that should be considered when conducting 

research. These include privacy, accuracy, property and accessibility (Kivunja & Kuyini 



19 

2017:2829). Axiology emphasises two realms closely related to philosophy, namely 

ethics and values. We possess values that guide our thoughts, behaviours and actions 

in everyday life, whether personal or social. Axiological thinking is involved in every 

moment, intentionally and unintentionally (Tufail, 2012:1). Norms are also important in 

research; they promote truth and knowledge. The researcher took care to respect the 

participants’ points of view as it related to their experiences as lodging mothers. 

2.3 Research Design and Method  

The approach the researcher plans to take when conducting the research is known as 

the research design (Creswell, 2013:49; Kamal, 2019:1388; Rehman & Alharthi, 

2016:51). After identifying the need to conduct research on the lived experiences of 

mothers lodging at a public hospital, the researcher selected a design that would yield 

answers concomitant to understanding the challenges experienced by lodging 

mothers. Therefore, the researcher selected a qualitative, descriptive 

phenomenological design to generate an in-depth understanding of the lived 

experiences of mothers lodging at a public hospital. 

2.3.1 Qualitative research approach 

In line with phenomenological research, qualitative research refers to a comprehensive 

and in-depth investigation of a phenomenon in order to acquire insights through the 

identification of meaning (Creswell, 2007:48; Jameel et al., 2018:1; Mohajan, 2018:1). 

This kind of research can help researchers gain access to the ideas and feelings of 

research participants, which can help researchers better comprehend the significance 

that people attribute to their experiences. Researchers can better understand how and 

why certain behaviors occur by using qualitative research methods (Sutton & Austin, 

2015:226). Qualitative research aims to methodically explain and analyse problems or 

occurrences from the perspective of the person or group being researched in order to 

generate new ideas and theories (Mohajan, 2018:24). 

A qualitative approach with a descriptive phenomenological design was selected as a 

tradition of inquiry to explore and answer the research question relating to the lived 

experiences of lodging mothers. Through exploration, a deeper understanding of the 

participating lodging mothers’ lived experiences was gained (De Araujo & Rodrigues, 

2010:867; Polit & Beck, 2017:15). The lodging experiences of mothers at a public 



20 

hospital is a phenomenon which is not well established. Therefore, it was necessary 

to make use of an explorative design to investigate the nature of lodging. When little is 

known about the topic of interest, the explorative component of the qualitative research 

design is appropriate (Bradshaw et al., 2017:1; Polit & Beck, 2012:18). 

2.3.2 Descriptive phenomenology  

Phenomenology is an approach to research that draws on both philosophy and 

psychology, and it involves outlining what people actually experience when they talk 

about a topic. The essence of the experiences of various people who have all 

encountered the phenomenon under inquiry are captured in this description. In this 

research, the researcher analysed the words of the participating lodging mothers, 

found meaning in the words and described the experiences that promoted a deeper 

understanding of participants’ experiences (Grove & Gray, 2019:89). This design was 

used because it aimed at gaining more information about the phenomenon within the 

particular field as well as to obtain information about real-life situations of lodging for 

mothers of newborn babies (Goundar, 2012:15). Individual experiences are taken into 

account in phenomenology. It focuses on what all individuals (in this case, lodging 

mothers) have in common while they experience social occurrences (Elshafie, 2013:7). 

The inquiry included gathering information from lodging mothers and efforts to 

experience lodging through the observation and introspective reflection of an 

experienced independent interviewer (Polit & Beck, 2017:471).  

Research that is descriptive investigates new areas of inquiry and presents things as 

they actually occur in the real world (Grove & Gray, 2019:35). A descriptive design 

entails the methodical gathering of data regarding the phenomenon of interest, which 

constitutes a crucial stage in the development of knowledge (nursing) about the issue 

(Botma et al., 2010:194; Goundar, 2012:29). Little is known about the lived 

experiences of mothers lodging, particularly at a public hospital. The researcher had 

the purpose to understand the standpoints of concerned mothers with the aim of 

implementing an acceptable and efficient intervention from the perspectives of those 

concerned. Based on the exploratory and descriptive objective, a phenomenological 

descriptive design was a suitable option to actualise the purpose of this study.  



21 

The researcher adopted the four steps of descriptive phenomenology, as mentioned 

by Polit and Beck (2017:471), which are presented in Table 2.1 and explained further 

below the table. 

Table 2.1: The four steps of descriptive phenomenology 
Step Application 
Bracketing The researcher held back her opinions about 

lodging and focused on analysing 
participants’ feelings using a reflexive journal 

Intuiting The researcher tried to understand the lived 
experiences of participants 

Analysing The researcher reviewed the data frequently 
until an understanding was reached 

Describing The researcher paid detailed attention and 
provided a full description of the findings 

Compiled from Brink et al. (2018:105–106), Botma et al. (2010:190) and Polit and Beck 
(2017:471–472) 
 

Bracketing: Researchers must deliberately set aside their own ideas about the subject 

of the study or what they already know about it before beginning with and throughout 

the phenomenological investigation. This facet of research is called bracketing (Chan 

et al., 2013:2). The researcher made efforts to put aside her personal opinions, biases, 

preconceived notions of the research topic to describe participants’ lived experiences 

accurately through knowledge of previous research findings and theories (Polgar & 

Thomas, 2013:79). The personal values of the researcher were clarified, and areas in 

which the researcher was biased were identified (Polit & Beck, 2017:471). The 

researcher made use of a personal reflexive journal by noting interesting events or 

ideas while listening to the interview audios and describing new or surprising 

discoveries when analysing the data (Polgar & Thomas, 2013:78). 

Intuiting: The researcher tried to understand the meanings of the lived experiences 

described by the participants. Throughout the research process, the researcher 

remained open to the meaning provided by the participants regarding their lodging 

experiences (Polit & Beck, 2017:472). The researcher was immersed in the 

participants’ descriptions of their lived experiences. 

Analysing: The researcher reviewed the data frequently until reaching a deeper 

understanding. Analysing entailed contrasting and comparing the final data to discover 



22 

if any new information was emerging. The knowledge should be understandable and 

clear to make it useful for other researchers (Botma et al., 2010:191).  

Describing: The researcher paid detailed attention and provided a complete 

description of the findings in Chapter 3. 

2.4 Population and Unit of Analysis  

All the lodging mothers that met specific criteria about lodging which the researcher 

was interested in were regarded as the population (Botma et al., 2010:200; Brink et al., 

2018:116). Participants are those individuals or subjects who are notified about the 

research project and voluntarily consent to participate when contacted (Botma et al., 

2010:52). The unit of analysis is the person or object from which the researcher gathers 

data, and it includes groups of individuals who were the aim of the investigation 

(Kumar, 2018:70–71) as well as the portion of data content that would be the basis for 

decisions made during the development of codes.  

2.4.1 Accessible population and sampling  

In this study, the accessible population was lodging mothers whose babies had been 

admitted to an NCU while waiting for the recovery of their babies in a selected public 

hospital. Approximately 27 mothers lodge at the lodging ward of the public hospital per 

month. The total population who met the inclusion criteria at the time of the study was 

invited to participate. There were 20 mothers who were lodging at the time when the 

researcher collected the data. In line with the contextual nature of the study, the 

researcher decided to access only mothers whose babies were admitted in the 

mentioned unit and no other lodging mothers whose babies were admitted in other 

departments. This decision was taken to rule out possible challenges of the mothers’ 

daily routines.  

As mentioned in Chapter 1 (section 1.1), mothers are encouraged to interact with their 

baby(s) as often as possible to promote KMC and breastfeeding. Mothers who do not 

reside near the hospital stay in the lodging residence where they are provided with a 

room that is equipped with a bed and a locker for personal belongings. The institution 

provides three routine meals per day at 08h00, 12h00 and 16h00. The dining room is 

not part of the lodging residence but is situated in the hospital building about 350m 



23 

walking distance from the lodging residence. Apart from staying in the lodging area 

and visiting their babies as often as necessary, there are no planned activities for the 

residents.  

2.4.2 Selection of participants  

Participants were selected through purposive sampling based on the inclusion criteria 

described below. In purposive sampling, the researcher selects the instances or case 

types that will be most helpful to the study’s informative goals (Etikan et al., 2016:1; 

Palinkas et al., 2013:2). For this form of sampling, the researcher of this study relied 

on her own judgement when choosing members of the population (Merriam & Tisdell, 

2016:96). Members of the accessible population were not interchangeable, and data 

saturation, not statistical power analysis, was used to establish sample size (Palinkas 

et al., 2013:1). The number of participants required in a qualitative study is adequate 

when saturation of data is achieved (Malterud et al., 2018:abstr; Weller et al., 2018:1). 

Data saturation takes place when more sampling yields no new insights except 

repetition of previously gathered data. In this study, 13 participants were interviewed 

until data saturation was evident.  

2.4.3 Inclusion criteria  

Specific inclusion criteria were determined for the selection of participants. First, 

participants had to have lodged at the research site for at least two weeks, with their 

babies having been admitted to the NCU. Second, participants had to be able to 

communicate in Sesotho, English and/or Afrikaans and be above 18 years of age. 

2.4.4 Exclusion criteria 

Exclusion criteria are characteristics not desirable in, or applicable to, the research 

population (Meline, 2022:21; Polit & Beck, 2017:499). Exclusion criteria are important 

to avert distortion of the study data, which could nullify credibility of the findings. For 

this study, participants were excluded based on appearing emotionally unstable and 

depressed during the postpartum period, or if they were a confirmed case of 

postpartum psychosis. The aim with excluding these mothers from participating was to 

protect their emotional vulnerability during this period. Those who were physically 

unwell during the postpartum period (e.g., high blood pressure, extreme pain) were not 

asked for an interview, unless they were comfortable enough to consent to an 



24 

interview. In addition, those who were on medication due to postpartum complications 

and would possibly not be able to provide credible data on their experiences of lodging 

were also excluded from participation. 

2.4.5 Recruitment of participants 

After permission was obtained from the HSREC of the University of Free State 

(Addendum D) and the FSDoH (Addendum F), the researcher informed all lodging 

mothers present at the time of data gathering and they were invited to participate 

voluntarily. Information leaflets were handed to them a week prior to the interviews 

(refer to Addenda A, B and C). The researcher briefed only those mothers who had 

been lodging for two weeks and more. Participants varied in terms of ethnicity, race, 

age, culture and background, which contributed to exploring diverse individual 

experiences (Polit & Beck, 2017:499). Suitable dates and times for interviews were 

discussed and participants were allowed to ask questions about the research topic and 

intended procedures. Arrangements were made to schedule individual interviews at 

suitable times to minimise interruptions in the care and feeding of babies. Participants 

were made fully aware of the voluntary nature of the participation and their right to 

discontinue at any moment without penalty. They were informed of their right to 

anonymity, the purpose of the research, how the findings would be utilised, and how it 

would be documented after the research was completed. From there, the interviewer 

made appointments with mothers who had agreed to participate and obtained informed 

consent at the day of the interview. 

2.5 Data Collection  

The researcher used in-depth interviews as a data gathering method. Interviews are 

commonly used to obtain data in qualitative research (Showkat & Parveen, 2017:4). 

This technique was useful because the responses were recorded in the “own words” 

of the participants to avoid bias through the interpretation of data, allowing for 

participant input in the research data. However, according to Polgar and Thomas 

(2013:92), interviews are not objective and are susceptible to biases, because the 

interviewer is the person who controls the interview process. A disadvantage of using 

this technique is that it was time-consuming. Despite this, individual in-depth interviews 



25 

were seen to be the best way for learning about the participants’ genuine experiences 

because it allowed them to talk freely (Boswell & Cannon, 2017:315). 

2.5.1 Explorative interview 

As mentioned in Chapter 1, an explorative interview was conducted with one of the 

lodging mothers (see section 1.6.3). Since no alterations to the interview question or 

process were necessary, the interviewer managed all other interviews in the same 

manner. This first interview was so rich in information that it was used as part of the 

interviews and data analysis. 

As mentioned in Section 1.7, the interviewer agreed to inform the researcher about the 

process that she followed during every interview. This arrangement was necessary 

because the researcher was not present at the interviews. In the following section, the 

researcher describes the process followed by the interviewer.  

2.5.2 Process of data collection  

Interviews were conducted at a time that was most suitable for the participants. The 

in-depth individual interviews were conducted in Sesotho or English, which were the 

languages of choice. Eleven of the participants stated that they were comfortable using 

Sesotho or English or a combination during the interviews. There were also two 

Afrikaans-speaking participants, but they preferred to have their interviews conducted 

in English. The interviewer was fluent in both interview languages (Sesotho and 

Afrikaans) and was able to read and understand the transcribed interviews. The in-

depth interviews were conducted until data saturation was reached. Saturation is a 

methodological principle in qualitative research indicating the point at which further 

data collection is not necessary (Hennink et al., 2017:1; Saunders et al., 2018:1). The 

interviewer reported that from the ninth interview onwards she could sense the 

beginning of data saturation, but she continued with four more interviews to confirm 

saturation. The total number of interviews conducted were 13. 

All the interviews had a guiding, open-ended first question: Please tell me, in detail, 

the feelings that you had as a lodging mother while your baby was admitted to the 

neonatal care unit? The participants were familiar with the hospital, and it was assumed 

that they would be comfortable and relaxed in describing and discussing their 

experiences. Prior to the interviews, the researcher assisted the interviewer to prepare 



26 

the venue where interviews were held. Chairs were arranged in a manner that allowed 

the participant to face the interviewer. The lighting and ventilation were adequate, and 

the room was clean and comfortable.  

On arrival at the interview setting, the interviewer introduced herself to the participant. 

She thanked each participant for her time and interest to take part in the research 

project. After the interview purpose was explained, the participant willingly signed the 

consent form and gave permission to be audio-recorded. The participants were 

ensured of confidentiality. This afforded participants an idea of what to expect from the 

interview, increased the likelihood of honesty, and was also a fundamental aspect of 

the informed consent process (Gill et al., 2008:292–293). Participants were informed 

that the interview may last between 30 to 45 minutes.  

Following the initial interview question, probing questions were asked for clarification, 

and the interviewer felt confident that the information she had obtained would offer the 

researcher a clear comprehension of the participants’ experiences. The probing 

questions were: 

• How did you experience lodging as an individual? 

• What worked well regarding your lodging experience? 

• What were the challenges that you experienced while lodging?  

• What were the opportunities that could improve this lodging area? 

• Did you have any other comments regarding your lodging experience?  

Six participants took part in the first interview session, three in the second and four in 

the third. The interviewer used open and emotionally neutral body language, such as 

nodding, smiling, looking interested and making encouraging expressions and 

utterances (e.g., “Mmmm”). Probing remarks such as “What do you mean when you 

say you were afraid in the lodging ward?” allowed for more details to be disclosed. 

Silence was used appropriately by the interviewer and was highly effective at getting 

participants to contemplate their responses, talk more, elaborate or clarify particular 

experiences (Gill et al., 2008:292–293; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016:122).  



27 

2.6 Data Analysis  

The process of describing, categorising, and connecting phenomena with the 

researcher’s concepts is known as qualitative data analysis (Palic, 2015:8). Polgar and 

Thomas (2013:181) refer to qualitative data analysis as the way in which researchers 

arrange the data they have gathered and interpret what the participants have stated. 

According to Raskind et al. (2019:3), qualitative data analysis requires coding and 

finding patterns/themes in narrative data. Furthermore, Mohajan (2018:24) defines 

data analysis as the process of labelling data segments with characters, descriptive 

words or unique identifying names. Coding is compared to “cutting and pasting” similar 

components together. Coding is used to organise data collected in interviews and other 

types of documents and involves inventing and applying a category system (Brink et 

al., 2018:181; Maguire & Delahunt, 2017:3353).  

The true significance of the participants' experiences were analyzed using qualitative 

content analysis, which also helped the researcher understand the participants' mixed 

responses to their lodging experiences. The process of data analysis was done 

according to Tesch’s eight steps in the coding process (Creswell, 2014:198), as 

summarised in Table 2.2. 

Table 2.2: Tesch's eight steps in coding qualitative data 
Step of data analysis Motivation 
1. Read through all the transcriptions 

carefully. 
Acquire a sense of the whole. 

2. Pick one interview and go through it. Try to find the underlying meaning of the 
information. Ask yourself what this interview 
is about. 

3. Read through all the other interviews. Make a list of all the topics; cluster similar 
topics together; form these topics into 
columns that will reflect the major topics, 
unique topics and leftovers. 

4. Assign codes to the topics to organise 
them. 

Observe whether new categories and codes 
emerge. 

5. Find the most descriptive wording for the 
topics. 

Turn them into categories; group related 
topics together to reduce the total list of 
categories. 

6. Attach final codes to each category. Alphabetise the codes. 
7. Assemble the data material belonging to 

each category in one place. 
Start on the preliminary analysis. 

8. If necessary, re-code the existing 
information. 

Ensure consistency throughout. 



28 

Compiled from Tesch’s eight steps in the coding process (Creswell, 2014:198) 

 

The eight steps according to Tesch’s coding process that the researcher followed 

during data analysis are described in more detail below. These eight steps engaged 

the researcher in the systematic process of analysing textual data (Creswell, 

2014:198). 

Step 1: Read through all the transcriptions carefully. According to Botma et al. 

(2010:224), organising the data for analysis and acquiring a sense of the whole require 

the transcribing of interviews and gaining of information, typing of the information and 

placement of the different forms of data into categories. The initial step in data analysis 

is to translate spoken and visual data into written form, which is an interpretive process. 

Written materials (such as field notes or documents) as well as audio and visual data 

(e.g., recordings of interviews, focus groups or consultations) are all acceptable 

sources of information for qualitative studies.  

The audio recordings of interviews were converted into written transcripts so that they 

could be carefully examined, analysed and/or coded (Bailey, 2008:127). After an 

independent transcriber transcribed all the recordings verbatim and all the participants’ 

identities were removed, the researcher read the entire transcript carefully to obtain a 

sense of the whole and jot down some ideas. The researcher started from the shortest 

to the longest transcript by continually rereading the transcripts and making use of 

reflective notes to familiarise herself with the content.    

Step 2: Pick one interview and go through it. The researcher carefully reviewed one 

of the transcriptions and took notes on the main conclusions and initial thoughts 

generated by the participants. The researcher chose one instance, thought about the 

underlying meaning of the information, and asked herself, “What is this about?”  

Step 3: Read through all the other interviews. The researcher read the data from 

all interviews and took note of any categories or patterns that stood out to her from the 

participants’ responses to the research questions. As she continued reading, she made 

a list of all the categories or topics. Similar topics were clustered together and placed 

in columns for easy reference. Later, these were organized into a single category 

based on their shared traits. The researcher read the transcripts, analysed the data, 

came up with a list of subjects and then went back to the data.  



29 

Step 4: Assign codes to the topics to organise them. The researcher returned to 

the data sets and classified the relevant segments for each category using the codes 

for each category. Since she employed open coding, several segments had multiple 

categories. The data were used by the researcher to apply the list of topics. 

Corresponding sections of the transcripts were given the abbreviated codes of the 

topic, which were written next to them. The researcher tested this initial organisational 

structure to see if any new categories and codes would emerge. In this study, she used 

categorisation to refer to noting the categories and patterns in the interview data. As 

she developed the categories, she constantly asked herself whether the information 

was relevant to the research question or not. The data from each case were displayed 

on a chart where these categories were organised. Using the study questions as a 

guide, codes for these categories were then created. Coding is used to create a 

description of the setting or particulars, as well as subcategories from the categories. 

The coding process made it possible to separate data into components or categories. 

To generate headings for subsequent sorting, it involved utilising specified or repeated 

words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs or images (Botma et al., 2010:224). The codes 

were based on what the participants shared during the interviews. The researcher 

categorised the transcripts into different codes.   

Step 5: Find the most descriptive wording for the topics. Categories and 

subcategories were developed from the descriptive notes (Sutton & Austin, 2015:229). 

The researcher determined the most descriptive wording for the topics and sorted them 

into categories and subcategories. The researcher noted only categories that were 

common in all cases and those that appeared only in some cases but not in others. 

She considered the information from each participant vital even if the category did not 

appear in each data set. Special care was taken not to lose the richness in the narrative 

data from the interviews by relating the category to the context. The categories 

generally represent five major findings of the research and were used to create the 

subheadings of topics that were identified in the data. The categories portrayed 

different experiences and perspectives from the different participants and were 

“supported” by “diverse quotations and specific evidence” (Botma et al., 2010:225). 

The researcher then connected codes with similar meanings to make up 

subcategories, as these serve as building blocks for creating a category.  



30 

Step 6: Attach final codes to each category. In this step, the categories that had 

been identified were thoroughly addressed utilising subheadings and subcategories, 

specific illustrations, the participants’ direct words, and different perspectives. A 

colourful table was created to illustrate the findings and the headings and subheadings 

for discussion. The researcher and supervisor tried to reduce the number of categories 

by grouping topics that relate to each other. In this study, the researcher made the final 

decision on the abbreviations for each category and alphabetised the codes. 

Step 7: Assemble the data material belonging to each category in one place. The 

researcher went back to the data sets and tagged the pertinent portions in each 

category using the codes for each category. Since she employed open coding, several 

portions had multiple categories. This step involves the researcher interpreting and 

making meaning of the data. As per Botma et al. (2010:225), the researcher was 

guided by the question: What were the lessons learned? The answer would be a 

combination of the researcher’s personal interpretation and literature or theories. The 

researcher interpreted the true meaning of the data and true meaning of the 

experiences of the participants at the research site. The researcher presented the 

categories and subcategories in a tabular form to offer the reader a snapshot of the 

major findings from data collection. The researcher described each category first 

before discussing its subcategories.  

Step 8: If necessary, re-code the existing information in order to ensure 
consistency throughout. After confirming the initial categories and subcategories 

with the supervisor, the researcher realised that it was not necessary to re-code, and 

the analysis process was stopped at this stage.  

2.7 Role of the Researcher  

The role that the researcher played in the study has been discussed in detail Chapter 1, 

section 1.7. In the case of nurses conducting qualitative research, when the 

nurse-patient contact in the research field results in some degree of therapeutic 

communication for the participants, ethical concerns are addressed. Nurse 

researchers must consider how participants may be affected by their questions, and 

the “reflexive method” is advised to reduce such detrimental impacts on human 

subjects (Sanjari et al., 2014:4). 



31 

2.8 Ethical Considerations 

Permission to conduct the study was granted by the HSREC, Faculty of Health Science 

(University of Free State), and the FSDoH. The hospital management where the study 

was conducted gave permission based on approval by the HSREC and FSDoH (refer 

to Addenda D and F). Table 2.3 is a summary of the ethical principles applied in this 

study.  

Table 2.3: Ethical principles applied in the study 
Principle Application 
Beneficence  
• Right to freedom from discomfort  
• Right to protection from exploitation 

• The researcher protected the participants 
from any emotional harm 

• Names of the participants were omitted 
from transcripts 

• The interviewer avoided exhausting the 
participants during interviews 

• Participants were allowed to answer as 
far as they were comfortable 

• The researcher reassured the 
participants that information provided 
would not be used against them 

Respect for dignity and autonomy 
• Right to self-determination 
• Right to full disclosure 

• Participation in the interviews was 
voluntary 

• Participants were invited to ask 
questions, and permitted refusal to 
provide information or withdraw 

• Participants gave informed consent to 
participate 

• The purpose of the study was explained 
fully to participants 

Justice 
• Right to fair treatment 
• Right to privacy 

• Participants were treated fairly 
• Beliefs, lifestyle, background and culture 

were respected 
• Privacy was maintained by keeping data 

of the participants confidential 
Compiled from Polit and Beck (2017:138) and DoH (South Africa, 2015:36) 

 

2.8.1 Beneficence and non-maleficence  

The obligation of professionals to advance their patients’ well-being is referred to as 

benevolence and the obligation of physicians to not intentionally hurt patients or 

expose them to harm is known as beneficence (Singh & Ivory, 2015:2). The research 

did not directly benefit the participants in this study, except perhaps by being a means 



32 

through which they could voice their experiences. The researcher aimed to better 

understand and assist mothers at a public hospital in South Africa. The study was not 

anticipated to have any unfavourable effects on any of the participants, but it was 

anticipated that once the results were known, the personnel at NCUs as well as the 

mothers staying there would benefit from the ensuing modifications. 

2.8.1.1 Right to freedom from discomfort  

As the participants were sharing their personal information, the researcher asked the 

interviewer to make sure that they were protected from any emotional harm by 

structuring questions carefully and monitoring them for signs of distress or discomfort 

(Brink et al., 2018:30). According to the interviewer, no signs of distress were 

experienced by the participants during any of the interviews. The social worker on duty 

at the research site was aware of the interviews and on standby should participants be 

distressed to facilitate debriefing sessions with the participants. It is not easy to prevent 

intrusion in qualitative research as the in-depth interview tends to intrude into 

participants’ lives, and therefore probing and personal information may disturb some 

participants emotionally (Peter, 2015:2626). 

2.8.1.2 Right to protection from exploitation 

Names of the participants were omitted. The interviewer avoided exhausting the 

participants during interviews. The allocated time for interviews was adhered to and 

participants could answer as far as they were comfortable. The researcher reassured 

the participants that information provided would not be used against them (Surmiak, 

2018:3–4). 

2.8.2 Respect for dignity and autonomy  

The “respect for persons” principle relates to making choices that uphold a person’s 

autonomy and dignity. Confidentiality serves to defend dignity. A participant’s ability to 

choose whom they share information with and what they keep to themselves is referred 

to as confidentiality. Respecting someone’s autonomy involves giving them the 

freedom to decide whether to participate in the study once they have been properly 

informed (Botma et al., 2010:3). Respect for human dignity was adhered to by not 

using participants’ real names on any documents or reports (Barrow et al., 2022:1). In 

this study, participants were all treated with respect and not judged based on different 



33 

beliefs, views, culture, gender, background, economic status, race or any other 

characteristic, whether they participated or not. The same question was asked in the 

same manner to all participants. 

2.8.2.1 Right to self-determination 

According to the self-determination principle, potential participants are free to choose 

whether or not to willingly participate in a study without running the danger of suffering 

negative repercussions. Additionally, it implies that participants have the freedom to 

ask questions, withhold information, or to withdraw from the study at any time. The 

freedom from all forms of compulsion is part of a person’s right to self-determination. 

Threats of penalties for declining to participate in a study or excessive rewards for 

participating constitute coercion (Barrow et al., 2002:1). Participants were allowed to 

participate voluntarily and to ask questions. They were also informed that they could 

stop participating in the study at any time and that the research might be published in 

an academic journal but that their names or identity will remain anonymous. 

Participants were also notified that interviews would be conducted in a private room 

where neither staff nor other participants would notice who enters and exits the room 

during the times of the scheduled interviews and that information will be kept 

confidential. The interviews were held in private, participant data were kept 

confidential, and the data were reported without revealing any participant’s identity or 

personal information. 

2.8.2.2 Right to full disclosure 

Full disclosure was maintained by describing the purpose of the study in detail to the 

participants and informing participants that they had the right to refuse participation. In 

this study, the researcher obtained written, informed consent from the participants to 

participate voluntarily (refer to Addenda A, B and C). The researcher used easily 

comprehensible and short words and sentences to improve the participants’ grasp of 

the research topic as well as the voluntary nature of their involvement, among other 

things (Beckmann, 2017:15). 

2.8.3 Justice  

Justice, according to Botma et al. (2010:3), means that participants must experience 

fair treatment. 



34 

2.8.3.1 Right to fair treatment 

The right to fair treatment pertains to researchers treating study-participation decliners 

impartially and without bias (Barrow et al., 2022:1). Participants in this study were all 

treated with respect, and no one was singled out for negative treatment because of 

their colour, gender, ethnic background or any other attribute. 

2.8.3.2 Right to privacy 

Any information supplied by participants must be held in the highest secrecy. In order 

to protect the right to privacy, measures for secrecy or anonymity are frequently used 

(Barrow et al., 2022:1). Both inside and outside of academia, the