r .s s . _ UV-_ UFS ..
I BLOE FONTEi I
LBIBlt?!EEK '_l:~~
D='RDIEEKSEMPLA'A'R MAG ONDEj"
EN OMSTA lDlGHEOE J L>
University Free State
BLlOTE£K IERWYDER WOnD NIE 1IIIImmmmlllll~m~
34300004303560
Universiteit Vrystaat
ENHANCING LEARNERS' ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENTS IN RURAL LESOTHO SCHOOLS:
MATCHING TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES
MOEKETSI JOSEPH LETELE

ENHANCING LEARNERS' ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENTS IN
RURAL LESOTHO SCHOOLS:
MATCHING TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES
By
MOEKETSI JOSEPH LETELE
(BSC.EO, B.EO HONS)
DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE
MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS
(Psychology of Education)
in the
DEPARTMENT PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
at the
UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE
BLOEMFONTEIN
SUPERVISOR: DR. G. ALEXANDER
CO-SUPERVISOR: DR. Z. I. SWANEPOEL
MAY 2009
li
DECLARATION
I declare that the dissertation hereby submitted by me for M. Ed (Psychology of
Education) at the University of the Free State is my own independent work and
has not previously been submitted by me at another university/faculty. I further
more cede copyright of the dissertation in favour of the University of the Free
State.
Moeketsi Joseph Leteie
DATE
111
DEDICATION
I want to dedicate this dissertation to the following people:
• My father, Ntate Moeletsi Leteie, in recognition of his empowering efforts
that improved my attitude towards studying and for offering support in
times of need.
• My mother, 'Me' 'Maieteie Leteie, in recognition of her endless support
throughout my studies from the elementary phase up to this level.
• My beloved wife, 'Mamokoena Leteie, for her outstanding emotional,
moral support and encouragement.
IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my heartfelt appreciation and gratitude to the following
people for their invaluable contribution towards the success of this study.
• The almighty God who has given me strength and an opportunity to
complete this study.
• My supervisor, Dr G. Alexander, and eo-supervisor, Dr Z. I. Swanepoel,
for their remarkable support, tireless guidance and expert advice, without
which the success of this study would not have been possible. You really
are my role-models.
• My parents, Ntate Moeletsi Leteie and 'Me' Maletele Leteie, for their good
support and constant encouragement. I thank you so much.
• My beloved wife, 'Mamokoena Leteie, for giving me encouragement and
motivation to study hard. You have really been an inspiration at all times.
II My brothers and sisters, Lehlohonolo Matabooe, 'Makatleho Matabooe,
Moalosi Leteie, 'Masafa Leteie, Leboea Leteie, and 'Makananelo Leteie,
for being available when I needed help and advice. I really appreciate you.
• My language editor, Mrs Berna Van Rensburg, for professionally editing
this dissertation.
• Ms Kate Smit, for helping with the statistical analysis of the empirical
results.
• Me A. Beattie, for the translation of the abstract from English to Afrikaans.
v
II Mrs Natalie Le Roux, for the outstanding guidance from the beginning of
this study to the end. More especially, her guidance with the empirical
investigation and analysis of the results.
• Mr 'Matli Toti and Mr Tsepa Tsepa, for their unique contribution and
encou ragement.
D All my friends and colleagues for having stood by me and offering all sorts
of help whenever it was needed.
• All teachers and learners who participated in this study, for their time in
providing information that is relevant to this study.
• The Government of Lesotho for sponsoring my studies .
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Declaration iii
Dedication iv
Acknowledgements v
List of tables xvi
List of figures xxi
List of appendix xxiii
List of acronyms xxiv
Abstract xxv
Abstrak xxvii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTORY ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT 3
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 5
1.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 6
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
1.6 METHOD OF STUDY 9
1.7 DERMACATION OF THE STUDY AREA 11
1.8 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 12
1.8.1 Learning style 12
1.8.2 Teaching style 12
1.8.3 Academic achievement 12
1.8.4 Secondary schools in Lesotho 12
1.8.5 High schools in Lesotho 12
1.9 RESEARCH OUTLAY 13
vu
1.10 CONCLUSION 13
CHAPTER 2: THEORY, MODELS AND EDUCATIONAL
IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING STYLES
2.1 INRODUCTION 15
2.2 DEFINITIONS AND RELATED CONCEPTS 15
2.2.1 Learning 15
2.2.2 Cognitive styles 17
2.2.3 Learning styles 18
2.2.4 Learning theories 20
2.3 THEORIES UNPACKING THE LEARNING PROCESS 20
2.3.1 Behaviourist orientation 21
2.3.2 Cognitive orientation 22
2.3.3 Humanism orientation 25
2.3.4 Social/Situational orientation 28
2.3.5 Constructivist orientation 30
2.3.6 Summary of orientations to learning 31
2.4 LEARNING STYLE MODELS 33
2.4.1 Classification of learning styles models 33
2.4.2 Characteristics of learning style models 35
2.4.2.1 Dunn and Dunn learning style model 35
2.4.2.2 Kolb's experiential learning style model 36
2.4.2.3 Myers-Briggs type indicator 40
2.4.2.4 Felder-Silverman learning style model 41
2.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING STYLES 43
2.5.1 Biographical factors 43
2.5.1.1 Gender differences 44
VIII
2.5.1.2 Age differences 45
2.5.1.3 Parental influence 46
2.5.1.4 Influence of school attended 47
2.5.1.5 Heredity and learning styles 47
2.5.2 Other factors 47
2.5.2.1 Environmental influences 48
2.5.2.2 Physical influences 48
2.5.2.3 Social influences 49
2.5.2.4 Emotional influences 49
2.5.2.5 Cognitive influences 50
2.6 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS FOR LEARNING STYLES 50
2.6.1 Learning style knowledge brings awareness to the learners 51
2.6.2 Teachers need to be knowledgeable about learning style 52
2.6.3 Learning style information can be used to increase learning 53
2.6.4 Individual learners can utilize learning style information the
best of their advantage 53
2.6.5 Learning style information may improve the quality of instruction 54
2.6.6 Learning styles can be identified using appropriate instruments 54
2.7 CONCLUSION 55
CHAPTER 3: TEACHING STYLES AND MATCHING/MISMATCHING
REVISITED
3.1 INTRODUCTION 56
3.2 DEFINITIONS AND RELATED CONCEPTS 56
3.2.1 Teaching 57
3.2.2 Teaching strategy 57
3.2.3 Teaching method 58
IX
3.2.4 Teaching styles 58
3.3 PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHING 60
3.3.1 The realist view 60
3.3.2 The contextualist view 61
3.3.3 The relativist view 62
3.4 EFFECTIVE TEACHING 63
3.4.1 Teacher effectiveness 64
3.4.2 Effective teaching methods 68
3.4.3 Effective teaching and teaching styles 70
3.5 TEACHING STYLE THEORIES 71
3.5.1 Felder-Silverman teaching styles theory 71
3.5.2 Quirk's teaching style theory 77
3.5.3 D. D. Pratt's ideas on teaching styles 80
3.5.4 Grasha teaching styles theory 82
3.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING STYLES 86
3.7 MATCHING/MISMATCHING REVISITED 90
3.8 CONCLUSION 95
CHAPTER 4: ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND ITS RELATION TO RURAL
SCHOOLS OF LESOTHO.
4.1 INTRODUCTION 96
4.2 UNDERSTANDING ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 96
4.2.1 Nature of academic achievement 96
4.3 FACTORS AND CHALLENGES OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
IN LESOTHO 100
4.3.1 Learner-related factors 101
4.3.1.1 Cognitive factors 101
x
4.3.1.2 Motivation 105
4.3.1.3 Self-concept of ability 113
4.3.1.4 Gender and sex-role influences 114
4.3.1.5 Discipline 116
4.3.2 Parent-related factors 117
4.3.2.1 Socio-economic status 118
4.3.2.2 Parental involvement 119
4.3.2.3 Parents' education level 121
4.3.3 School-related factors 122
4.3.3.1 Facilities and teaching aids 122
4.3.3.2 Teacher qualifications 123
4.3.3.3 Teaching styles 125
4.3.3.4 Class size 128
4.3.3.5 Medium of instruction 129
4.3.3.6 Transition from primary to secondary school 130
4.3.3.7 Curriculum and aims of education 131
4.4 CONCLUSION 132
CHAPTER 5: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION 133
5.2 PREPARING FOR EMPIRICAL STUDY 133
5.3 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH DESIGN 134
5.3.1 Quantitative research 134
5.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research 135
5.4 METHODS OF DATA-COLLECTION 136
5.4.1 The questionnaire 136
5.4.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of a questionnaire 137
Xl
5.4.1.2 Felder-Solomon Index of Learning Styles 141
5.4.1.3 Teaching style questionnaire 143
5.4.2 Academic achievement 144
5.5 CRITERIA RELEVANT TO RESEARCH 145
5.5.1 Reliability 145
5.5.2 Validity 146
5.6 THE PILOT STUDY 147
5.7 SAMPLING AND SELECTION OF RESPONDENTS 148
5.8 DEMARCATION OF THE STUDY 151
5.9 PROCEDURE 151
5.10 DATA ANALYSIS 152
5.11 CONCLUSION 152
CHAPTER 6: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESEARCH
RESULTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION 153
6.2 BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION 154
6.2.1 Demographics of learners 154
6.2.2 Demographics of teachers 157
6.3 TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLE KNOWLEDGE 166
6.3.1 Background knowledge on teaching and learning styles 166
6.3.2 Factors that inhibit the accommodation of individual learning
styles 177
6.3.3 Other problems that affect addressing learners' individual
learning styles 184
6.4 DOMINANT TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES 185
6.4.1 Predominant learning styles 185
XII
6.4.1.1 Dominant style with respect to all learning styles 186
6.4.1.2 Learning styles and age of learners 187
6.4.1.3 Learning styles and age of learners 188
6.4.2 Dominant teaching styles 189
6.4.2.1 Dominant teaching styles in rural schools of Lesotho 189
6.4.2.2 Teaching styles and gender 190
6.4.2.3 Teaching styles and age 191
6.5 MATCHING OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES 192
6.6 STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE KNOWLEDGE AND
ACCOMMODATION OF LEARNING STYLES IN RURAL
SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF LESOTHO 217
6.7 CONCLUSION 224
CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
THE CONLUSION
7.1 INTRODUCTION 225
7.2 FINDINGS 225
7.2.1 Do teachers have adequate knowledge about teaching and
learning styles in order to direct their teaching to learning styles
of their learners? 225
7.2.1.1 Knowledge about teaching and learning styles 225
7.2.1.2 Needfortraining 226
7.2.1.3 Factors or problems that inhibit the accommodation of
learning styles in rural secondary schools of Lesotho 228
7.2.2 What are the predominant learning styles of learners
and dominant teaching styles of teachers in rural
secondary schools of Lesotho? 231
Xlll
7.2.2.1 Dominant learning styles 231
7.2.2.2 Dominant learning styles and gender 231
7.2.2.3 Dominant learning styles and age 232
7.2.2.4 Dominant teaching styles 232
7.2.2.5 Dominant teaching styles and gender 233
7.2.2.6 Dominant teaching styles and age 233
7.2.3 To what extend does matching teaching and learning
styles improve learners' academic achievement? 234
7.2.4 What strategies can be deduced from these research
findings to help in addressing learning styles of learners
in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho? 235
7.2.4.1 Information-sharing sessions 235
7.2.4.2 Learner-centered curriculum 236
7.2.4.3 Provision of teacher manual on learning styles 236
7.2.4.4 Further studies 236
7.2.4.5 Staff development sessions 237
7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 238
7.3.1 Teaching and learning style knowledge 238
7.3.2 Predominant teaching and learning styles 239
7.3.3 Matching of teaching and learning styles 240
7.3.4 Strategies on addressing learning styles in Lesotho 240
7.4 RECOMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 242
7.5 CONCLUSION 242
CHAPTER 8: TEACHER GUIDE ON TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES
IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
8.1 INTRODUCTION 244
XIV
8.2 DEFINITIONS 244
8.2.1 Teaching styles 244
8.2.2 Learning styles 244
8.3 PRINCIPLES FOR USING TEACHING AND LEARNING
STYLES 245
8.4 TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLE INSTRUMENTS 247
8.4.1 Learning style instrument 247
8.4.2 Teaching style instrument 253
8.4.3 Analysis of the instruments 258
8.5 TEACHING TO LEARNING STYLES 260
8.6 CONCLUSION 270
BIBLIOGRAPHY 271
xv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 2.1: Classifying style models 34
TABLE 3.1: A Guide for developing teaching materials 74
TABLE 3.2: Quirk's teaching styles 79
TABLE 3.3: Grasha's teaching styles 82
TABLE 3.4: Grasha's teaching style clusters 84
TABLE 3.5: Principles of teaching styles 90
TABLE 3.6: Matching teaching and learning styles 92
TABLE 4.1 Activities and environments that support intrinsic motivation 108
TABLE 4.2 Activities and environments that support extrinsic motivation 109
TABLE 4.3: Classroom type as described by Solomon, Kendail and
Bennett 125
TABLE 5.1: Dimensions in the learning style questionnaire 142
TABLE 5.2: Dimensions of learning and teaching style 143
TABLE 5.3: Teaching style instrument 144
TABLE 5.4: Levels of achievement 145
TABLE 5.5: Sample size for a given population 149
TABLE 6.1: Distribution of learners according to age 155
TABLE 6.2: Distribution of learners according to gender 156
TABLE 6.3: Distribution of teachers per school 157
TABLE 6.4: Distribution of teachers according to educational districts 158
TABLE 6.5: Distribution of teachers according to subjects taught 159
XVI
TABLE 6.6: Distributions of teachers according to academic
qualifications 160
TABLE 6.7: Distribution of teachers according to teaching experience 161
TABLE 6.8: Distribution of teachers according to professional
qualifications 162
TABLE 6.9: Distribution of number of learners per class 163
TABLE 6.10: Distribution of teachers according to gender 164
TABLE6.11: Distribution of teachers according to age 165
TABLE 6.12: Knowledge about learning styles 166
TABLE 6.13: Awareness of learning styles 168
TABLE 6.14: Knowledge about teaching styles 169
TABLE 6.15: Teacher training 170
TABLE 6.16: Addressing learning styles 171
TABLE 6.17: The importance of knowledge on learning styles 172
TABLE 6.18: Availability of time in addressing learning styles 173
TABLE 6.19: Teachers' knowledge on the factors of learning styles 174
TABLE 6.20: The influence of teaching and learning styles 175
TABLE 6.21: Need for special training in learning styles 176
TABLE 6.22: Overcrowded classes 177
TABLE 6.23: Subject content and time pressure 178
TABLE 6.24: Following the strict syllabus 179
TABLE 6.25: Preparing for external exams 180
TABLE 6.26: Availability of various teaching aids 181
XVll
TABLE 6.27: Knowledge of the learning process 182
TABLE 6.28: Summary of the factors that influence learning styles in rural
secondary schools of Lesotho 183
TABLE 6.29: Distribution of learning styles 186
TABLE 6.30: Learning styles cross tabulated against gender of learners 187
TABLE 6.31: Learning styles cross tabulated against age of learners 188
TABLE 6.32: Distribution of teaching styles 189
TABLE 6.33: Teaching styles cross tabulated against gender of teachers 190
TABLE 6.34: Teaching styles cross tabulated against age of teachers 191
TABLE 6.35: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 1 192
TABLE 6.36: Matching of styles and learners' achievement in school 1 192
TABLE 6.37: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 2 193
TABLE 6.38 Matching of styles and achievement in school 2 193
TABLE6.39: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 3 194
TABLE 6.40: Matching styles and achievement in school 3 195
TABLE 6.41: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 4 196
TABLE 6.42: Matching styles and achievement in school 4 196
TABLE 6.43: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 5 197
TABLE 6.44: Matching styles and achievement in school 5 197
TABLE 6.45: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 6 198
TABLE 6.46: Matching styles and achievement in school 6 198
TABLE 6.47: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 7 199
TABLE 6.48: Matching styles and achievement in school 7 199
XVIII
TABLE 6.49: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 8 200
TABLE 6.50: Matching styles and achievement in school 8 200
TABLE 6.51: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 9 201
TABLE 6.52: Matching styles and achievement in school 9 202
TABLE 6.53: Distribution of teaching and learning styles in school 10 203
TABLE 6.54: Matching styles and achievement in school 10 203
TABLE 6.55: Distribution of teaching/learning styles in school 11 204
TABLE 6.56: Matching styles and achievement in school 11 204
TABLE 6.57: Distribution of teaching/learning styles in school 12 205
TABLE 6.58: Matching styles and achievement in school 12 205
TABLE 6.59: Distribution of teaching/learning styles in school 13 206
TABLE 6.60: Matching styles and achievement in school 13 206
TABLE 6.61: Distribution of teaching/learning styles in school 14 207
TABLE 6.62: Matching styles and achievement in school 14 208
TABLE 6.63: Distribution of teaching/learning styles in school 15 209
TABLE 6.64: Matching styles and achievement in school 15 209
TABLE 6.65: Distribution of teaching/learning styles in school 16 210
TABLE 6.66: Matching styles and achievement in school 16 210
TABLE 6.67: Distribution of teaching/learning styles in school 17 211
TABLE 6.68: Matching styles and achievement in school 17 211
TABLE 6.69: Distribution of teaching/learning styles in school 18 212
TABLE 6.70: Matching styles and achievement in school 18 212
TABLE 6.71: Distribution of teaching /Iearning styles in school 19 213
XIX
TABLE 6.72: Matching styles and achievement in school 19 214
TABLE 6.73: Matching styles and achievement in all schools 215
TABLE 6.74: Summary of all matching and mismatching styles 216
TABLE 6.75: Information-sharing sessions 217
TABLE 6.76: Learner-centered curriculum 219
TABLE 6.77: Provision of teacher manual 220
TABLE 6.78: Further studies 221
TABLE 6.79: Staff development sessions 222
TABLE 6.80: Summary of the strategies of improving learning style
knowledge in rural secondary schools of Lesotho 223
TABLE 8.1: The learning style instrument 247
TABLE 8.2: The teaching style instrument 253
TABLE 8.3: Questions in the learning style instrument 259
TABLE 8.4: Questions in the teaching style instrument 259
TABLE 8.5: Description of learning style categories 260
TABLE 8.6: Classroom activities across teaching and learning style
categories 262
TABLE 8.7: Lesson planning using learning styles 266
xx
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 2.1: Maslow's hierarchy of human needs 27
FIGURE 2.2 Five orientations to learning theories 32
FIGURE 2.3: Kolb's learning style model 38
FIGURE 3.1: Quirk's teaching style continuum 77
FIGURE 4.1: Taxonomy of human motivation: Intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation 106
FIGURE 6.1: Distribution of learners according to age 155
FIGURE 6.2: Distribution of learners according to gender 156
FIGURE 6.3: Distribution of teachers according to subjects taught 159
FIGURE 6.4: Distribution of teachers according to academic
qualification 160
FIGURE 6.5: Distribution of teachers according to teaching experience 161
FIGURE 6.6: Distribution of teachers according to professional
qualification
162
FIGURE 6.7: Distribution of teachers according to gender 164
FIGURE 6.8: Distribution of teachers according to age 165
FIGURE 6.9: Knowiegde about learning styles 167
FIGURE 6.10: Awareness of learning styles 168
FIGURE 6.11: Knowledge about teaching styles 169
FIGURE 6.12: Teacher training 170
XXI
FIGURE 6.13: Addressing learning styles 171
FIGURE 6.14: The importance of knowledge on learning styles 172
FIGURE 6.15: Availability of time in addressing learning styles 173
FIGURE 6.16: Teachers' knowledge on the factors of learning styles 174
FIGURE 6.17: The influence of matching teaching and learning styles 175
FIGURE 6.18: Need for special training in learning styles 176
FIGURE 6.19: Overcrowded classes 177
FIGURE 6.20: Too much subject content and time pressure 178
FIGURE 6.21: Following the strict syllabus 179
FIGURE 6.22: Preparing for external exams 180
FIGURE 6.23: Availability of various teaching aids 181
FIGURE 6.24: Knowledge of the learning process 182
FIGURE 6.25: Matching of teaching and learning styles in all schools 215
FIGURE 6.26: Distribution of matching and mismatching styles 216
FIGURE 6.27: Information-sharing sessions 217
FIGURE 6.28: Learner-centered curriculum 219
FIGURE 6.29: Provision of teacher manual 220
FIGURE 6.30: Further studies 221
FIGURE 6.31: Staff development sessions 222
FIGURE 8.1: Class activity-Boiling and melting points 268
FIGURE 8.2: Class assignment- changes in state of matter 269
XXll
LIST OF APPENDIX
APPENDIX A: The learning style questionnaire 292
APPENDIX B: The teaching style questionnaire 297
APPENDIX C: Letter of permission from the supervisor 304
APPENDIX D: Letter to Teaching Service Department 305
APPENDIX E: Letter to the Principal Secretary in the Ministry
of Education 306
APPENDIX F: Letter to Principals 307
APPENDIX G: Letter from the language editor 308
XXlll
LIST OF ACRONYMS
ECOL Examinations Council of Lesotho
FSLSM Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model
FSILS Felder-Solomon Index of Learning Styles
FPE Free Primary Education
ILS Index of Learning Styles
IQ Intelligence Quotient
JC Junior Certificate
LSP Learning Styles Program
MBTI Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
NCOC National Curriculum Development Centre
SPSS Statistical Packages of Social Sciences
TSC Teaching Service Commission
TSO Teaching Service Department
USA United States of America
ZPO Zone of Proximal Development
XXIV
ABSTRACT
The Lesotho Junior Certificate results between 2003 and 2006 indicate that in the
rural secondary schools of Lesotho the pass rate ranged from 51% to 58%.
These figures are low compared to those in the urban schools for the same years
which ranged from 70% to 72%. The Teaching Service Department shows that
there was 40% of unqualified teachers in these schools in 2003 and 35% in
2007. There seems to be a correlation between the high numbers of unqualified
teachers and the low pass rate in these schools. This view is underscored by
Wheeler and McLeod (2002: 696) who note that teachers are more likely to
develop teaching styles which are congruent with their own learning styles rather
than those of their learners if they are unaware of the learning and teaching
styles literature.
This study aims to establish teaching styles that match the learning styles of
learners in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho with the view to improve
academic achievement. The objectives are: to determine whether teachers in
these schools have adequate knowledge pertaining to teaching and learning
styles; to identify the predominant styles; to determine the extent to which
matching teaching and learning styles improves academic achievement; and to
provide a teacher's guide on teaching and learning styles.
The research comprises of a literature study and empirical investigation. The
Solomon Felder Index of Learning Styles (SFILS) and self-designed teaching
style questionnaire were used. The learners' end-af-year examination marks
were studied. The empirical findings indicate that most teachers in rural
secondary schools of Lesotho do not have adequate knowledge on teaching and
learning styles, while findings from the literature and empirical study indicate that
academic achievement of learners can be enhanced by matching teaching and
learning styles. Therefore, these findings can be used to improve the teaching
and learning process and ultimately the level of success that learners in rural
secondary schools can experience in their respective schools. Finally, the
findings of this study were used to develop a teacher's guide on teaching and
xxv
learning styles. This would hopefully guide teachers in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho on which styles could work best in their contexts.
Key words: Rural schools, Learning styles, Academic achievement, Teaching
styles, Learner -centered
XXVI
ABSTRAK
Die uitslae van die Lesotho Junior Sertifikaat dui daarop dat die slaagsyfer in
landelike sekondêre skole in Lesotho tussen 2003 en 2006 gewissel het van
51% tot 58%. Hierdie syfers is laag in vergelyking met die uitslae van stedelike
skole in die ooreenstemmende tydperk waar uitslae gewissel het van 70% tot
72%. Volgens die Departement van Onderwysdienste was 40% van die
onderwysers in hierdie skole in 2003 ongekwalifiseerd. In 2007 was 35% van die
onderwysers ongekwalifiseerd. Daar skyn 'n korrelasie tussen die groot getal
ongekwalifiseerde onderwysers en die lae slaagsyfer in hierdie skole te bestaan.
Hierdie siening word deur Wheeler en McLeod (2002: 696) beaam. Hulle voer
aan dat onderwysers geneig is om veel eerder onderrigstyle te ontwikkel wat
ooreenstem met hulle persoonlike leerstyle as met die leerstyle van hulle
leerders - veral as die onderwysers onkundig is oor die leer- en onderrigstyle wat
in die literatuur beskikbaar is.
Hierdie studie poog om onderrigstyle daar te stel wat ooreenstem met die
leerstyle van die leerders in landelike sekondêre skole in Lesotho met die doel
om akademiese prestasie te verbeter. Die doelwitte is: om vas te stelof
onderwysers aan hierdie skole oor voldoende kennis van onderrig-en leerstyle
beskik; om die oorheersende style te identifiseer; om te bepaal in watter mate 'n
korrelasie tussen onderrig- en leerstyle akademiese prestasie verbeter; 'n
handleiding vir onderrig-en leerstyle vir onderwysers te ontwikkel.
Die navorsing bestaan uit 'n literêre studie en empiriese ondersoek. Die Solomon
Felder Indeks van Leerstyle (SFILS) en 'n self-ontwerpte onderrigstylvraelys is
gebruik. Die leerders se uitslae vir die eindeksamen is bestudeer. Die empiriese
bevindinge dui daarop dat die meeste onderwysers aan landelike sekondêre
skole in Lesotho nie beskik oor voldoende onderrig- en leerstyle nie. Bevindinge
in die literatuur en empiriese studies dui daarop dat leerders se akademiese
prestasie verbeter kan word deur onderrig- en leerstyle met mekaar te korreleer.
Daarbenewens kan hierdie bevindinge ook aangewend word om onderrig- en
XXVII
leerproses te verbeter en uiteindelik sal leerders in landelike sekondêre skole
meer sukses ervaar.
Laastens is die bevindinge van hierdie ondersoek aangewend om 'n
onderwyserhandleiding saam te stel wat gebruik kan word ter ontwikkeling van
onderrig- en leerstyle. Sodoende salonderwysers in landelike sekondêre skole in
Lesotho leiding ontvang oor die mees geskikte style vir hulle unieke situasies.
Sleutelwoorde: Leerstyle, Akademiese prestasie, Onderrigstyle, Leerder-
gesentreerd, Landelike skole.
XXYlll
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTORY ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Throughout the world, governments and other education stakeholders advocate quality
education and education for all. Among educational issues that are important is
knowledge about learning styles' theories. A lot of research has been done to explain
and address the learning styles of learners. The vast majority of the literature on
learning styles has focused on enhancing learner performance (Kolb & Kolb, 1999;
Dasari, 2006). This work has generally found that when learners' learning styles are
matched by the design of the curriculum, with the learning styles of their teachers, or
with appropriate teaching styles, academic achievement improves (Dunn & Dunn, 1979:
240; Felder, 1993: 286; Ford & Chen, 2001: 5). The focus of the current study is on the
latter, that is, on matching appropriate teaching styles with the learning styles of
learners in Lesotho's rural schools to improve their academic achievement.
There is empirical support for the rather obvious position that learning in a manner that
is consistent with one's learning style produces better academic results than otherwise
(Domino, 1979: 3; Dunn & Dunn, 1979: 242; Morrison, Sweeney & Heffernan, 2006:
64). Empirical studies have also confirmed educators' beliefs by showing how learners'
styles of learning and thinking make a difference in their academic achievement
(Isemonger & Sheppard, 2003: 196; Morrison, Sweeney & Heffernan, 2003: 209;
Dasari, 2006: 4).
This research suggests that learners, whose learning styles match up with the given
teaching style, tend to show improved academic achievement than those who
experience clashes in their teaching/learning styles. Charkins, O'Toole and Wetzei
(1985: 113) and Moallem (2007: 217) concur with the idea that where teaching styles
are compatible with learners' learning styles, learners retain information much longer,
1
apply it more effectively and become greater academic achievers. This means that
teachers should be aware of the theory which underlies learning styles.
Barbe and Milone (1980: 45), Friedman and Alley (1984: 74), Felder (1993: 288),
Wheeler and McLeod (2002: 696) note that teachers are more likely to develop teaching
styles which are congruent with their own learning styles, rather than those of their
learners if they are unaware of the learning/teaching styles' literature. On the other
hand, while teachers are aware that learning styles exist, the application of this
knowledge is often inconsequential (Diaz & Cartnal, 1999: 131). Some teachers opt to
use a wide variety of teaching activities, hoping that they will cover most of their
learners' learning style preferences along the way and this may be the case in the rural
schools of Lesotho. This method may not be the most effective or systematic way to
address individual learning styles in the classroom. The most important thing is to
identify learners' predominant learning styles and to use teaching styles that are more
direct to promote the full potential of learners in those learning styles. Some attention
can be directed to the use of teaching styles that would help learners to develop abilities
in the less preferred learning styles.
Besides all the arguments above, information on learning styles could also be used for
learner placement in suitable classes, with teachers or fields of study with matching
characteristics (Mokoena, 1997: 14).
The interest of this study is to find ways of matching up the teaching styles of teachers
with the learning styles of learners to improve their academic achievement in the rural
schools of Lesotho. These schools are situated in the mountainous parts of the country
which are not easily accessible. In these schools there is a lack of resources, such as
electricity, communication services, roads and school facilities, such as laboratories and
libraries.
2
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Recognition of students' learning styles is regarded by many educators as a vital part of
an effective teaching strategy (Morrison, Sweeney & Heffernan, 2003: 208). As far back
as ancient Greece, it was noted that learners have different styles of learning, and these
styles can be linked to certain teaching styles to enhance academic achievement
(Wratcher, Morrison, Riley & Scheirton, 1997; Diaz & Cartnal, 1999). There are various
discussions across different countries regarding the same issue of learning and
teaching styles. It was noted by Lennon (1988:418) that a discursive style of teaching
prevailed in American schools whereby teaching was based almost entirely on the use
of verbal formulations which were often made up of nominal or abstract components
that omitted utilitarian reference.
Over the past two decades educationists have expressed increasing concern about the
number of learners who fail in the secondary and high schools of African countries
(Motsau, 1990: 1; Calitz, 2001: 2). Among these countries is Lesotho, which is
characterized by comparatively low academic achievement in secondary schools,
especially in the rural schools. The above statement is supported by the evidence from
the annual reports on Junior Certificate (JC) results by the Examination Council of
Lesotho (ECOL) from 2003 to 2006. In rural schools, JC results from 2003 up to 2006
showed the overall pass rate of 51%, 51%, 54% and 58% respectively. These figures
are low when compared to the overall pass rate in urban schools for the same years
which are 70%, 65%, 69%, and 72% respectively (Lesotho Ministry of Education and
Training, 2005: 59, 2008: 19).
Many factors contribute to poor academic achievement in the rural areas of Lesotho. As
a way of improving academic achievement in these rural schools, the government,
through the ministry of education, is providing resources for schools in rural areas and
workshops for teachers. In these workshops knowledge about learning styles' theories
has, however, not yet received significant attention. From this point, questions can be
asked as to whether the teaching methods used by teachers are able to accommodate
and enhance the learning styles of learners, and whether teachers take adequate
consideration of learners' learning preferences during lesson planning and presentation.
3
According to Mulkeen (2005: 10) and Lesotho Ministry of Education and Training (2008:
19), statistics from the Teaching Service Department (TSO) in Lesotho show that there
were 40% to 51% of unqualified teachers in rural schools in 2003 and 2004, and 35% in
2007. In consideration of these statistics, one can wonder whether these teachers have
enough knowledge and skills required for teaching. In this case, a question can be
raised as to whether these untrained teachers receive any in-service training and
adequate guidance on the teaching approaches and ways of accommodating all
learners in learning instruction. A precise question can further be asked as to whether
teachers have enough knowledge about learning styles and learning theories. This
research will seek to determine whether teachers (qualified and unqualified) have
adequate knowledge about learning styles.
It has also been the researcher's experience as a teacher that learners fail to achieve
an acceptable level of academic success at JC level. This fact raised the following
question: is it possible that some learners are failing to be academically successful at
school because teaching styles do not cater for their learning styles? The research
literature on learning styles suggests that boredom, a lack of academic success and the
frustration learners experience in learning could be due to incongruence between the
teaching styles of teachers and the learners' preferred learning styles (Dasari, 2006: 1).
This inherent problem gave rise to the idea of this research topic. It was thus born out of
a desire to provide teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho with alternative
teaching approaches to improve the academic achievement of their learners.
According to Wynd and Bozman (as cited in Morrison et al. 2003: 209) the rationale for
identifying learning styles is that appropriate teaching styles are inherently exclusionary
and inhibit efficient and effective learning. Research supports the effectiveness of
matching teaching and learning styles on learning, although not all researchers have the
same views about the congruence of teaching and learning styles (Charkins et al.,
1985: 113; Murray-Harvey, 1994: 374; Morrison et al., 2003: 208). This research is,
however, based on the study of matching teaching and learning styles as a way of
enhancing learners' academic achievement and involvement in learning. The following
questions are therefore raised for this research:
4
1. Do teachers have adequate knowledge about teaching and learning styles to
direct their teaching to the learning styles of their learners?
2. What are the predominant characteristic learning styles of learners and teaching
styles of teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho?
3. To what extent does matching teaching and learning styles improve learners'
individual academic achievement?
4. What strategies can be deduced from these research findings to help in
addressing the learning styles of learners in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho?
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the teaching styles used by teachers in
the rural secondary schools, and how they match up with the learning styles of learners,
andwhether learners' potential are being activated in the learning process. The findings
of this research are intended to enrich more research data on teaching and learning
styles. The study also aims to develop a user friendly teacher guide that can be used in
secondary schools to identify learners' learning styles and to accommodate different
learning styles in the normal classroom. Therefore the objectives of this study are:
• To determine whether teachers have adequate knowledge with regard to
teaching and learning styles to direct their teaching to their learners' learning
styles.
• To identify the predominant characteristic learning styles of learners and teaching
styles of teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho.
• To find the extent to which matching teaching and learning styles improve
learners' academic achievement.
5
• To provide a teacher's guide in assessing and accommodating different learning
styles in one class.
1.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
There are a number of theories and models for educational research and practice that
provide base features that address how people learn. These theories and models are
based on certain paradigms from which they are developed. For this research, a
constructivist orientation is relevant. Constructivism as a paradigm posits that learning is
an active and constructive process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new
ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge (Learning Theories, 2008:
2).
Constructivism is expressed in two forms, which are cognitive constructivism and social
constructivism. In cognitive constructivism, learning involves cognitive structures that
provide meaning and organization to experiences (Bruner in Patsuia, 1999: 4). In this
form of constructivism, Antherton (2005b: 6) contends that the learner understands
things in terms of developmental stages and learning styles, while social constructivism
emphasizes how meaning and understanding grow out of social encounters. It is within
this constructivist paradigm that the cognitive load and information processing are
related to the learning environment that actualizes one's potential (Learning Theories,
2008: 3).
The cognitive load and information processing theory is therefore basic to the focus of
this research. From this theory some learning style models, such as Kolb's Learning
Styles model, 1984; Dunn & Dunn Learning Styles, 1979; and the Felder-Silverman
Learning Style Model (FSLSM) were developed.
For this research, the Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model has been chosen because
it describes the learning styles of learners in more detail, elaborating and distinguishing
between preferences in these learning styles (Graf, Viola, Kinshuk & Leo, 2007: 81).
The model combines several dimensions presented in the Myers-Briggs model
6
(sensing/intuitive) with Kolb's information processing dimension (Active/Reflective). The
core idea of the Felder and Silverman model is that teachers should teach learners
according to their preferences while on the other hand should strive for a balance of
instructional methods (Maallem, 2007: 219).
According to Dasari (2006: 18) Felder and Silverman classify learners' learning styles
according to five questions which bring about the learning style dimensions. These
questions are:
1) What type of information does a learner preferentially perceive?
2) Through which sensory channel is external information most effectively
perceived?
3) With which organization of information is a learner most comfortable?
4) How does the learner prefer to process information?
5) How does the learner progress towards understanding?
In answer to these questions, the learners are classified as sensing or intuitive, visual or
verbal, inductive or deductive, active or reflective and sequential or global. The first
dimension distinguishes sensing and intuitive. The second dimension covers visual and
verbal learners. The third dimension covers inductive and deductive learners. In the
fourth, active and reflective learners are considered. In the fifth dimension, learners are
characterized according to their understanding. Sequential learners learn in small
incremental steps and follow some logical stepwise paths in finding solutions. In
contrast, global learners use a holistic thinking process and learn in large heaps.
Felder-Silverman (1988), and later Felder and Solomon, developed the Index of
Learning Style (ILS). The ILS is a 44 question, self-scoring instrument, which assesses
preferences on the four dimensions of learning styles. To integrate the learning style
model into the design and development of instruction, the Felder-Solomon's Index of
Learning Style will be used to identify specifications for matching teaching and learning
styles to promote academic achievement.
7
Given the model, the main characteristics are defined for identifying teaching styles that
are tailored to learners' individual learning styles. Firstly, teaching styles should
increase self-awareness and meta-cognition of learners about their strengths and
challenges. Research on learning styles and academic achievement has shown that
teaching learners how to learn, monitor and manage their own learning styles is crucial
to their academic achievement (Dasari, 1998). Secondly, teaching styles should
balance learning tasks and activities so that they would accommodate all learners by
taking into account four dimensions of the model (Barbe & Milone, 1980: 45; McKeache,
1996: 1; Dasari, 2006: 59). Thirdly, while learners should be able to choose to learn in a
manner they prefer, they should also be challenged to learn in a less preferred manner
which provides practice and feedback in ways which they may not initially be
comfortable with.
1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW
According to Kaniki (2006: 19) literature review involves the identification and analysis
of information resources and literature related to one's project. A lot of research has
been undertaken that describes the relationship between learning styles and academic
achievement and that describes the benefits of matching teaching and learning styles.
Among other benefits, student motivation, understanding and academic success are
emphasized (Charkins et al., 1985: 113; Ford & Chen, 2001: 5).
The theoretical framework above provides a basis for the relevant literature and sources
on the issue of learning styles. More theories on learning and learning styles are
considered in the next chapters to provide an overall knowledge on learning styles.
While there are many theories that describe the learning styles, there are also some
theories on teaching styles. Grasha (1996: 26) describes five teaching styles in his book
'Teaching with Style'. These are: the expert; the formal authority; the personal model;
the facilitator; and the delegator. Benzie (1998: 18) classifies teaching styles as
assertive, suggestive, collaborative and facilitative. These are only a few of the theories
8
on teaching styles. A lot more will be discussed in the literature review chapter of this
research project.
The literature on learning and teaching styles is important for teachers at all levels of
education. As 8arbe and Milone (1980: 45) said, teachers are more likely to develop
teaching styles which are congruent with their own learning styles rather than those of
their learners if they are unaware of the literature on learning/teaching styles. Therefore
teachers need to have an obligation to broaden their teaching styles to support
opportunities for learners to broaden their learning styles.
Can a teacher's teaching style then be modified? Heimlich and Norland (2002: 18)
believe that there is an important pre-condition before teachers can attempt to modify
their style. That is, their beliefs and values regarding their roles and their learners' roles
in learning should first be changed. This point implies that teachers can modify their
teaching styles in an attempt to be more flexible and accommodative to their learners'
preferences.
A comprehensive literature study of selected and relevant sources, such as books,
journal articles, dissertations and other academic research projects was undertaken. It
was used to determine how other researchers used their instruments to identify learning
styles, teaching styles and their relationship; and how their findings and arguments
relate to this research.
1.6 METHOD OF STUDY
The research comprises two parts which are the literature study and empirical
investigation. The literature study focused on issues regarding learning styles, teaching
styles and academic achievement. More attention was given to the literature on
matching teaching styles and learning styles.
9
Quantitative Research
In order to achieve the stated objectives, the empirical investigation that was used is
quantitative in nature. Quantitative research is a numerical method describing
observations of materials or characteristics (Burns, 2000: 43). In this approach,
methods of data-collection are rigid, strict and regimented. This empirical investigation
unfolded with a pilot study which covered two secondary schools in rural areas whereby
5 teachers and 5 learners per school completed questionnaires that were directed at
teaching styles and learning styles respectively.
For the proposed research, a questionnaire method was used to gather data that is
relevant to the research questions. In this case, the Felder-Solomon Index of Learning
Styles (FSILS), which consists of 44 questions designed to identify learning styles of
learners, was used. A self-designed questionnaire based on Felder and Silverman's
theory of teaching styles was also used to identify teachers' teaching styles. This
questionnaire was designed in a way that includes items that seek teachers' knowledge
about teaching styles and learning styles. Each teacher's dominant style was then
linked to each learner's predominant learning style to see if they match or mismatch. To
find the influence of matching teaching and learning styles on academic achievement,
end-af-year examination marks of learners were considered. For each learner, the
choice of examination marks to be used was entirely based on the subjects taught by
the teachers that participated in the research.
Reliability of findings
Reliability of findings is very important for this research, therefore the various
measurement instruments that were used by other researchers in attempting to
categorize how learners learn were consulted for review. In this research, the FeIder-
Solomon index of learning styles seemed to be appropriate because it is relatively short
and conveys more dimensions of learning than others. It is often used and a well-
investigated instrument to identify learning styles. Felder and Spurlin (as cited in Graf et
al., 2007: 83) provided an overview of studies dealing with analyzing the response data
10
of ILS regarding the distribution of preferences for each dimension as well as with
verifying the reliability and validity of the instrument. From these studies, it is obvious
that the ILS is reliable and suitable. The self-designed questionnaire was designed
according to the existing theory of Felder and Silverman on teaching styles, and was
tested in a pilot study, and thus confirming its reliability.
Research Sample Composition
The research involves sampling which is part of the internal logic of the study. The
stratified sampling design was used for this research. The sample included the districts,
schools, teachers and learners. Two secondary schools per district were randomly
selected from the rural areas of the 10 districts of Lesotho. A sample of 300 participants
was selected randomly. The participants were divided into 2 subgroups: learners and
teachers. These participants were 10 learners in the form C class (equivalent to grade
10 in South Africa) and 5 teachers in each school. There was a total of 30 participants
per district.
1.7 DEMARCATION OF THE STUDY AREA
The research was conducted in all 10 districts of Lesotho. In all these districts, there are
schools situated in the rural areas, which consist of the following ecological regions,
namely the foothills and mountainous zones. The study focused on the secondary
schools in these rural areas, limiting it to 2 schools per district. The choice of the rural
secondary schools as the research area followed the concern of low academic
achievements in such schools. It is believed that the selection of two schools per district
which makes a total of 20 schools created an ideal representation of the whole lot of
rural secondary schools in Lesotho.
11
1.8 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
The following definitions relating to this research will be outlined:
1.8.1 A learning style is the consistent pattern of behaviour and performance by which
an individual approaches a learning experience. It is therefore the composite of
characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological behaviours that serve as
relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with and respond to
the learning environment (Ellis, 2001: 149).
1.8.2 Teaching styles refer to the behaviours that teachers exhibit in their interactions
with their learners (Heimlich & Norland, 2002: 20; Dasari, 2006: 9). A definition
proposed by Hoyt and Lee (2002: 3) is that a teaching style refers to the way
various teaching approaches are combined to produce an optimal outcome in
learning.
1.8.3 Kennedy (as cited in Mekgwe, 1998: 14) defines academic achievement in terms
of achievement test scores and teacher-given grades and percentages in
academic subjects. It involves striving for excellence. In other words, individuals
perceive performance or competence in terms of standards of excellence.
According to Calitz (2001 :7) academic achievement can be viewed as the degree
to which learners are able to attain a standardized academic goal or, in other
words, the degree to which learners master those tasks which they are expected
to master for the respective academic year.
1.8.4 Secondary schools in Lesotho are schools that offer three-year curriculum of the
junior secondary education, whereby external examinations are conducted and
certificates are issued at the end of the final year. These schools comprise of
Form A to Form C classes (Lesotho Ministry of Education and training, 2008: 5).
1.8.5 High schools in Lesotho are schools that offer five-year curriculum of both the
junior and senior secondary education. In these schools, external examinations
12
are conducted in the final years of both junior and senior secondary education
levels. These schools comprise of Form A to Form C (junior classes) and Form 0
to Form E (senior classes) (Lesotho Ministry of education and Training, 2008: 5).
1.9 RESEARCH OUTLAY
Chapter 1: it provides an overview of the background to the research questions,
research problem and purpose of the study.
Chapter 2: it focuses in some detail on theory, models and educational implications of
learning styles.
Chapter 3: deals with important aspects on teaching styles and the literature on
matching/mismatching of teaching and learning styles.
Chapter 4: considers theory on academic achievement and important aspects of
academic achievement in Lesotho.
Chapter 5: the research methodology, including sample composition, data collection
and data analysis are discussed.
Chapter 6: research findings are presented and interpreted after data collection is
complete.
Chapter 7: covers the discussion of findings, recommendations and the conclusion.
Chapter 8: comprises of the user-friendly teacher guide that can be used to help
teachers in identifying and accommodating different learning styles in the secondary
schools of Lesotho
1.10 CONCLUSION
This research aims to help teachers become aware of the different learning styles of
learners and to suggest ways that can be used to direct appropriate teaching styles to
13
those learning styles. Teachers need to be aware of the pitfalls of subscribing too much
to the notion of learners having one dominant style that is fixed. As stated by McKeache
(1996: 1), the most serious undesirable side effect from the use of learning style
concepts is that styles are often considered to be fixed by the teacher. This can limit
learners' ability to learn in ways that do not fit their style. This means, sometimes it may
also be worthwhile to attempt to expand a learner's thinking by deliberately setting work
outside of his preferred learning style.
The findings from this research enabled the development of ideas that can be used to
promote knowledge about learning styles, especially to help untrained teachers. The
findings of this research could also help teachers to make informed decisions about
which teaching styles match up with their students' learning styles.
14
CHAPTER 2
THEORY, MODELS AND EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING STYLES
2.1. INTRODUCTION
Experienced educators have long supported the idea that individual differences play an
important role in learning. They agree that learners absorb instruction and develop
knowledge through a set of individual strategies (Maallem, 2007: 217). In this chapter,
some literature on learning styles will be reviewed, and this includes the consideration
of learning as a process in which concepts and theories that relate to learning are
discussed. A section on the description of learning style models will follow, while more
attention will be directed to the Felder-Silverman Learning Styles Model (FSLSM).
Factors that affect and influence the learning styles of learners will form part of the
discussion in this chapter. The researcher will also review the educational implications
of learning styles, and lastly, research findings on learning styles will be presented and
discussed.
2.2. DEFINITIONS AND RELATED CONCEPTS
There is a variety of concepts relating to learning, how it is perceived and how it takes
place in the mind of a human being. In this section, an outline of definitions of concepts
pertaining to learning will be presented.
2.2.1 Learning
Learning is an incredibly complex process involving a great number of decisions by both
learners and teachers in a relatively short period of time (Giles, 1995:2). According to
Motah (2007:484) learning is defined as actions under the guidance of the teacher with
15
the aim of bringing about some relatively permanent change in the way learners
perceive, think, feel and act.
Grosser (2007:38) concurs with the above and adds by indicating that learning is
connected to teaching in that the effectiveness of teaching will directly or indirectly
influence learning, and there are certain assumptions pertaining to learning. These
assumptions are outlined as follows:
1) Learning is goal oriented.
2) Learning is linking new information to prior knowledge.
3) Learning is organizing information.
4) Learning is acquiring a repertoire of cognitive and meta-cognitive learning
functions and strategies.
5) Learning is influenced by development.
6) Learning occurs in phases, yet is non-linear.
On the other hand, Rogers (2003: 18) is of the opinion that learning could be thought of
as a process by which behaviour changes as a result of experience. Rogers has
formulated two contrasting approaches that explain the learning process, and these are
task-conscious or acquisition learning, and learning-conscious or formalized learning.
Acquisition learning is seen as an ongoing process that takes place all the time. It is
concrete, immediate and confined to a specific activity; and it is not concerned with
general principles. This kind of learning is sometimes referred to as unconscious or
implicit. Formalized learning on the other hand, arises from the process of facilitating
learning. It is educative learning rather than the accumulation of experience. In this
case, learners are aware that the task they are engaged in entails learning.
Motah (2007:45) adds to the latter, that there are some guiding principles for learning.
These are:
1. Learning should be relevant to existing knowledge and any future tasks.
Learners understand and remember better if they can fit their learning into
a framework.
16
2. Learning should comprise of appropriate sequencing of instruction.
Learners' understanding is enhanced if teaching is sequenced in a rational
order which enables the content to be developed in a sequential
framework.
3. Learning should have active learner's involvement. This implies that
learning requires the opportunity to practice and apply new knowledge to
promote understanding.
4. Learning is incomplete without feedback on performance. Learning is a
process of acquiring new habits, knowledge and skills which together
enable learners to do things they could not do before. It is therefore
important for learners to receive feedback on their performance.
When looking at learners in rural areas of Lesotho, Mulkeen (2005:2) states that such
learners may be considered more difficult to educate, because they are likely to have
less parental support to go to school, to have more demands on their time, such as
herding, and may find the curriculum less relevant to their lives. These learners may
also find less support for their learning from the home and school environment for
reasons such as unqualified teachers and illiterate parents.
Considering the definitions, assumptions and guidelines for learning, it is important for
both learners and teachers to understand their roles in the learning process. This
understanding should be enforced in all schools and educational institutes, among
which are the rural secondary schools of Lesotho, to improve the academic
achievement of learners.
2.2.2 Cognitive styles
Many definitions exist for cognitive styles among different authors. According to
Halpern, 1986 (as cited in Calitz, 2001 :13) the term cognitive style refers to the
individual differences in modes of perceiving, remembering and thinking. This implies
that for individuals to develop cognitively, they need to make use of all the aspects of
17
their perception effectively, which in turn will lead to the development of cognitive
abilities that are necessary for more specific tasks.
In 1937, Allport introduced the concept of cognitive style as a style of living and
adapting, and influenced by a distinctive personality type (Rosa, 2004:28). Saracho
(1997:19) on the other hand, explains cognitive style as broad systematic
characteristics that influence the person's responses in different situations. According to
him, cognitive style identifies people's stylistic behavioural attributes that they inhibit in
their perceptual, social and intellectual activities.
Jones (1998: 116) notes that although some authors describe cognitive styles as static
and relatively built-in features of an individual, others see them rather as developing
through conditioning or reciprocal interaction of several external and internal factors.
The above researchers have suggested several elements which make up the cognitive
processes. These include personality, behavioural attributes and adaptation to the
environment, which determine and influence the cognitive styles of individuals. These
cognitive styles have been shown to be stable over a period of time. This does not,
however, imply that they are unchangeable. They are also not necessarily of genetic
origin (Jones, 1998: 116). Importantly, learners need to use their perception, intellectual
and social skills effectively to have adequate cognitive development that will enable
maximum performance in carrying out specific tasks such as learning.
The latter may apply to learners in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. Therefore, it
can be helpful if teachers can employ teaching activities and styles that enhance the
cognitive development of their learners to compensate for other factors, such as the
physical environment, which may inhibit such development.
2.2.3 Learning styles
According to Ellis (2001 :149) a learning style is the consistent pattern of behaviour and
performance by which an individual approaches learning. It is regarded as the
composite of characteristic cognitive, affective and physiological behaviours that serve
18
as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the
learning environment. Jones (1998: 116) further describes learning styles as non-fixed
personality traits and as possibility-processing structures resulting from unique
individual programming of the basic, but flexible structure of human learning.
From many definitions that exist, it seems that some educationists view cognitive and
learning styles as one and the same thing, while others refer to learning and cognitive
styles as two separate concepts when discussing cognitive processing (Rosa, 2004:
28). Nevertheless, the terms are often used interchangeably. More recently, the term
learning style has emerged as a more common term or as a replacement term for
cognitive style. Jones (1998: 116), however, states that one main difference between the
two concepts is that cognitive style is bipolar, while learning styles are multidimensional
and encompass a range of variables including many of a non-cognitive nature, thus
taking account of the more complex nature of the learning process.
Learning style is largely determined by inherited characteristics, and also influenced by
the person's socialization at home, community and school. The past life experiences,
the hereditary equipment and the demands of the present environment, develop
learning abilities above others (Dasari, 2006:2). Again, Diaz and Cartnal (1999: 132)
contend that ideally one would have a balance of all the learning styles, but most people
have one or two dominant learning styles. This means that a person may possess
different characteristics of learning styles, but only one or two dimensions of learning
styles may be dominant. Moreover, the development of learning abilities differs from
person to person, thus accounting for individual learning preferences and styles.
Learners learn best in classroom environments which are compatible with their own
learning styles (Dasari, 2006:1). It is then with this in mind, that when learning style
differences are understood and accepted, the classroom changes to a place where
individual differences among learners become an incentive for teachers to provide a rich
variety of lessons, teaching methods, learning activities, and testing challenges.
Teachers in the rural schools of Lesotho can make use of this learning style knowledge
to modify their classrooms and teach to address the individual learning needs of
19
learners with the motive of improving learners' academic achievement which was
recorded as low in the past four years.
2.2.4. Learning theories
The learning theories describe learning as a process and also guide models which are
developed to explain how human beings learn. In other words, learning theories are
attempts to describe how people learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently
complex process of learning.
To summarise, in this section the concepts that relate to learning styles have been
discussed to provide an orientation to the issue being researched. The next section will
look further at various learning theories as to obtain the background knowledge on
which the learning styles are based.
2.3 THEORIES UNPACKING THE LEARNING PROCESS
Many authors have used different theories to describe learning, but for this research an
adapted approach developed by Merriam and Caffarella (1991) will be used. Merriam
and Caffarella (1991: 138) identified four paradigms which are used to describe the
learning process. These are Behaviourist, Cognitive, Humanistic, and Social/Situational
orientations to learning. The constructivist orientation will also be included in the
discussion to follow, because it also plays an important role in the development of the
learning styles theories (Antherton, 2005b: 5).
The following discussion will consider how different theorists describe learning and how
learning is viewed under each paradigm. The educational implications of these theories
will also be covered.
20
2.3.1 Behaviourist Orientation
Behaviourists are interested in describing behaviour and observable changes (Muijs &
Reynolds, 2005: 13). According to Merriam and Caffarella (1991: 137) behaviourists
assume that learners are essentially passive recipients of information, responding to
environmental stimuli. In this case, the learner starts off as a 'clean slate' and behaviour
is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Thorndike (as cited
in Catania, 1999: 425) extended the concept of behaviourism further. He came to view
learning in humans as the formation of connections, or "bonds" between stimuli and
responses. When strong connections were built, a learner would automatically produce
a desired response as soon as the appropriate stimulus was presented.
Pavlov (1927: 13), Skinner (1971: 15) and later, Willis (2005: 1) coincide with the idea
of the connections above and indicate that this dominant form of learning could be
labelled as associative learning. Associative learning emphasizes new association
between events in the environment. This type of learning has two forms that are
classical conditioning and operant conditioning. In his theory, Pavlov describes classical
conditioning as a reflective or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires
the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus.
Operant conditioning, on the other hand, is particularly interested in measurable
changes in behaviour, consistent with the basic premise of the scientific method.
Skinner (1971: 15) and Huitt (2001: 35) identified some principles for learning in their
research. These principles are outlined as follows:
• Pleasant experience (such as rewards or praise) are positive reinforcers. They
cause learners to make desired connections between stimuli and responses.
• Unpleasant experiences (such as punishment) are negative reinforcers. They
cause learners to avoid undesirable responses to stimuli.
• Continuous reinforcement increases the rate of learning.
• Intermittent reinforcement contributes to longer retention of what is learned.
21
• Both positive and negative reinforcement can shape behavior.
• A lack of any reinforcement can also shape behavior. If people receive no
acknowledgement for their behavior, they will likely change that behavior until
they receive some kind of reinforcement.
Behaviourist learning has been influential in developing and addressing issues
pertaining to education. Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis,
curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction, have emerged from the
Behaviourist learning theories (Jacobs, Vakalisa, & Gawe, 2004: 42).
The main idea of a change in behaviour as postulated by behaviourists implies that
teachers should arrange the environment to elicit the desired responses from learners.
This idea can be contextualized to the rural secondary schools of Lesotho in that
teachers need to use reinforcement that could motivate learners to actively participate in
learning experiences. In this regard, teachers could use rewards and praise to
encourage learners to exercise their weak learning styles.
2.3.2 Cognitive Orientation
Cognitivism views thought processes as critical aspects in behaviour. Furthermore it
stresses the acquisition of cognitive structures and also emphasizes the need to explore
during the learning process, mental processes such as thinking, memorizing, knowing
and problem-solving. Within cognitive orientation, knowledge is seen as a schema or
symbolic mental construction. This implies that learning can be defined as a change in a
learner's schemata (Learning Theories, 2008: 1).
In fact, Ausubel (1963b: 25) and Stanley (1998: 2) note that learning occurs as
potentially meaningful material enters the cognitive field, interacts with and is
appropriately subsumed under a relevant and more inclusive conceptual system.
According to Ausubel, this cognitive field is determined by the cognitive structure which
is an individual's organization, stability and clarity of knowledge in a particular subject
matter field, and is the principal factor influencing the learning and retention of
22
meaningful new material. In his learning theory, Ausubel proposed four processes by
which learning can occur- these are derivative subsumption, correlative subsumption,
superordinate learning and combinatorial learning.
In order to promote learning, Ausubel (1963b: 214) emphasizes the use of organizers.
These are abstract ideas that are considered and planned by teachers in advance of
every lesson to assist learners in assimilating new information. He also postulates that
knowledge is hierarchically organized and that new information is meaningful to the
extent that it can be related to what is already known.
Gagne (as cited in Patsuia, 1999: 2) also contends that learning tasks for intellectual
skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity. This hierarchy also
provides a basis for sequencing instruction. In this case, Gagne outlines nine
instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes to be considered in the
teaching-learning situation (Patsuia, 1999: 2).
• Gaining attention (reception)
• Informing learners of the objective (expectancy)
• Stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
• Presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
• Providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)
• Eliciting performance (responding)
o Providing feedback (reinforcement)
• Assessing performance (retrieval)
• Enhancing retention and transfer (generalization)
Gagne's theory and Ausubel's theory have at least one thing in common in that they
both suggest how teachers or instructional designers can best arrange the conditions
that facilitate learning for learners. These conditions include the organization of learning
tasks, the presentation of subject content and the choice of teaching styles and teaching
aids that correspond to the way learners build knowledge.
23
Among the theorists that contribute to the cognitive theory is Jean Piaget. Piaget's
approach is regarded as central to the school of cognitive theory (Learning Theories,
2008). According to Antherton (2005a: 2), Piaget's view of how children's minds work
and develop has been enormously influential, particularly in educational theory. This
implies that Piaget coincides with the idea that learning is influenced by the cognitive
structures of the human being as postulated by Gagne and Ausubel. Piaget (as cited in
Antherton, 2005a:2), however, further indicates that there are certain stages through
which the cognitive development of children go, and these are stages of cognitive
development. These stages are:
• Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years old). The infant builds an understanding of
himself or herself and reality through interactions with the environment. Learning
takes place via assimilation (the organization of information and absorbing it into
existing schema) and accommodation (modifying the schemata to include the
object that cannot be assimilated)
• Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4). The child is not yet able to conceptualize
abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. Objects are classified in
simple ways, especially by important features.
• Concrete operations (ages7 to 11). As physical experience accumulates,
accommodation is increased. The child begins to think abstractly and can
conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain his or her physical
experiences.
• Formal operations (beginning at ages 11 to 15). Cognition reaches its final
form. By this stage, the person no longer requires concrete objects to make
rational judgments. He or she is capable of deductive and hypothetical
reasoning.
Considering Piaget's stages of cognitive development, it may be important for teachers
in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho to consider the average age of their learners
and use that information in the choice of teaching methods and development of
instructional materials under each teaching style they decide to use.
24
Cognitive theories look beyond behaviour to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists
consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, how the natural
physiological processes of encoding information into short term memory and long term
memory become important to educators. In this framework of thinking, cognitive loading
and information processing theory are considered. These theories of learning are very
useful in guiding instructional design and explaining the learning styles of individual
learners. Teachers in rural schools of Lesotho may also find them useful in guiding them
to choose teaching styles that are appropriate to the learning needs and developmental
levels of their learners. Moreover, the cognitive theories may enable teachers to have a
clear understanding of the individual differences among their learners and thus teach
each learner accordingly.
2.3.3 Humanism orientation
Humanism is a paradigm in which human beings are perceived as being different from
other species and possess capacities not found in animals. Humanists give primacy to
the study of human needs and interests, portrays learning as a personal act to fuifiII
one's potential, and seem to value the world of the learner from his/her perspective on
learning (Liikala, 2007).
In relation to the above said, Huitt (2001: 1) identifies five basic humanistic views of
education, namely:
1. It promotes positive self-direction and independence
2. It develops the ability to take responsibility for what is learned.
3. It develops creativity
4. It develops curiosity
5. It develops human affection
Huitt is of the opinion that these humanistic views of education emphasize the
importance of education in the development of a human being, actualization of human
potential and the fuifiIIment of human needs. Maslow (1943: 370) further notes that the
25
integrated wholeness of the organism must be one of the foundation stones of
motivation theory. In his theory of the Hierarchy of Needs, Maslow notes the importance
of motivation and self-actualization to learning and personal fuifiIIment.
According to Huitt (2004: 1) Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often depicted as a pyramid
consisting of five levels: the first four lower levels are grouped together as being
associated with physiological needs, while the top level is termed as growth needs
associated with psychological needs. Deficiency needs must be met first. Once these
are met, seeking to satisfy growth needs drives personal growth. The higher needs in
this hierarchy only come into focus when the lower needs in the pyramid are satisfied.
Once an individual has moved upwards to the next level, needs in the lower level will no
longer be prioritized. If a lower set of needs is no longer being met, the individual will
temporarily re-prioritize those needs by focusing attention on the unfulfilled needs, but
will not permanently regress to the lower level. Figure 2.1 in the next page illustrates the
categories and order of needs as postulated by Maslow.
The learning implications of Maslow's theory mean that the learning environment should
be conducive so that the needs of learners are attended to. Learning should be learner-
centered and personalized, and the teacher should be the facilitator with the goal of
developing self-actualized learners in a co-operative, supportive environment (Maslow,
1943 as cited in Huitt, 2004: 1).
26
Figure 2.1: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
morality,
creativity,
Self-actualization spontaneity,
Esteem self-esteem, confidence,
chievement res ect of and bothers
Love/Belonging ---+ friendship, family, sexual intimacy
Safety security of body, of employment, of resources,
of morality, of the family, of health, of property
Physiological __. breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion
Source: Huitt ( 2004: 1)
From the above notion, it may be important for teachers in the rural secondary schools
of Lesotho to adopt more learner-centered teaching approaches to improve learners'
acquisition of knowledge in their classes. These learner-centered approaches may
enable learners to display their strengths and challenges in learning, to activate their
learning styles, and engage fully in the learning process. Knowing learners' strengths
and challenges can therefore enable teachers in the rural schools of Lesotho to direct
appropriate teaching styles to the learning needs of their learners.
27
2.3.4 Social/Situational orientation
This paradigm posits that people learn from observing other people, and such
observations take place in a social setting (Merriam & Caffarella, 1991: 134). Ormond
(1999: 2) notes that social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a
social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts
as observational learning, imitation, and modeling.
Similarly, Bandura's social learning theory puts emphasis on observational learning, and
suggests that people can learn by watching other people (Richmond, 2007: 6). This
observational learning has four components, and these are:
• Attentional processes- our abilities to pay attention to a model.
• Retention processes- our abilities to retain actions and symbolic forms.
• Motor reproduction processes- the skills that allow us to reproduce behaviour
accurately.
• Reinforcement and motivational processes- which engage us to acquire
behaviour.
Among other theorists, Albert Bandura is considered as the leading proponent of this
theory. Bandura (as cited in Patsuia, 1999: 1) indeed state
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people
had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.
Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling:
from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed,
and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action".
Additionally, Vygotsky's theory of social cognitive development is complementary to
Bandura's social learning theory. Vygosky believed that human interaction with the
physical world and social experiences are the key determinants of cognitive
development (Richmond, 2007: 4). According to Vygotsky (as cited in Patsuia, 1999: 1)
social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition and the
28
potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which has four
learning stages. These stages can be presented as follows:
• Stage 1- assistance provided by more capable others (teachers, coaches)
• Stage 2- assistance by self
• Stage 3- internalization automatization, and
• Stage 4- de-automatization: recursiveness through prior stages.
The above may imply that learners require an adequate support from teachers in their
learning in order to have a good foundation and steady development of skills and
attitudes necessary for learning. It can be through the appropriate teaching styles and
methods that learners learn effectively, become motivated and develop necessary skills
for learning.
Lave and Wenger (1990: 25) argue that learning as it normally occurs, is a function of
the activity, context and culture in which it occurs (i.e., it is situated). This contrasts with
most classroom learning activities which involve knowledge which is abstract and out of
context. Lave and Wenger further argue that social interaction is a critical component of
situated learning -- learners become involved in a "community of practice" which
embodies certain beliefs and behaviours to be acquired. As the beginner or newcomer
moves from the periphery of this community to its centre, he/she becomes more active
and engaged within the culture and hence assumes the role of expert or old-timer. In the
same way learners may develop certain learning styles depending on the context and
culture in which they live. It therefore becomes important for teachers to identify these
learning styles and direct their teaching to the learning styles of their learners.
Ormond (1999: 5) presents the educational implications of social learning theory. These
implications can be adapted by teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho to
modify the instruction and the learning environment that addresses individual learning
styles and individual preferences. These implications are outlined as follows:
a) Learners often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
29
b) Describing the consequences of behaviours can effectively increase appropriate
behaviours and decrease inappropriate ones.
c) Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviours.
d) Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviours and take care that they
do not model inappropriate ones.
e) Teachers should expose learners to a variety of other models.
f) Learners must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks.
g) Teachers should help learners set realistic expectations for their academic
accomplishments.
h) Self-regulation techniques provide effective methods for improving behaviour.
All in all, it should be noted by teachers and curriculum planners that the social
environment can affect the way learners perceive learning, the way they learn and the
learning styles they prefer. Paying attention to the educational needs of learners will
therefore include an adoption of teaching styles that can address the learning styles of
individual learners.
2.3.5 Constructivist orientation
Constructivism as a paradigm posits that learning is an active, constructive process.
Constructivists view learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or
builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge (Learning
Theories, 2008: 2). Bruner (as cited in Patsuia, 1999: 4) further emphasizes that
learning involves cognitive structures that provide meaning and organization to
experiences and allows the individual to go beyond the information given. According to
Bruner, the teacher should try and encourage learners to construct hypotheses, make
decisions, and to discover principles by themselves.
In relation to Bruner, Antherton (2005b: 5) views constructivism as the label given to a
set of theories about learning which fall somewhere between cognitive and humanistic
views. He defines constructivist learning as a very personal endeavor, whereby
internalized concepts, rules and general principles may consequently be applied in a
30
practical real-world context. Constructivism itself has many variations, such as active
learning, discovery learning and knowledge building, which all promote a learner's free
exploration within a given framework. Furthermore, Constructivism is expressed in two
forms: cognitive constructivism and social constructivism. According to Antherton
(2005b: 6) cognitive constructivism is about how the learner understands things in terms
of developmental stages and learning styles, while social constructivism emphasizes
how meaning and understanding grow out of social encounters.
As far as constructivism is concerned, it seems important for teachers in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho to understand how learners construct meaning in learning
and how learning styles can be activated to improve the academic achievement of said
learners. In this regard, it may be of great benefit to expose learners in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho to the learner-centered learning environment that can
promote independent learning and also use teaching styles that can enable learners to
construct knowledge with ease.
2.3.6. Summary of orientations to learning.
The five orientations to learning that have been discussed above are summed up in
Figure 2.2 on the next page, to provide an overview of how they differ:
31
Figure 2.2 Five orientations to learning theories
Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social/Situated Constructivist
Learning
Theorists Thorndike, Koffka, Kohier, Maslow, and Bandura; Bruner,
Pavlov, Wertheimer, Rogers Vigotsky; Dewey, Vico,
Watson, Lewin, Piaget, Argyris; Lave & Vygotsky
Guthrie, Hull, Ausubel, Wenger;
Tolman, and Bruner,
Skinner. Reigeluth, and
Gagné
View of Change in Defined by A personal act Interaction with Construction of
the behaviour internal mental to fuifiII and observation meaning from
Learning processes potential of others in a experience
Process (including social context
insight,
information
processing,
memory, and
perception)
Locus of Stimuli in the Internal Affective and Interaction of Internal
Learning external cognitive cognitive person, construction of
environment structuring needs behaviour, and reality by
environment individual
Purpose Produces Develops Becomes self- Models new Constructs
of behavioural capacity and actualized, roles and knowledge
Instruction change in skills to learn autonomous behaviour
desired better
direction
Role of the Designs Structures Facilitates Presents Facilitates and
Designer stimuli to elicit content of development models of new negotiates
desired learning of the whole roles and meaning with
response activity person behaviours learner
Adapted from Merriam and Caffarella (1991:138)
32
2.4 LEARNING STYLE MODELS
Different approaches have been used to model and label learners' learning styles, from
those based on social interaction, instructional and environmental preferences to
information processing and personality levels (Kovacic, 2003: 794). The discussion
below includes the classification of leaning style models and the characteristics of each
of the models.
2.4.1. Classification of Learning Styles Models
• The most common framework used for the classification and explanation of the
learning style's model is Curry's Onion Model (Curry, as cited in Kovacic, 2003:
794).
According to Brown, Cristea, Steward and Brailsford (2005: 80) Curry's Onion
Model is a good basis for demonstrating the different ways in which learning
styles can be categorized by assigning them to a particular layer in a radial
system. This meta- model attempts to define and illustrate the relationship
between the learner's personality, cognitive style, learning styles and learning
strategies.
In this model, learning differences amongst humans are categorized into layers
of an onion. There are four layers in this model, where the first or outermost layer
comprises the models emphasizing observable traits, such as instructional and
environmental preferences. The second layer comprises social interaction
models, and the third, encompassing information processing models. The
innermost layer of the onion contains those models described as personality
models and are considered to be more stable psychological constructs and less
susceptible to change; these are, however, much less easily measured (Brown et
al., 2005: 80).
• Ellis (2001: 150) provides another interpretation of how learning style models
may be characterized. Table 2.1 on the next page, illustrates an adaptation of his
categorization.
33
Table 2.1: Classifying learning style models
Category Characteristics Researchers
Sensi ng/i ntu ition Jung, Myers-Brigg, Mok,
Keirsey and Bates
Cognition - perceiving,
finding out, obtaining Field DependenU field- Witkin, Gregorc, Kolb and
information independent, McCarthy
abstract/concrete
Visual, Auditory, Barbe and Swassing, Dunn
Kinesthetic, Tactile and Dunn
Conceptualization- ExtroverUintrovert Jung, Myers-Briggs, Keirsey
thinking, forming ideas, and Bates
processing, memory.
Reflective observation/ Kolb and McCarthy
active experimentation
Random/sequential Gregorc
Jung, Myers-Brigg, Mok,
Keirsey and Bates
Affect- feelings, Feeler/Thinker
emotional response, Effect of temperature, light,
motivation, values, food, time of day, sound,
Dunn and Dunn
judgement design
Adapted from Ellis (2001: 150)
34
Within the scope of this review, learning style models designed by Dunn and Dunn,
Kolb, Myers-Brigg, will be described as they have some similarities in the formulation of
style dimensions as stipulated by the Felder-Silverman learning style model. This is
supported by Maallem (2007: 219) that the Felder-Silverman learning style model
combines several dimensions presented in the Myers-Briggs model (sensing/intuitive)
with Kolb's information processing dimension (active/reflective) and Dunn & Dunn's
visual dimension.
In summary, there are various ways of classifying learning style models by different
authors as have been discussed. This classification makes it easier for researchers to
understand and locate the model that is suitable to their studies. For this research it is
therefore important to review the characteristics of learning style models designed by
Kolb, Dunn and Dunn, Myers-Briggs and Felder and Silverman.
2.4.2 Characteristics of learning style models
Following the classification of learning style models, it is important to describe each
model according to its characteristics.
2.4.2.1 Dunn and Dunn Learning Style Model
Rita Dunn and Kenneth Dunn (in Dasari, 2006: 13) describe three styles of learning as
follows:
• Auditory- people who learn by listening
• Visual- people who learn by seeing textual and pictorial representations
• Tactile/ Kinesthetic - those who learn by touching and using body movements
This model is commonly referred to as the Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic (VAK) model
of learning styles. According to Clark (as cited. in Dasari, 2006: 13) this model falls
within the perceptual modality as it is primarily concerned with how we take in
information; in other words, it can be based on biologically based reactions to the
physical environment. Auditory learners are logical, analytical and sequential thinkers.
This type of learner may be most successful in traditional classrooms, since their style is
35
accommodated in most school tasks (Winebrenner, 1996: 43). Visual learners process
information most effectively when it is seen. These learners think in pictures and have
vivid imaginations. Tactile/Kinesthetic learners process information actively through
physical means. Kinesthetic learning refers to whole body movement while tactile
learning refers only to the sense of touch. Winebrenner (1996:43) also noted that most
learners that do not perform well in school are Kinesthetic/Tactile learners.
Dunn and Dunn (1979: 240) believe that more than three fifths of a person's learning
style is biologically imposed. The model therefore notes five factors that influence a
learning style, and these are environmental preferences, such as class design, sound,
lighting, temperature; emotional preferences, such as motivation, persistence,
responsibility; sociological preferences, such as learning relations; psychological
preferences related to perception, time, mobility; and physiological processes, such
as perceptual strengths and intake.
From the fact that this model notes the factors that influence people's learning styles,
among which the environment is included, it can be a challenge to teachers in the rural
schools of Lesotho to identify which learning styles seem to be dominant in the rural
areas. It can also help teachers who have been working in urban areas and are moving
to rural schools.
2.4.2.2. Kolb's Experiential Learning Style Model
Kolb's learning style model builds on Carl Jung's claim that learning styles result from
people's preferred ways of adapting to the world (Chapman, 1995: 5). According to
Wheeler and McLeod (2002: 697), Kolb conceptualized learning as the fundamental
human process of adapting to changing circumstances. He proposed two basic learning
processes- the process of grasping information through the mode of either concrete
experience or abstract conceptualization and the process of transforming information
through the mode of either active experimentation of reflective observation.
36
Kolb further indicates that learning requires engagement of all four of these behaviour
modes. In this case, the entire learning process can be modeled as a cycle moving from
a concrete experience, to reflective observation about the experience, then to
development of abstract conceptualizations about the experience, and lastly to active
experimentation around the experience.
Kolb (cited in Wheeler & McLeod, 2002: 698)) described the characteristics of learners
in each of the different learning modes. Concrete experience promotes the act of
learning through experience. Learners, who prefer to learn through concrete experience
value relationships with other people, make decisions based on intuition and tend to be
more concerned with feeling as opposed to thinking. Reflective observation promotes
the act of learning through reflection. Learners with this learning mode have the ability
to consider and appreciate a variety of different viewpoints and perspectives, and use
observations when making judgments. Abstract conceptualization promotes the act of
learning the logic and systematic planning when analyzing ideas and solving problems.
Active experimentation promotes learning by doing.
This theory maintains that each of us develops a preferred mode of carrying out each of
the two basic learning processes and that individual differences exist in the
characteristics of our own learning cycles. This gives rise to the concept of learning
styles.
There are four learning styles in Kolb's learning styles model, and these are the
Diverger, Assimilator, Converger, and Accommodator. These learning styles are
illustrated in Figure 2.3 on the next page.
37
Figure 2.3 Kolb's Learning Style Model
Concrete experience
Active Reflective
experimentation Observation
Converger Assimilator
Abstract Conceptualization
Adapted from Rawaf and Rassooi (2007:35)
Kolb (cited in Rawaf & Rassooi, 2007: 35) asserted that it is important for individuals to
understand their learning styles so that they can improve their effectiveness as learners.
In the model (Figure 2.3) divergers excel in concrete experience and reflective
observation; assimilators are best in reflective observation and abstract
conceptualization; convergers use abstract conceptualization and active
experimentation; and lastly accommodators learn through active experimentation and
concrete experience. The learning styles are described in details below:
a) Divergers are described as sensitive, imaginative and people-orientated and
often enter professions such as human resources development, counseling or
nursing. They are good in brainstorming sessions. A learner operating within this
38
style is concerned with why and how course material relates to their experiences
(Rawaf & Rassooi, 2007: 36).
b) Assimilators are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and
abstract concepts. They are good at organizing and presenting information in a
clear, logical format. In formal learning situations, individuals with this style prefer
reading, lectures, exploring analytical models and having time to think things
through (Chapman, 1995: 5 and Rawaf & Rassooi, 2007: 36).
c) Convergers, according to Rawaf and Rassooi, can solve problems and prefer
technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.
Individuals with a converging style are less people-oriented and often choose
careers in technology. Dasari (2006: 15) coincides with the above and further
notes that learners with this style respond well to opportunities that actively
involve them in a task, and to learn by trial and error.
d) Accommodators learn best in concrete experience and active experimentation,
and prefer to take a practical or experimental approach. These learners are
attracted to new challenges and experiences and to carry out plans. They are
people-oriented and active learners (Chapman, 1995: 2).
Kolb further indicates that these styles of learning are dynamic, but most individuals
exhibit strong preferences for a given learning style. It should, however, be noted that
each individual's learning style is not necessarily fixed and that in using them there is a
need to avoid the danger of being stereotyped (Dasari, 2006: 16).
Kolb (as quoted in Chapman, 1995: 2) identifies three developmental stages that play a
role in influencing a person's learning style, namely:
• Acquisition- from birth to adolescence.
39
• Specialization- schooling, early work and personal experiences of early
adulthood which lead to the development of a specialized style that is affected by
a person's social, educational and organizational socialization.
• Integration- from mid-career to later life.
Kolb's model of learning styles gives valuable information on learning style dimensions
and the developmental stages that may influence learning styles. This information can
offer guidance to teachers who teach in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho to
choose teaching styles which are appropriate for individual learners.
2.4.2.3 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
The Myers-Briggs concept of psychological type, as well as use of the MBTI as a
diagnostic tool, has grown in popularity over the recent decade (Lawrence & Martin, as
cited in Burris, Kitchel, Molina, Vincent & Warner, 2008: 46). While this concept of
psychological type encompasses much more than learning style, the implications of
type in the educational setting have been well documented (Burris, Kitchel, Molina,
Vincent & Warner, 2008: 46). The implications of psychological type as criterion in the
teaching-learning situation, necessitate us to explore the four dimensions thereof.
• The first dimension consists of two kinds of attitudes which are extraversion and
introversion. Extraversion is characterized by an outward focus of energy
centered on people or action. On the other hand, introversion is characterized by
an inward focus of energy centered on ideas and reflection.
• The second dimension considers the contrast between sensing and intuition.
This dimension represents a preference for perceiving information. People with
sensing preference tend to be more concerned with actual, present, current and
real things. In contrast, people with preference for intuition tend to be more
concerned with what is possible and new, and have an orientation to the future.
• The third dimension describes a person's preference for making judgments, and
contrasts between thinking and feeling. The thinking judgment is concerned
with logical consistency and analysis of cause and effect, while the feeling
40
judgment is concerned with establishing or maintaining relationships (Dasari,
2006: 17).
• The fourth dimension describes orientation by contrasting judging and
perceiving as mental processes. According to Burris et al. (2008: 47) people
who prefer judging, study and learn in a steadier and orderly way, while
perceiving preference involves a flexible and informal way of approaching things
with an orientation to discovery.
If teachers could be aware of the existence of these learning styles, plan their lessons
and teach according to the individual styles, the academic achievement which is
seemingly low in the rural schools of Lesotho could be improved. For instance, the
teachers can decide on the teaching aids, questions, illustrations and logic of
presentation as steps, to use in addressing the specific learning styles of their learners
in lesson planning and presentation.
2.4.2.4. Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model (FSLSM)
This model was designed by Dr. Felder in collaboration with Dr. Silverman. Initially the
model was used by college instructors and students in engineering education, but has
subsequently been applied to many other disciplines (Felder 2006, as quoted in Dasari,
2006: 18). Felder and Silverman (1988: 675) state that learners learn in different ways
and their learning style can be determined by asking the following questions:
1) What type of information does a learner preferentially perceive?
2) Through which sensory channel is external information most effectively
perceived?
3) With which organization of information is a learner most comfortable?
4) How does the learner prefer to process information?
5) How does the learner progress towards understanding?
In answer to the above questions, Felder and Silverman (1988: 675) classified learners'
learning styles into the following dimensions:
41
1) Sensory or Intuitive
This dimension involves perception. Sensory learners are practical, orientated
towards facts and procedures while intuitive learners are innovative, conceptual
and oriented towards theories and meanings.
2) Visual or Verbal
This dimension considers an input of information. Visual learners prefer pictures,
diagrams and graphs as models of material presentation, while verbal learners
learn best with written and spoken explanations.
3) Inductive or Deductive
Organization of information contrasts between inductive and deductive learners.
Inductive learners prefer representations that proceed from the specific to the
general while learning, while deductive learners prefer to work from the general
to the specific.
4) Active or Reflective
Information processing differs among learners. Active learners learn by trying
things out, working with others. Reflective learners learn by thinking things
through, working alone.
5) Sequential or Global
Sequential learners learn best through a linear and orderly approach and prefer
small incremental steps. On the other hand, global learners are holistic and
systematic thinkers and learn in large heaps.
From the above dimensions, a learner can have one or two predominant learning styles
from the ten individual styles that are found across all the five learning style dimensions.
The above model was used to select the learning style's instrument for this research,
which will be discussed in chapter 5. It should, however, be noted that initially the
Felder-Silverman Learning Style Model was developed as a five dimensional model as
42
described above. Felder and Silverman later omitted the organization dimension,
because they believed that the best approach to teaching undergraduates is always
inductive, and therefore their learning style's instrument does not differentiate between
inductive and deductive learners (Kovacic, 2003: 795).
Given this model, the main characteristics are defined for identifying teaching styles that
can be tailored to learners' individual learning styles. This means that teachers should
employ teaching styles that balance learning tasks and activities so that they would
accommodate all learners' learning styles by taking into account the four dimensions of
the model. As has been mentioned earlier, most teachers are unqualified in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho and the simplicity of this model would hopefully make it
easier for teachers to identify which teaching styles and methods can appropriately
address specific learning styles of learners.
2.5. FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING STYLES
Every human being differs from others in his/her own way of thinking, physical
appearance, and behaving. This is accounted for by the individual differences that are
influenced by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors of human beings. In learning as well,
individuals are influenced by certain factors to use different styles in order to achieve
their learning goals. To understand learning styles and teach according to them,
teachers in rural schools need to know the factors that influence these learning styles.
Therefore, the biographical and other related factors influencing learning styles of
people are discussed in this section.
2.5.1 Biographical Factors
This section covers a discussion on the influences of gender differences, age
differences, parental influence and the influence of school attended and heredity, on
learning styles.
43
2.5.1.1 Gender Differences
According to Sizemore and Schultz (2005: 347) there are relationships among learning
styles and gender. Nqadala (1994: 17) contends that males' have a higher tolerance for
the contentious style while females have a stronger preference for friendliness,
attentiveness, impression-leaving and the dramatic. The learning styles that males and
females use also differ. Females are more likely to be independent, compared to males.
Ndaqala also noted that women often take more notes than men, but may not perform
significantly better as far as course achievement measures are concerned. This
confirms that women and men behave differently in note-taking, suggesting that they
may respond differently to learning styles.
Slater, Lujan and Di Carlo (2007: 339) further indicate that males identify with a small
subset of learning styles, whereas females distribute more broadly across the learning
style spectrum. Female adolescents tend to show a preference for variety in the social
context of their learning, including opportunities to work in pairs, in large groups and
with teachers, while males do not express this preference. Additionally, male learners
primarily prefer to use tactile resources in learning, unlike most females.
Nqadala (1994: 17) notes that in a learning style's program conducted by Dorsey and
Pierson (1983), the learning style inventory indicated that the more dominant learning
style for males was abstract conceptualization and for females active experimentation.
On the other hand, Kolb (1984: 18) and Schaler, Borun, Allison-Bunnell and Chambers
(2007: 6) have indicated that women tend to show more of a concrete orientation than
men.
Despite the differences in findings that relate to how gender influences learning styles, it
is evident that there is a relationship between the two issues. Therefore it can be of
importance for teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho to identify which
learning styles are portrayed by their female and male learners in order to direct
appropriate teaching styles to each learner in both groups. This idea may be important
in balancing the improvement of academic achievement for both female and male
44
learners in the above-mentioned schools, to maximize the academic achievement of all
learners.
2.5.1.2 Age Differences
Dasari (2006: 12) is of the opinion that learning style preferences may change over time
as they are developmental and alter with maturity. To understand the relationship
between learning styles and age, Dorsey and Pierson (1984: 10) conducted a study on
learning styles and their results suggest that age influences learning style types. Their
data indicated that the accommodator style becomes predominant at about the age of
thirty-three. At this point, a learner learns actively through trial and error and experience
and will profit more from learner-involved experience than from pure lecturing (Nqadala,
1994: 17).
Dorsey and Pierson (1984: 11), and later, Joy and Kolb (2007: 23) also noted that the
tendency towards abstractness increased from age 18 to 33, and the tendency towards
concreteness increased from age 34 to 49. The active/reflective dimension indicated
that from age 18 to 49, respondents preferred an active role and then moved to a more
reflective role at a later stage in life.
Kovacic, Green and Eves (2004: 6) concur with the idea above, and maintain that
children prefer to work with peers instead of alone. These authors further indicate that
for many people, auditory and visual perceptual elements strengthen with age.
It should be noted that learners in the secondary schools of Lesotho are at the average
range of 13 to 15 years old. According to Piaget's theory of cognitive development, this
is the stage of formal operations whereby cognition reaches its final form. At this stage,
the person no longer requires concrete objects to make judgments and is also capable
of deductive and hypothetical reasoning (Learning Theories, 2008: 1). This idea implies
that learners are expected to use the abstract conceptualization learning mode, from
Kolb's model. Learners in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho may, however, be
older than the expected age due to domestic factors, such as herding. The
45
implementation of Free Primary Education (FPE) in Lesotho from the year 2000 might
also influence the range of learners' ages. With this idea in mind, it is more possible to
have more variety of learning styles in the rural schools that need to be addressed by
appropriate teaching styles to improve learners' academic achievement.
2.5.1.3 Parental Influence
Mekgwe (1998: 23) states that parents are effectively responsive in the sense of being
loving, supportive, committed and cognitively responsive in the sense of providing a
stimulating and challenging environment. Parental responsiveness correlates strongly
with cognitive and language development, learning styles and school performance,
because extensive contact affords children many models of adult functioning to copy,
opportunities, to practice new skills and greater reinforcement for self-initiated efforts.
Parenting styles can also influence the learning styles of learners. According to Tiller,
Garrison, Block, Cramer and Tiller (2005: 5) three parenting styles of authoritarian,
permissive, and authoritative are often used in studies investigating parenting styles in
relation to diverse child outcome variables, such as academic achievement, self-
confidence and learning styles. Higher levels of authoritative parenting practices are
related to higher levels of cognitive abilities and activated learning styles, and higher
levels of authoritarian and permissive parenting practices are related to lower levels of
cognitive abilities. Bojeva (1998: 115) also found out that adolescents who perceived
their parents to be authoritative engaged in more effective learning.
There was no statistical data found or used for this research on the types of parenting in
the rural area of Lesotho. It may, however, be assumed that many parents in those rural
areas posses an authoritarian parenting style as a result of the rigid Basotho tradition
and customs that may be prevailing in such areas. Nevertheless, it may be important for
teachers to become aware that parents can play a role in influencing learners' learning
styles.
46
2.5.1.4 Influence of School Attended
The learners' background experiences and characteristics influence how they learn. The
previously attended school may significantly influence the learning styles in the new
school. Matthews (1991: 253) indicates that learners with certain styles of learning do
better than those with other styles. This difference in academic achievement means that
instruction and counseling match the style of learning used by learners who find
success. Moreover, learners have more positive attitudes toward school and achieve
more knowledge and skills when taught and advised through their natural or primary
styles, rather than through a secondary or underdeveloped style (Sizemore & Schultz,
2005: 344; Hai, 2005: 4).
The learning experience from the school attended plays an important role in the learning
styles of learners. The individual learning experiences allow the building of a more
coherent and sophisticated consciousness about learning. This learning experience
may shape a way in which a learner prefers to learn. In the case of the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho, the above idea implies that the education learners experience in the
rural primary schools may be influencing the learning styles of learners in secondary
level. This would suggest more research on learning styles at the rural primary schools
of Lesotho.
2.5.1.5 Heredity and Learning Styles
According to Dzakiria and Razak (2004: 1) the differences in heredity affect the choice
of activity and the likelihood of reinforcement. Size, gender and co-ordination, for
example influence the choice of sport and the role in that sport. In the same manner,
learners may prefer certain learning styles over others depending on personal
characteristics they have inherited.
2.5.2 Other Factors
Learning styles can be influenced by other factors which are the environment, physical,
social, emotional, and cognitive influences. These factors are discussed below.
47
2.5.2.1 Environmental influences
Environmental influences can be the elements of sound, light, temperature and design
(formal versus informal) (Dunn, 2003: 12). Lemmer and Squelch (1993: 58) maintain
that learning styles are influenced by the environment in which learning takes place, and
the selection of appropriate styles depend upon the individual's perception of the
environment. Dorsey and Pierson (1984: 11) are of the opinion that the awareness of
career obsolescence created by rapid changes in the environment causes a negative
impact in the adult's self-esteem. This loss of self-worth forces a person to alter his
learning style.
Dunn (2003: 15) states that selected elements of style are imposed by genetic make up
and that others are developed by experiences throughout life. It therefore seems that
both biological and environmental factors influence the development of learning styles.
This notion calls for more research on to what extent these factors influence such
development.
The environmental influences on learning styles may imply that learning styles of
learners in rural areas will be different to those of learners living in urban areas. In the
same way, the learning styles of learners may also be different from region to region in
the rural areas, depending on the environmental factors that exist in those regions.
Hence it may be possible to have a wide variety of learning styles of learners in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho. Consequently, it may be important for teachers to use
ways of identifying their learners' learning styles whilst also teaching to those styles as
to improve upon academic achievement.
2.5.2.2 Physical Influences
These influences refer to the perceptual modality which relates to the means in which
information is extracted from the environment by the senses (Nqadala, 1994: 20). The
physical dimension of learning style includes preference for learning in verbal or visual
modes (Felder & Silverman, 1988: 675).
48
The physical influences may also affect learning styles of learners in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho as learners interact with the physical surroundings they live in. For
instance, learners who are surrounded by books and posters may develop a visual
learning style.
2.5.2.3 Social Influences
James and Galbraith (1995: 20) confirm that a person's learning style is composed of a
series of different modalities· that together make up each person's unique style. The
social modality is one of such modalities and it reflects social sets which could inhibit or
enhance the learning style and process for each individual.
In addition to the above, Lemmer and Squelch (1993: 59) state that learning style is
influenced by the way a learner is socialized in the home, community and school. This
implies that the nature of social tasks imposed by the society and school tasks play a
part in determining the learning styles used by learners. Moreover, the specific
sociological factors that influence the social environment make a child's learning more
or less conducive. Some learners, for example learn best when alone, others when with
peers and some with adults.
The social activity in the rural settlement of Lesotho may be little due to the unstructured
and haphazard housing arrangement. This could affect the social aspects of learning
styles in growing children and influence the development of such learning styles at
school. This influence may also lead to inhibited learning and poor academic
achievement.
2.5.2.4 Emotional Influences
The emotional influences include personal feelings, attitudes, and personality traits
which influence information gathering, knowledge building and the application of
knowledge (Nqadala, 1994: 19; Oakland & Joyce, 2004: 61). Factors such as
motivation, persistence at tasks and a sense of responsibility are responses to emotions
which may influence the learning process and learning styles (Dunn, 2003: 12).
49
Motivated and persistent learners are eager to learn and use all resources available to
them, and thus their learning styles may cover a wide range of learning styles. On the
other hand unmotivated learners learn in a fairly conventional setting and may become
extremely interested in achieving in an individualized instruction (Dunn & Dunn, 1979:
239).
In the rural areas of Lesotho, the domestic practices, such as herding and factors such
as parents' low level of education and poverty may act as constraints to participation of
children in schooling. These factors may inhibit the emotional aspects in learners that
could result in undeveloped learning styles and poor academic achievement.
2.5.2.5 Cognitive Influences
Cognitive modality refers to the mental processing of information (James & Galbraith
1985, as cited in Nqadala, 1994: 20). Ballinger and Ballinger (1982: 35) noted that
through the 1970s more and more research appeared confirming that the cognitive
development influenced learning style preferences. It was found that both the left and
the right brain make significant contributions to learning. For adolescents, especially the
gifted, the talented and even the mentally handicapped, right hemisphere functioning
may dominate their overall learning styles in reading and writing.
To conclude, it may be important that while teachers in rural schools match their
teaching styles to learning styles, they also activate the less preferred learning styles
which may have been affected by the factors mentioned above. This idea also makes it
equally important that teachers become aware of the possible factors of their learners'
learning styles.
2.6 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS FOR LEARNING STYLES
Since individuals have significantly different learning styles, it would be professional,
responsible and moral to identify their unique strengths and then provide responsive
instruction. According to Dixon (1985: 16) and Dunn (2003: 11) there are five ways that
can be used to implement information about learning styles significantly:
50
• Learners can be helped to understand themselves as learners better
• Learners can be encouraged to expand their learning styles
• A number of teaching methods can be used to accommodate different
learning
• styles
• An environment which has the possibility for diversity should be created
• A climate with a spirit of cooperation should be created.
2.6.1 Learning style knowledge brings awareness to the Learners
The individual's preferred ways of grasping and transforming information does not imply
that these ways are the only or perhaps even the best way for the individual to learn.
Dixon (1985: 17) notes that learners mayor may not be consciously aware of the
learning styles they are using. When this awareness is lacking, the learning preference
can become the only way an individual learns, not because of an inability to learn
through other ways, but because the individual is not aware that other ways exist.
In the learning process, learning style knowledge may also assist learners in
recognizing why some past learning activities were more important than others and
what learning activities were less meaningful to them. This information also serves as a
guide to future learning endeavors (Nqadala, 1994: 20; James & Galbraith, 1995: 21).
Similarly, when learners have knowledge about themselves and their learning styles,
they become capable of making informed decisions about the methods and resources
they need to satisfy their learning needs. This knowledge is, however, only useful in an
environment that offers the opportunity to exercise those options (Dixon, 1985: 18).
The latter implies that a learner-centered learning environment is essential for
exercising individual learning styles in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. Learners
can be given an opportunity to monitor their learning through group-work activities,
51
r 'A·_ 'Uv .. UFS
I BLOEMFONTEIN
[BIBLIOTEEK - LIBRARY
individual experiments and guided projects. In this case, the teacher takes the role of a
facilitator rather than the only source of information, and may give challenging exercises
that would help learners to activate their learning styles. Then, learners may be able to
realize their learning ways, challenges and strengths.
2.6.2 Teachers need to be knowledgeable about learning styles
The placement of individuals in particular learning activities that address the dominant
style of the learner can facilitate learning. Moreover, within the instructional process,
learning style information can provide teachers with a basis for the selection of
diversified teaching/learning materials and methods, procedures for grouping, and ways
to individualize instruction (James & Galbraith, as cited in Nqadala, 1994: 21; Mokoena,
1997: 14).
Dasari (2006: 19) coincides with the above and further notes that consideration of the
learning style diagnosis as part of the planning process of the material to be learnt
should be an included priority. This will ensure that teachers provide enough
opportunities for learners to use their individual learning styles. Teachers can also be
able to challenge learners to develop skills in other areas by providing assignments that
utilize all learning styles.
According to Barbe and Milone (1980: 45), Friedman and Alley (1984: 79), Felder
(1993: 288), and Wheeler and McLeod (2002: 696) teachers need to be knowledgeable
about learning styles, because they are more likely to develop teaching styles which are
congruent with their own learning styles if they are unaware of the learning/teaching
styles theory. Heimlich and Norland (2002: 18) support the notion and believe that it is
important for teachers to change their beliefs and values regarding their roles and
learners' roles in learning and teach according to learners' learning styles.
From this note, it is very important for teachers in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho (qualified or unqualified) to be given guidance in dealing with the learning styles
of their learners. The idea could be implemented in the form of in-service training
52
program, workshops or teacher manuals that clearly describe the learning styles of
learners and how they can be addressed in teaching.
2.6.3 Learning style information can be used to increase learning.
The understanding and acceptance of learning style information may serve as an
impetus to move from teacher-centered learning to learner-centered learning (Dixon,
1985: 16). Furthermore, the implementation of learning style information not only
requires learners to understand and use their own learning strengths, but also to
acknowledge the limitations of their preferred styles so as to expand their learning skills
in a more directed way (Cilliers & Sternberg, 2001: 25).
In relation to the above notion, Isemonger and Sheppard (2003: 196) add on to suggest
that knowing a learners' learning style is a first step to a personalized approach to him
or her, and also a starting point in helping the learner to target the styles for which there
is little facility.
Following the above discussion, the importance of knowledge about learning styles for
teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho is that they can be able to identify
which teaching methods and styles enhance learners' learning styles or which styles
yield more understanding among learners. Researchers such as Domino (1979: 3),
Charkins et al. (1985: 113), and Dasari (2006: 1) do confirm that matching teachers'
teaching styles with their learners' learning styles increases the retention of information,
its application and also academic achievement.
2.6.4 Individual learners can utilize learning style information to their best
advantage
Knowledge of learning style information allows individual learners to pursue their
personal learning projects in a more effective and efficient manner. By concentrating on
53
the dominant learning styles, learners can increase their skills in utilizing appropriate
methods for self-directed learning (Nqadala, 1994: 22).
Bodi (1990: 115), however, argues that awareness of learning styles does not
guarantee effectiveness or excellence in teaching if combined with a weak grasp of the
subject.
Despite the arguments above, it seems important for learners to have understanding
about their own individual learning styles to engage actively in learning. Considering a
high percentage of unqualified teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho, one
can assume that teachers are not aware of which learning styles their learners possess
and are also not able to help learners identify their own learning styles. Thus, it
becomes of importance for teachers to become aware of their learners' learning styles
and to help learners to be aware of their own learning styles.
2.6.5 Learning style information may improve the quality of instruction
According to Dixon (1985: 16) information on learning styles is a promising way to
improve teaching effectiveness. Nqadala (1994: 23), and Cilliers and Sternberg (2001:
14) maintain that learning styles provide a means for potentially reaching every learner
and for making the quality of the instruction more effective and efficient. Moreover,
Lemmer and Squelch (1993: 62) add to say more is needed than knowledge of a
learner's learning style in order to improve the quality of teaching and learning,
Therefore teachers in rural schools need to find ways of using the resources available in
their environment and modifying the instruction to reach every learner in their classes.
2.6.6 Learning styles can be identified using appropriate instruments
The first step in implementing learning-style based instruction is to diagnose the
individual learning styles of each learner. There are many instruments that have been
developed to identify the learning styles of individuals. Ballinger and Ballinger (1982:
54
35), however caution that many psychological instruments have low reliabilities, and
some are normed on highly specific populations, making them inappropriate for other
groups. Therefore it is important to use the right instrument for the right population.
Dixon (1985:17), Isemonger and Sheppard (2003:196) conclude that learning style
instruments are best used as tools to create awareness that learners differ and as a
starting point for each individual's continued investigation of the self as a learner.
From the above discussion, it becomes very important to provide teachers in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho with manuals that can aid them in identifying and
reaching out to the learning styles of their learners.
2.7 CONCLUSION
From the literature discussed in this chapter, it is evident that learners exhibit different
styles of learning, and these styles may be assessed using a questionnaire. It also
seems that alternative theories of learning styles use a common root word "style" and
cover roughly similar attributes, but with a different label. Again, by relating the research
on learning styles to the design of the environment, it seems possible to study how
learners approach their learning. Furthermore, the literature suggests that it is possible
and desirable to adapt the instruction to accommodate differences in learning style
preferences. The next chapter will review the literature on teaching style theories and
how they can be implemented to reach all learners' different learning styles.
55
CHAPTER 3
TEACHING STYLES AND MATCHING/MISMATCHING REVISITED
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Grosser (2007: 37) indicates that the effectiveness of teacher instruction is normally not
regarded as influential in ineffective learning. In the professional system of teaching it is
commonly believed that if something is taught, it is automatically learned. If something
is not learned, the problem then is presumed to lie with the inadequacy of the learners'
individual ability, motivation or persistence. It therefore becomes so important to be
aware of learners' individual learning strengths and challenges. Equally important, is to
know learners' learning styles, and to direct teaching to those styles to promote learning
(Burris, Kitchel, Molina, Vincent, & Warner, 2008: 44). This idea makes it important to
discuss teaching styles and how they can be employed to incorporate learning style
directed instruction.
In this chapter, some literature on teaching styles is reviewed. The review comprises of
the discussion of concepts that relate to teaching, followed by a section on the
philosophies of teaching. A further discussion will entail consideration of teaching style
theories in another section. Effective teaching and implications for teaching to learning
styles will be covered intensively, followed by the review of research literature on
matching/mismatching teaching and learning styles.
3.2 DEFINITIONS AND RELATED CONCEPTS
In this section, teaching as a concept, teaching strategies, teaching methods and
teaching styles are defined and described briefly to know their meaning. These are
outlined as follows.
56
3.2.1 Teaching
Teaching is about the relationships between teacher and learner that are both
ubiquitous and uniquely personal. When teaching takes place a special human
connection evolves that engage the teacher and learner to share information, to deliver
and receive accumulated knowledge, to acquire and discover information and to
construct meaningful knowledge (Mosston & Ashworth, 1990: 1). Teaching invites both
the teacher and the learner to participate in a unique social context, with its special
hierarchies, rules, and network of responsibilities.
Jacobs et al. (2004: 229) coincides with the above and further indicates that teaching
requires a medium that teachers need to use or which is given to the learners as a
mechanism to achieve specific teaching and learning outcomes. With this idea in mind,
relating teaching to learning styles means teachers in rural schools of Lesotho should
have the ability to be aware of and utilize the possible connections with the learner in all
domains of learning styles.
3.2.2 Teaching strategy
Jacobs et al. (2004: 175) state that a teaching strategy is a braad plan of action that is
used for teaching and learning activities with an aim of achieving learning outcomes.
This strategy enables the teacher to use an appropriate approach when facilitating
teaching and learning activities. Within a strategy, there are teaching methods, media,
learning content and learner activities that need to be specified in order to successfully
carry out that strategy.
Knowing and understanding a variety of teaching strategies, may be important for
teachers in rural schools of Lesotho to select which strategies characterize a teaching
style that match the specific learning style of a learner. However it should be noted that
one learner may posses a style that cuts across more than one learning style
dimensions. In this situation, the teacher will need to use different teaching strategies,
57
not only to attend to that learner, but to address a variety of all learners' learning styles
that may prevail in the classroom.
3.2.3 Teaching method
A teaching method according to Jacobs et al. (2004: 175) is a particular technique or
procedure a teacher uses to help learners gain the knowledge that is required to
achieve a certain objective or objectives. The success of the method is determined by
the teacher's motivation, the efforts of the teacher, motivation of learners and the ability
of the teacher to create exciting opportunities for the learners. Normally these teaching
methods can be formal or informal depending on the unit or content to be learned.
Borich (1996: 125) states that a teaching method is concerned with how the teacher
uses resources around him or her to make learners experience learning. Teaching
methods tend to be reduced to a cut and dried routine and follow a certain prescribed
steps aimed at facilitating teaching and learning process.
The rural areas of Lesotho may have both environmental and educational resources
that differ from the urban areas. This implies that teachers in rural schools may need to
consider teaching aids and resources they have, utilize them and also use them when
making examples that foster understanding. It is also of importance for these teachers
to direct techniques or ways of presenting instruction with an aim of promoting the
learning experiences of learners and improving their academic achievement. This aim
may be achieved by considering the predominant learning styles of learners, and using
these styles when selecting teaching methods.
3.2.4 Teaching styles
Grasha (1996: 3) describes a teaching style as a set of certain characteristics that play
an important role in several aspects of our teaching. He further indicates that teaching
style represents those enduring personal qualities and behaviours that appear in how
58
teachers conduct their classes. Thus, teaching styles define teachers, guides and
directs their instructional processes, and also influences learners' ability to learn.
Nqadala (1994: 23) contends that a teaching style is a label associated with various
identifiable sets of classroom behaviours by the teachers which are consistent even
though the content presented may change.
Hoyt and Lee (2002: 3) argue that a teaching style refers to the way various teaching
approaches are combined to produce an optimal outcome in learning. This idea implies
that teaching strategies, approaches and methods are the elements of teaching styles
and are used differently across the teaching styles.
Therefore it is important to know which teaching styles an individual teacher uses, with
the aim of identifying whether those styles are appropriate to the type of learners as
determined by the individual learning styles. For this research, teaching styles of
teachers in rural secondary schools of Lesotho will be identified as to determine
whether they do match with the learning styles of learners. Moreover, the examination
results of learners will be used to identify the pattern of academic achievement in both
matches and mismatches of these teaching and learning styles.
In the end, knowledge about teaching styles and awareness of teaching styles each
teacher possess might help teachers in rural secondary schools of Lesotho to guard
against permanent use of their own predominant styles. With this knowledge, teachers
may also be able to move from one teaching style dimension to another. This could be
viewed as an attempt by teachers to reach every learner's style.
Heimlich and Norland (quoted in Brown, 2003: 3) argue that there is an important pre-
condition before teachers can attempt to modify their style. That is, their beliefs and
values regarding their roles and that of their learners with respect to learning should first
be changed. From this note, the philosophy of teaching, that describes how teachers
view teaching, is discussed in the following chapter.
59
3.3 PHILOSOPHIES OF TEACHING
In education, concern for learners is the foundation of all teaching (Gunter, Estes &
Schwab, 2003: 3). An important factor which influences the link between teaching
practice and the needs of learners is the philosophy of teaching that characterizes the
way the teacher views knowledge, his/her role in the classroom, the role of the learner,
the choice of teaching methods and assessment strategies to meet the needs of various
learning styles in the classroom (Grosser & De Waal, n.d: 17).
Many researchers such as Endres (1997: 1), Barners (2002: 5), and McFarlane (2006:
3) emphasize the importance of the philosophies of teaching in education. There are
many philosophies that explain how people view knowledge and the environment
around them. Endres (1997: 2), Colliver (2002: 49), and McFarlane (2006: 3) distinguish
between three philosophies to teaching, which are positivism, intepretivism and critical
theory, while on the other hand, Schraw and Olafson (2003: 186) speak of realist,
contextualist, and relativist views.
This research focuses on determining teaching styles of teachers in rural secondary
schools of Lesotho and their learners' learning styles with the aim of determining to
what extent teachers are linking their teaching to the learning style needs of learners
and thus improving academic achievement. For this research, teaching philosophies
described by Schraw and Olafson (2003: 186) will be distinguished and briefly
discussed. Positivism, intepretivism and critical theory as philosophies of teaching will
also be integrated in the discussion to follow.
3.3.1 The Realist view
A realist view asserts that the world-as-experienced actually exists independently of
humanity, being composed of entities of a fixed nature (Christofiiis & Kousathana, 2005:
1). Colliver (2002: 49) argues that realism is a metaphysical position-metaphysical in the
sense that realism entails the assumptions that there is something out there, not directly
60
accessible to us, hidden from us and that our knowledge claims can accurately depict
this shadowy realm, which is reality.
According to Barnes (2002: 4) realism generally assumes that reality is objectively given
and can be described by measurable properties which are independent of the observer
(researcher) and his or her instruments. This theory overlaps with positivist theory in
that it emphasizes objectivity. In this theory, the object is considered to be passive such
that it can not react or think and does not have feelings (Endres, 1997: 2). Realists
therefore consider learners to be recipients of information and knowledge that can not
be interpreted, but can be stored and reproduced (Schraw & Olafson, 2003: 186).
From the educational perspective, Grosser and De Waal (n.d: 18) coincide with the idea
that the realist view assumes knowledge to be objective, unchanging and best acquired
through transmission. The focus is on the transmission of knowledge and teacher-
centered instruction, with the learner being the passive recipient of knowledge. In this
case, learning becomes a process of replicating existing knowledge, not as constructing
knowledge. In assessing learners, realist teachers use summative assessments and
therefore focus mainly on end-of-unit tests or exams (Schraw & Olafson, 2003: 186).
This teaching philosophy may be appropriate in teaching learners in Lesotho with
certain styles such as the reflective learning style. However, teachers may need to
move from this philosophy to other philosophies so as to reach every learner's needs.
3.3.2 The Contextualist view
The contextualist view assumes that learners construct understanding in collaborative
contexts in which teachers play the role of a facilitator. Learners share their
understanding and help one another (Schraw & Olafson, 2003: 186; Grosser & De
Waal, n.d: 18).
As learners help one another, teachers perceive themselves as collaborators in the
learning process, assume that knowledge will change over time and also believe that
learners need skills to acquire knowledge independently (McCaslin & Hickey, 2001:
61
135). Teachers are not only concerned with the type of knowledge a learner constructs,
but also with how this construction occurs and the degree to which that knowledge has
valid application.
This theory coincides with the intepretivist theory to learning in that Interpretive
researchers start out with the assumption that access to reality (given or socially
constructed) is only through social constructions such as language, consciousness and
shared meanings (McFarlane, 2006: 5). This means learners can interpret and analyze
facts to obtain meanings and knowledge and that, learners learn well by interacting with
the teacher and other learners. Cooperative learning is given much emphasis in this
philosophy and teachers use authentic assessment that relates to cooperative learning
activities. Therefore teachers in Lesotho may need to adapt their teaching to
cooperative learning, and also use teaching styles that could enable learners to
construct knowledge.
3.3.3 The Relativist view
Philosophers, tended to adopt a position of episternic and moral relativism. Epistemic
relativism is the view that there is no objective standard for evaluating some lines of
reasoning as better than others. Instead, the episternic relativist holds that what counts
as a good reason for holding a view is relative to one's situation and interests.
Analogously, moral relativism is the view that there are no objective standards of right
action but instead various standards that are only legitimate relative to this or that
person or group of people (Russ, 2004: 1).
The relativist view of teaching sees knowledge as subjective and highly changeable. In
this case, each learner constructs a unique knowledge base that is different from others
depending on his/her views and understanding. However, that knowledge base should
be equal to that of other learners. Odgers (n.d: 4) emphasizes that the relativist view
coincides with the constructivist theory to learning that suggests knowledge is
developed by the construction of knowledge and that this knowledge is tentative and
62
subject to change. Beyond this idea, teachers are responsible to ensure that knowledge
is constructed and not transmitted to the learners (Schraw & Olafson, 2003: 186).
In evaluation of learners' knowledge and skills, Barnes (2002: 6) argues that naturally,
relativistic teaching philosophies also influence the methods by which teachers evaluate
individual learners. That is, teachers tend to emphasize whether the learner approached
the task in a creative and thoughtful way rather than simply recalling. This philosophy
may be relevant in the transformation of using traditional teaching methods that are
teacher-centered to learner-centered approaches that improves on the critical thinking
of learners. Critical theory also views that teaching should be learner-centered in which
learners are given opportunities to discover things themselves. The development of
critical thinking and problem-solving skills is of major importance in this philosophy
(Higgs, 1995: 35). Understanding the characteristics of this philosophy may make it
simpler for teachers also to reach their learners' learning styles and to improve on their
academic achievement.
The above discussion makes it evident that a specific view to teaching favors a specific
way a teacher organizes his/her teaching, thus favoring a particular learning style. In a
normal classroom a variety or a combination of learning styles is used to address
individual learners. Therefore teachers in rural secondary schools of Lesotho could
consider the variety of learning styles and adapt their teaching to match the learning
style needs of all learners in their classrooms as a measure of improving academic
achievement. The next section will review effectiveness of teaching as a condition
required for improving academic achievement.
3.4 EFFECTIVE TEACHING
The quest for effective teaching remains a demanding, complex and daunting task. The
effectiveness of teaching is normally considered and investigated by probing the special
characteristics of the teacher, which include cognitive dimensions, personality
dimensions, perceptions of the self and others and teaching styles (Grosser, 2007: 37).
In accordance with Grosser, an important aspect emanating from the latter is the fact
that teachers are the ones who contribute most to the educational enterprise and
63
therefore need to ensure that the learner is engaged appropriately with the instructional
material. This idea makes it important for teachers in rural schools of Lesotho to link
teaching styles to learning styles of learners in order to facilitate the optimal acquisition
of knowledge in learning and improvement of academic achievement.
In this section, teaching effectiveness will be discussed with special consideration to the
characteristics of effective teachers, the effective teaching methods, and teaching
styles.
3.4.1 Teacher Effectiveness
According to Borich (1996: 2) many people believe that effective teaching is impossible
to define in any general way, however, it can be associated with good teaching as
viewed by learners, other teachers and administrators. Schonwetter, Clifton and Perry
(2002: 626) argue that effective teaching is basically the behavior of teachers that is
perpetuated inside and outside a classroom, which affect learner achievement in a
positive manner.
On the other hand, Slavin (1987: 89) contends that effective teaching is not just good
teaching. If it were, the best teachers could make videos of their lessons, and these
videos be used to teach learners other than their own. The argument here is that these
videos would be ineffective due to the following. First, the teacher captured in the video
would have no idea what learners already knew. That is, a particular lesson might be
too advanced for a particular group of learners or it may be that some learners already
know the material being taught. The teacher captured in the video would in no way
know who needed additional help and would also not be able to individualize instruction.
Second, motivation of learners to pay attention to the instruction would not be possible
with this teacher in the video. If learners were not paying attention or misbehaving, this
teacher would not be able to know about it. Finally, he/she would not be able to know at
the end of the lesson whether or not the learners have acquired the necessary
knowledge and skills intended by the lesson.
64
The case of the teacher captured in the video illustrates the point that for teaching to be
effective, teachers must be concerned with many elements of instruction in addition to
the lesson itself. Therefore, effective teaching entails certain characteristics that need to
be known by teachers in rural schools of Lesotho as they attempt to match teaching and
learning styles.
Slavin (1987: 92), Siedentop (cited in Win nick, 1990: 131), Rosenshine and Furst (1971:
372), Brookfield (1995: 34), and Schonwetter et al. (2002: 626) identified the
characteristics of effective teaching in their studies:
• Quality of instruction
This category characterizes the degree to which information or skills are
presented so that learners can easily learn them. It is largely a product of the
quality of the curriculum and of the lesson presentation itself. First, teachers with
characteristics of good quality of instruction are able to begin the class promptly
and present information in an organized, orderly way, note transitions to new
topics, use many vivid images and examples, and frequently restate essential
principles (Slavin, 1987: 93; Brookfield, 1995: 34; Schonwetter et al., 2002: 627).
Second, good instructional quality is characterized by clear specification of
lesson objectives to learners (Muijs & Reynolds, 2005: 3). In this case, teachers
are able to focus on the topic and provide clear explanations and directions of
how to carry out activities. They also indicate clearly their expectations from their
learners. Third, effective teaching is characterized by lessons that relate learning
to the learners' background knowledge (Slavin, 1987: 93). To take account of
learners' background knowledge, teachers can remind learners of previously
learned material at the relevant points in the lesson or can use examples that
relate to learners' daily experiences. Fourth, good teacher enthusiasm promotes
effective teaching (Rosenshine & Furst, 1971: 131; Borich, 1996: 11). On this
note, Schonwetter et al. (2002: 628) further indicates that teacher enthusiasm
motivates learners to study during and outside instruction time. Last, teachers
with effective teaching interact well with learners by providing immediate answers
65
to questions or comments and use non-verbal behavior such as gestures,
walking around and eye contact, to reinforce their comments.
e Appropriate levels of instruction
This category characterizes the degree to which the teacher makes sure that
learners are ready to learn new material. First, to provide an appropriate level of
instruction, teachers should ensure that learners have the necessary skills and
knowledge for the next level of instruction. In other words, the level of instruction
is appropriate when a lesson is neither too difficult nor too easy for learners.
Second, teachers with effective teaching should use a variety of instructional
strategies and activities that could address the diversity of learners' needs
(Brookfield, 1995: 34; Rosenshine & Furst, 1971: 131; Borich, 1996: 11)). To
reach every learner's needs, ability-grouped classes, group-based mastery
learning or individualized instruction could be used. Third, effective teachers use
humor that keeps up with learners' individual styles. Schonwetter et al. (2002:
628) emphasize that relevant humor reduces learner anxiety, maintains learner
interest, improves comprehension, and increases academic achievement. Last,
effective teaching is promoted by teachers who set a pace of instruction that is
appropriate to their learners' rate of learning (Slavin, 1987: 95).
• Incentive
Incentive describes the degree to which the teacher makes sure that learners are
motivated to work on instructional tasks and to learn the material being presented
(Slavin, 1887: 96). To promote effective teaching, teachers can create intrinsic
interest in material to be taught by arousing learners' curiosity, for example, by
using surprising demonstrations, by allowing learners to discover information for
themselves, or by relating the subject content to the learners' personal lives.
Again, strategies that provide praise, tokens, or other rewards, can be
instructionally effective (Muijs & Reynolds, 2005: 3). Questioning strategies that
communicate high expectations for learners, such as waiting for them to respond
66
or following up their responses, may also have a positive effect on teaching and
academic achievement.
• Time and classroom management
The degree to which learners are given time to learn the material being taught is
important in teaching. The amount of time available for learning depends on
allocated time and engaged time. Allocated time is the time scheduled by the
teacher for a particular lesson or subject, and is mostly under the control of the
teacher. On the other hand, engaged time is time learners actually engage in
learning tasks, and is largely a product of quality of instruction, learner
motivation, and allocated time (Slavin, 1987: 97).
Siedentop (cited in Winnick, 1990: 131) and Borich (1996: 11) state that effective
teachers keep learners appropriately engaged in relevant activities for a high
percentage of the learning time, match classroom activities and teaching styles to
learner abilities, and establish a warm, positive learning climate. A practice of
good classroom management techniques such as holding attention and
encouraging respect of the whole group of learners, and providing a warm
classroom climate by allowing learners to speak freely characterizes effective
teachers (Muijs & Reynolds, 2005: 3)
From above, different authors provide various characteristics of effective teachers. It is
therefore evident that teachers are supposed to use and possess certain personal
characteristics and teaching skills that will enable individual learners to be actively
involved in the process. Winnick (1990: 131) supports the idea by indicating that
effective teaching depends on a unique combination of factors that underlie successful
interaction especially within diverse learner groupings. These qualities include personal
attributes and specialized knowledge and skills that help teachers to maximize learners'
engagement on tasks, thus promoting effective learning.
Research on effective teaching and learning (Opdenakker & Van Damme, 2006: 2) also
stresses the importance of a good and vital relationship between the teacher and
67
his/her learners. However, possessing the above-mentioned characteristics of effective
might not be enough for teachers, especially if teachers do not devote themselves to
teaching by directing their full attention to all learning needs of their learners.
On effective teaching, Borich (1996: 6) cautions that not only personal attributes and
skills improve teaching and learning, but teachers must work very hard at their teaching
and try to improve. In the same way, it may be important that teachers in rural
secondary schools of Lesotho apply more effort in preparing and delivering instructional
material to their learners to enhance effective learning. This idea could be implemented
by drawing effective lesson plans and simplified subject content that is appropriate to
the level of understanding and learning styles of individual learners.
3.4.2 Effective teaching methods
Effective teaching involves careful planning, selection of appropriate teaching strategies
and methods to acquire the desired objectives and evaluation of learners' progress
(Winnick, 1990: 131). In this case, effective teaching methods are required to engage
learners fully in the learning process.
According to Borich (1996: 108) effective teaching methods are reflected by key and
helping behaviours such as lesson clarity, instructional variety, task-orientation, learner
engagement in learning, pacing, mode of presentation, and classroom management,
and also by improved academic achievement. Rosenshine and Furst (1971: 132)
contends that effective teaching methods should incorporate teacher behaviours such
as clearness of presentation, teacher enthusiasm, activity diversity, task-orientation, and
coverage of high proportion of relevant content. All in all, effective teaching methods
should cut across characteristics of effective teaching and should yield improved
academic achievement.
While considering the use "af effective teaching methods, it should be noted that just as
learners learn in many ways, by seeing and hearing; reflecting and acting; memorizing
and visualizing; reasoning logically and intuitively; building models and drawing
68
analogies, teaching methods also vary ( Felder & Silverman, 1988: 674; Jacobs et al.,
2004:175). Teachers may decide to use lecturing, class discussion, questioning,
problem solving, role play or demonstration in their classrooms; some teachers focus on
principles and others on applications; some emphasize understanding and others
memory.
Lecturing is a teacher-centered teaching method whereby teachers pass facts, rules, or
action consequences on to learners in the most direct way possible. It is also a
presentation that requires large amounts of verbal explanations and teacher-learner
interactions involving questions and answers, and the correction of learners' errors
(Borich, 1996: 244). Small group or class discussion entails learner-to-Iearner-to-
teacher exchanges into long interactions among a large number of learners. In this
case, the teacher may intervene occasionally to review and summarize main points, or
to evaluate group's progress and to redirect if necessary.
Questioning is used to test understanding of the learners on specific material, to involve
learners in the learning process, and also to encourage different mental processes such
as problem solving, creativity, or to arouse interest. Teachers can also use
demonstrations or role play to illustrate and reinforce certain behaviours.
Demonstrations include visuals or actions that are used to reinforce understanding and
acquisition of certain skills such as creativity.
For these teaching methods to be effective, the teachers in rural schools of Lesotho
need a well-planned procedure to guide learners and need the ability to create exciting
opportunities for learners. The teacher also needs to use different teaching methods
from time to time so as to reach out to all learners (Jacobs et al., 2004: 17). Again, it
could be important for teachers in rural secondary schools of Lesotho to be aware that
the effectiveness of teaching and how much a learner learns in class may be
determined by that learner's ability, previous knowledge, teaching methods employed,
and also the compatibility of his or her learning style and the teacher's teaching style.
The latter brings us to the discussion of the teaching styles.
69
3.4.3 Effective teaching and teaching styles
The selection of appropriate teaching styles is another way crucial to improving the
effectiveness of teaching and instructional experiences (Winnick, 1990: 133). It has
been discovered (Ndaqala, 1994: 24) that learners who are taught in a manner
incompatible with the way they learn, learn less and express less satisfaction with the
effectiveness of the teacher, while learners experience success in learning when
teaching styles are compatible with their learning styles (Jones, 1998: 117; Ford &
Chen, 2001 :5; Isemonger & Sheppard, 2003: 196; Dasari, 2006: 4).
To promote the effectiveness of teaching and learning, researchers have suggested
ways in which teaching styles can be used to address learning styles of learners. For
instance, Felder (1993: 290), Diaz and Cartnal (1999: 132), Cilliers and Sternberg
(2001: 14), and Morrison et al. (2003: 209) suggest that learners should be exposed to
a wide variety of alternative teaching styles in an attempt to find teaching styles that fit
each individual learner's learning style. In this case, no learner would necessarily
benefit from all the teaching styles used, but all learners would benefit from many of the
teaching styles used to optimize learning in the classroom.
In addition to the above, Friedman and Alley (1984: 78), and Jones (1998: 117)
contends that when using a variety of teaching styles, teachers do not have time to
juggle classes of 30 or more learners while giving attention to many style preference
factors for each individual learner. Through the experience of the researcher as a
teacher, there are large classes of about 40 or more learners in many rural schools of
Lesotho due to lack of classrooms. This implies that teachers in rural secondary schools
of Lesotho can focus upon selected basic learning style preferences of their learners
and utilize learning activities in support of those styles. Some attention may be directed
to those learning styles that are weak, but at certain time intervals. Therefore it is
important to review teaching style theories that can help in determining ways of
matching teaching and learning styles of learners in Lesotho.
70
3.5 TEACHING STYLE THEORIES
As much as learners possess a variety of learning styles, there are differences in
teaching styles used by teachers (Felder & Silverman, 1988: 674; Grasha, 1996: 5;
Dasari, 2006: 4). One of the biggest challenges that teachers face is to find ways to
succeed with all of their learners, not just those with whom they have a natural affinity.
In this case, teachers may need to be aware of which teaching styles work for their
classes and which ones are less effective. In this section, teaching style theories
developed by Felder and Silverman, Grasha, Benzie, and Pratt, are discussed.
3.5.1 Felder-Silverman Teaching Styles Theory
According to Felder and Silverman (1988: 675) just as there are five questions that can
help determine a learner's learning style, teaching styles may also be defined in terms
of the answers to five essential questions. These questions are:
• What type of information is emphasized by the instructor?
• What mode of presentation is stressed?
• How is the presentation organized?
• What mode of learner participation is facilitated by the presentation?
• What type of perspective is provided on the information presented?
From the above questions, Felder and Silverman came up with five dimensions of
teaching styles, and these are:
1. Concrete or abstract
In this teaching style dimension, teachers may emphasize concrete, factual
information or abstract, conceptual and theoretical information. This teaching
style dimension corresponds with the sensory/intuitive learning style of learners.
Therefore, sensing learners may benefit more from the concrete presentation of
information, and the intuitive learner, from the abstract presentation. In the case
of rural schools in Lesotho, teachers who rely heavily on this teaching style
dimension may limit effective teaching to a small number of learners with
corresponding styles, thus leaving the rest of the class adequately unattended.
71
2. Visual or Verbal
Teachers with this teaching style may use presentations that either stress visual
modalities through pictures, diagrams, demonstrations; or may be verbal through
lecturing, reading and discussions. This dimension corresponds with the
visual/auditory learning style dimension. It may happen that some teachers in
rural schools of Lesotho use both visual and verbal presentations in their
teaching, thus accommodating all learners within the corresponding learning
style. However, not all learners in a class may fall in this style dimension in rural
schools. Therefore, for matching to be done and for improvement of academic
achievement, all learners in this style dimension and other dimensions should be
accommodated.
3. Inductive or deductive
With regard to organization of lessons, inductive teaching involves observation
that lead to generalized principles. Deductive teaching, on the other hand, entails
the use of generalized rules that lead to observations. According to Felder and
Silverman, an element of inductive teaching is necessary for teachers to be able
to increase learners' realistic perceptions of problem solving. Identifying learners
with inductive and deductive learning styles and matching teaching styles in this
dimension with those learning styles may yield improved academic achievement
of such learners in rural schools of Lesotho.
4. Active or passive
Teachers could either use a teaching style that emphasizes active learner
participation through discussions, role playing, and other activities, or they could
prefer a teaching style that promote passive learner participation through
demonstrations or lecturing. This teaching style dimension corresponds with the
active reflective learning style dimension. To enhance academic achievement,
teachers in Lesotho may need to use all the teaching methods and resources
required in this teaching style dimension to maximize learning for learners with
corresponding learning styles.
72
5. Sequential or global
In this dimension, teachers may prefer a sequential mode of presenting material
to learners. That is, information is presented in a step by step manner. Teachers
may also prefer to present a concept or information in a global picture first and
then proceed to break it down into simpler forms while presenting the steps. In a
global teaching style, learners in rural secondary schools of Lesotho may be
given the freedom to devise their own methods of solving problems. Matching
sequential/global teaching and learning styles may therefore be an effective way
of improving learners' acquisition of knowledge and enhancing academic
achievement in rural schools of Lesotho.
As it was stated earlier in the previous chapter, Felder and Silverman later omitted the
inductive/deductive dimension from their Learning Style Model, thus affecting the
teaching style dimensions as well. This idea leads to the existence of only four learning
style dimensions and four corresponding teaching styles.
Teachers may posses one or more of the teaching styles, while those teachers who are
aware of the existence of various learning styles, may use a variety of teaching styles to
address most of their learners' learning styles. Felder and Silverman (1988: 680) and
later, Dasari (2006: 22) suggest that teachers should understand how learners learn
under each learning style dimension and use teaching styles and techniques that
enhance these learning styles. To address this issue, Moallem (2007: 222) have
designed a guideline for developing teaching materials and styles, considering different
learning styles as described in FSLSM to accommodate all learners. Table 3.1 provides
the information on this guideline.
73
Table 3.1: A guideline for Developing teaching materials and styles
Questions Student Learning Type of flexibility & Instructional styles and
adaptivity strategies
1.What type of Sensing learners- -Flexible and adaptive -Provide concrete and
information does concrete, practical, content real world examples for
oriented toward new concepts and
the student facts and -Flexible and adaptive principles presented in
preferentially procedures curriculum sequence the unit.
perceive?
-Demonstrate procedures
by using examples.
-provide real-world
learning tasks that allow
learners to have concrete
learning experiences.
Intuitive learners- -incorporate enough
conceptual, flexibility in assignments
innovative, oriented and tasks to allow
toward theories and creativity for the concepts
meanings learned.
-provide extra resources
through the use of textual
reading materials,
summaries, diagrams.
2.Through what Visual learners- -Flexible and adaptive -Provide content in a
sensory modality is prefer visual presentation form of charts, images,
representations of maps
sensory information material. -Flexible and adaptive
most effectively selection
Verbal learners- -Provide elaborated
perceived?
prefer written and written and lor auditory
spoken explanations notes with explanations
with examples.
-provide presentations
and discussions
74
3.How does the Active learners-learn -flexible and adaptive -provide problem solving
learner prefer to by working things meta-cog nitive and real-life tasks.
out and working with approach and problem
process others solving support -provide guidelines for
information? effective teamwork.
-Provide opportunity for
large group discussion.
Reflective learners- -provide individual tasks
learn by thinking and assignments to allow
things through, each learner to work
working alone alone
-provide self-assessment
tools for learners to
evaluate themselves
4.How does the Sequential learners- -Flexible and adaptive -provide a detailed and
learner progress linear, orderly and meta-cognitive step by step procedure
learn in small approach and problem for completing task, both
towards incremental steps solving support in text and visual form.
understanding?
-provide specific
feedback for each step of
a task.
Global learners- -provide a conceptual
holistic, system sequence for lessons
thinkers and learn in and completion of tasks.
large leaps
-provide an overview of
the material and
assignment in each unit.
Adapted from Moallem (2007: 223)
The guidelines described in Table 3.1 can be of importance for teachers in rural schools
of Lesotho in their efforts to accommodate different learning styles of their learners in
one class. This accommodation can be done by selecting instructional styles and
75
strategies that address the identified learning styles and using those in lesson plans,
lesson presentations, making examples, developing teaching aids and in assessment of
learners. These guidelines may also help teachers in grouping of learners in class when
assigning tasks.
Although the diverse styles with which learners learn are numerous, the inclusion of a
relatively small number of techniques in a teacher's repertoire may be sufficient to meet
the needs of most or all of the learners in a class. Felder and Silverman (1988: 680) and
Dasari (2006: 22) outline a summary of several techniques that could be used to
address all learners in a classroom. These are as follows:
• Motivate learning by relating it as much as possible to what was done previously
and what is still to come, and to the real life experiences.
• Balance concrete information and abstract concepts.
• Balance material that emphasizes practical problem-solving methods with
material that emphasizes fundamental understanding.
• Use pictures, schematics, graphs, and simple sketches before, during, and after
the presentation of verbal material. Use films whenever it is possible.
• Provide brief intervals for learners to think about what they have learned during
class time.
• Ensure that there are ample opportunities for learners to do something active
besides note-taking.
• Assign some drill exercises to provide practice in the basic methods being
taught, and also provide open-ended problems at times.
• Give learners the option of cooperating on homework assignments to the
greatest possible extent.
• Applaud creative solutions, even incorrect ones.
• Talk to learners about learning styles so that they may be better informed of
some factors that influence their learning. Use an appropriate learning style
instrument to identify which learning styles exist in your class.
76
Considering the large number of these techniques, teachers in rural secondary schools
of Lesotho may feel that it is impossible to do all the latter said within their respective
subjects and still cover the syllabus. The idea, however is not to use all the techniques
in every class but rather to pick several that look feasible and try them; keep the ones
that work; drop the others; and try a few in the next subject or class. In this way
teaching styles that are both effective for learners and comfortable for the teacher may
evolve naturally, and thus possibly increasing the academic achievement. With an
attempt of improving teaching to enhance academic achievement, more literature on
teaching style theories is revised in the next section.
3.5.2 Quirk's Teaching Styles Theory
The teaching styles developed by Quirk described teaching styles used by professors in
tutoring medical learners. According to Dasari (2006: 23) these teaching styles were
later used by Dr. Dan Benzie to describe teaching in medical classes. This theory was
used by Dasari (2006: 23) to describe teaching styles of teachers at high school level,
and may be used to describe teaching styles in rural schools of Lesotho. Quirk (1994: 2)
and Benzie (1998: 1) describes four basic styles that operate on a continuum, where the
characteristics of each style range from being teacher-centered to learner-centered.
These teaching styles are Assertive, Suggestive, Collaborative, and Facilitative. The
diagram below illustrates this spectrum.
Figure 3.1: Quirk's Teaching Style Continuum
Teache~sexperience Learner's experience
Assertive Suggestive Collaborative Facilitative
Adapted from Dasari (2006: 23)
77
These teaching styles can be further described as follows:
• The Assertive Approach
This approach is characterized by direct questions and answers, which relay
information. It is driven by a lecture mode with the teacher being active and
learners being passive. In this case, the teacher provides information, direction
and asks all the questions. Therefore, this approach lies on the far left of the
teaching style spectrum. Teachers in Lesotho that use this teaching style
predominantly may not be able to address some learning styles of learners which
are more learner-centered. This implies that as much as this style may be
important for certain content and specific learning styles, but it should be varied
to accommodate other learning styles.
• The Suggestive Approach
This approach is closely related to the above in that the teacher directs learning.
Here, the teacher offers opinion, practical experience and also suggests
alternatives often by relating personal experience. Alternatives are suggested in
an attempt to allow learners to reflect, but with some direction. This teaching
style may accommodate more learning styles than the previous, but it still needs
to be varied to address those learning styles that are learner-centered in rural
schools of Lesotho.
• The Collaborative Approach
This method moves towards being learner-centered with acceptance and
exploration of the learner's ideas and empathetic sharing of experiences.
Learners' ideas are solicited through asking open and exploratory questions, in
this approach. This implies that, there is a greater emphasis on learner
involvement. With the researcher's experience as a teacher, most of learning in
rural schools of Lesotho may be dominantly teacher-centered and textbook-
centered such that learners do not experience active participation in learning. it
would therefore be of great importance if teachers could adopt learner-centered
approaches to teaching and learning.
78
• The Facilitative Approach
This way of teaching is most learner-centered, where the exchange extends
beyond the clinical content to the feelings of the learner and preceptor. In this
case, the teacher asks open and reflective questions. Learners are, therefore, in
control of much of the learning process with the teacher playing a facilitative or
guiding role.
Jacobs et al. (2004: 3) contend that in order to promote effective learning,
teachers need to give learners a set of classroom activities that form a
participative engagement in learning and must also allow learners to take charge
of their own learning. In this case, a shift from traditional teaching to learner-
centered teaching may be a good attempt to promote facilitative teaching and full
turning towards individual learning styles of learners in Lesotho.
Table 3.2 gives a summary of Quirk's teaching styles theory. In fact, this theory may
also be important and relevant in the context of rural secondary schools in Lesotho. It
could be used to identify teaching styles and may be also applied to address the
diversity of learning styles. Nevertheless, more teaching style theories are discussed
below to enrich more literature on teaching styles.
Table 3.2 Quirk's Teaching Styles
Assertive Suggestive Collaborative Facilitative
Gives directions Suggests Elicits/ accepts Elicits/ accepts
alternatives learner ideas learner feelings
Asks direct Offers opinion Explores learner Offers feelings
questions ideas
Gives Relates personal Relates personal Encourages
information experience experience
Uses silence
Adapted from Quirk (1994: 11)
79
3.5.3 Pratt's ideas on teaching styles
Before teachers can attempt to develop more flexible teaching styles, they must be
receptive to the idea of change, beginning with a change in their beliefs about the
learners' role in the learning environment (Brown, 2003: 1).
Pratt, Arseneau and Collins (2001: 2) and later, Pratt (2002: 7) present five perspectives
on teaching and urge teachers to use these perspectives to identify, articulate, and
justify their teaching approaches rather than simply adopting one practice or another.
1. Transmission: In this perspective, good teaching is directly associated with
content or subject matter expertise. An educator's primary responsibility is to
present the content accurately and efficiently. It is the learners' responsibility to
learn that content in its authorized forms. Good teachers take learners
systematically through a set of tasks that lead to mastery of the content. In rural
schools of Lesotho, teachers need to be clear and enthusiastic about the content
being transmitted and giving feedback to learners. In order to present the content
in a clear mode, learners' individual styles should be considered as a way of
reaching to every learner in the classroom.
2. Developmental: The constructivist orientation to learning mentioned earlier is the
foundation for this perspective on teaching. From the Developmental Perspective,
good teaching must be planned and conducted from the learner's point of view
(Pratt, Arseneau & Collins, 2001: 3). Effective teachers therefore understand how
their learners think and reason about the content. Teachers in Lesotho should
value learners' prior knowledge and direct learning to the development of
increasingly complex ways of reasoning and problem solving. In an effort to match
teaching and learning styles, using learners' background knowledge may make
the acquisition of new knowledge easier.
3. Apprenticeship: This view starts with the assumption that learning is facilitated
when learners work on authentic tasks in real settings of application or practice.
80
Teachers provide learners with authentic tasks in real work settings and relate
their teaching exercises to real-life situations. Learners with styles that include
active, concrete, and visual learning experiences, may experience effective
learning and perform well academically when taught by teachers with this
teaching style perspective. In order to promote academic achievement, teachers
in rural schools of Lesotho should be aware of the learners' experiences both at
home and school, and use those to reinforce understanding.
4. Nurturing: Teachers tend to focus on the interpersonal elements of learners'
learning, namely: listening, getting to know learners, and responding to their
emotional and intellectual needs. Teachers with this perspective provide
encouragement and support, along with clear expectations and reasonable goals
for all learners. Teaching to learners' individual learning styles may be a good way
of responding to learners' intellectual needs in rural schools of Lesotho, while at
the same time teachers should provide emotional support to learners as a way of
enhancing academic achievement.
5. Social Reform: From this point of view it is the collective, rather than the
individual, that is the object of teaching. Teachers tend to relate ideas explicitly to
the lives of learners. Therefore presentation of content and the design of
assignments and projects are related to concrete and real-life experiences. This
teaching perspective implies that teacher in rural schools of Lesotho may need to
match teaching approaches, examples and assessment with the experiences of
learners in such a manner as to promote the acquisition of new skills and
knowledge.
Most teachers have only one or two perspectives as their dominant view of teaching.
However similar teaching actions, methods, and even beliefs can be found in more than
one perspective (Pratt, 2002: 10). Proficient learner-centered teachers are able to use a
variety of styles so that their ultimate style is integrated. This idea means that teachers
in rural secondary of schools may need to adopt a learner-centered approach to
teaching in order to address a variety of learning styles that learners possess.
81
More literature on teaching style theories may provide other ways of classifying teaching
styles and techniques required to address learners' individual learning styles. In the
section that follows, Grasha's theory on teaching styles is outlined.
3.5.4 Grasha Teaching Styles Theory
Grasha (1996: 150) developed a more elaborate and more value-laden model of
teaching style which he referred to as an integrated model of teaching styles. As
described in Table 3.3 below, Grasha identified five teaching styles (Expert, Formal
authority, Personal model, Facilitator, Delegator) as representing the typical used
orientations by teachers. These teaching styles interact with the learning styles of
learners which are described as Competitive, Collaborative, Independent, Dependent,
Participatory, and Avoidant. The teaching-learning process involves the interplay of
these two sets of styles in the classroom (Grasha, 1996: 152).
Table 3.3: Grasha's Teaching Styles
STYLE DESCRIPTION ADVANTAGE DISADVANT AGE
Expert Possesses knowledge Knowledge and Knowledge and
and expertise; oversees, information which information can
guides, and directs preceptor be overused and
learners; gains status possesses intimidating; may
through knowledge; not always show
focuses on facts underlying
thought
processes
Formal Possesses status Focus on clear Potentially rigid
Authority among learners because expectations and and less flexible
of knowledge and acceptable ways of ways of managing
authority/ position; doing things learners and their
follows "traditions" and concerns
standards of medical
82
practice; focuses on
rules and expectations
for learners; supervises
learners closely with
critical eye toward
standard practices and
procedures
Personal Leads by personal "Hand-on"; May want to
Model example; suggests emphasis on direct "clone" learners in
prototypes for observation; own image;
appropriate behavior in emphasis in learners may feel
office; shows learners following a role inadequate
how to do things; wants model (mentor cannot live up to;
learners to observe and relationship) stuck in practice
emulate approach may believe
approach is best
way to practice
medicine
Facilitator Emphasizes personal Personal flexibility; Time consuming;
nature of teaching- Focus on learner sometimes more
learning relationship; needs and goals; direct approach is
asks questions, explores openness to needed; can
options with learners; alternatives and make learner
focuses on learner options uncomfortable
responsibility,
independence, and
initiative
Delegator Encourages learner Contribute to Learners may not
responsibility and learners have capability to
initiative when professional function in an
83
appropriate; goal IS to development and autonomous
have learner function confidence; two-way manner; some
autonomously; a trust learners are
"resource person"; anxious when not
answers questions and closely
periodically reviews supervised
learner progress
Adapted from Grasha (1996: 154)
From the description of teaching styles in Table 3.3, teachers in the rural schools of
Lesotho may be able to use the information as outlined to select teaching styles that
appropriately match with the learning styles of learners in their classes. Information from
the table also guides teachers on the use of styles they select while pointing to the
advantages that can be maximized and disadvantages that can be minimized.
Grasha claims that these styles tend to cluster into four different patterns that influence
teachers' use of various instructional methods. He also suggests that these clusters
differ with respect to which student learning styles they best support. Other factors
which might influence the appropriateness of a given style cluster include learners'
capabilities to handle course demands; learners' need for the teacher to directly control
classroom tasks, and the teacher's and learners' willingness to build or maintain
relationships. These clusters are briefly discussed in Table 3.4 below.
Table 3.4: Grasha's Teaching Style Clusters
TEACHING STYLE PREFERRED TEACHING PRIMARY LEARNING
CLUSTER METHODS STYLE
Expert! Formal Authority Didactic lectures, technology- Dependent, Participant,
based presentations, teacher- Competitive
centered questioning, and
84
I discussions
Personal Model/ Expert! Role modeling, Participant, Dependent,
Formal Authority coaching/guiding students Collaborative
Facilitator/ Personal Model/ Case-based discussions, Collaborative,
Expert concept mapping, critical Participant,
thinking, fishbowl discussions, Independent
guided reading, problem-
based learning, role plays,
student teacher of the day
Delegator/ Facilitative/ Contract teaching, class Independent,
Expert symposium, debate formats, Collaborative,
small group discussions, Participant
independent study/research,
modular instruction, panel
discussions, learning pairs,
student journals
Adapted from Grasha (1996: 179)
Indeed, it may be important that teachers give attention to their teaching styles and
learners' learning to enhance the teaching-learning process. Therefore teachers in rural
schools of Lesotho need to select teaching styles that are appropriate to the way in
which learners learn. In carrying out this selection, Grasha (1996: 90) cautions that it
should not be based on personal whim or how the subject was previously taught, but
should be based on a consistent philosophy of teaching that helps in informing teachers
about which teaching styles to adopt. Additionally, the selection of teaching styles
should be applied regarding the course content, number and maturity levels of learners,
physical environment, while also considering the learning styles that are predominant in
the class. Grasha (1996: 156) adds more factors that should be considered when
selecting teaching styles, namely: class size, time allocation, and the subject matter.
85
Following the above notion, it may be important for teachers in rural schools of Lesotho
to consider which factors are likely to influence their learners' learning styles, how these
styles are influenced and find out which teaching styles could address the existing
learning styles in their classrooms. Also important, is to make learners aware of their
learning styles in order to help them learn better. From this note, implications of
teaching styles in the teaching-learning process are discussed to enrich teachers with
understanding of the role teaching styles have and how they can be used in a
classroom.
3.6 IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING STYLES
Mosston and Ashworth (1990: 2) indicate that the teaching-learning process is guided
by decision patterns that influence interaction and behaviour of the teacher and that of
the learner. In this case, these decision patterns are called teaching styles. Knowing
various teaching styles and an ability to move deliberately from style to style as the
objectives change from one teaching episode to another is important for effective
teaching (Mosston & Ashworth, 1990: 3; Win nick, 1990: 133; Grosser, 2007: 40).The
selection of an appropriate teaching style could therefore be crucial to successful
instructional experiences in rural schools of Lesotho that are showing low examination
results.
Various authors such as Grasha and others that have been mentioned earlier in this
chapter have described and classified teaching styles on the basis of teacher-
centeredness and learner-centeredness. Mosston and Ashworth (1990: 3) and Winnick
(1990: 133) distinguish between the direct teacher-centered and indirect learner-
centered teaching styles. The emphasis lies on the different amount of decision making
responsibility allocated to the teacher and to the learner. Knowledge and understanding
of teaching styles would enable teachers to decide on the teaching activities and
methods that might address individual learning styles.
Teaching styles knowledge can be important in guiding teachers in rural schools of
Lesotho to move from the traditional teaching approaches that were only teacher-
centered to learner-centered teaching approaches. According to Conti and Welborn
86
(1986: 20) more learning takes place when learner-centered methods are followed.
These methods include activities that make learners take responsibility for their own
learning, to link learning experiences with personal experiences, to involve the learner
actively in the teaching process and to promote adaptability in the classroom. However,
regardless of whether teachers use more teacher-centered or learner-centered
methods, focus must be directed to addressing learners' learning styles and achieving
objectives of the curriculum (Dasari, 2006: 32).
To direct teaching to learning styles and curriculum objectives, Shindler (2006: 3)
speaks of the five principles of using teaching styles. According to Shindler, five
principles seem to be critical to using teaching styles to individual learners.
Principle 1. Know yourself and your teaching style tendencies
The teacher needs to have an awareness of who they are, what they value and also
their natural teaching preference. In this case, they should be aware of the values they
learned, values that could be considered as cognitive preferences and also be aware of
their teaching actions and choices. When teachers in rural schools are aware of their
own teaching styles, then they may be able to realize their challenges related to the use
of such styles, and may also realize that the styles they tend to use might not address
the learning styles of all learners in the class. This idea can also influence teachers to
shift from their natural styles to those that match with the learning styles of their
learners.
Principle 2. Gain an understanding of each of your learners' learning styles and
needs, and promote a community of learners respectful of one another's
strengths and differences.
Teachers in rural schools of Lesotho need a systematic means to understand the
learning needs and cognitive style preference of each of the learners in the class, as
well as helping learners to function collectively. It can be helpful to have one's whole
class as well as each individual learning style. Having information related to trends in
the class is helpful in understanding why certain classes are different from others.
87
However, Grosser and De Waal (n.d: 19), and Shindler (2006: 6) caution that knowing
a learner's learning style should be within the prescriptions of supporting and promoting
learning and should not be a tool for stereotyping and stigmatizing learners. In an
attempt to match teaching and learning styles, teachers need also to expose learners to
certain challenges outside their learning styles in order to strengthen skills that are
required in all learning situations and for academic success.
Principle 3. Use teaching methodology and strategies that promote the maximum
degree of success for learners of all styles.
In this case, the teacher must have well established pedagogical tools that are effective
across learning styles. The simplest way to ensure a group of learners with diverse
learning styles succeed is to incorporate teaching practices that promote cross-style
success, and avoid practices that are ineffective regardless of learning style (Shindler,
2006: 7). The following practices are believed to lead to high levels of academic
achievement, addressing most learning styles of learners (Felder, 1993: 288; Shindler,
2006:7)
• Provide and communicate clear outcomes, objectives and assessment criteria to
learners.
• Engage learners in activities that require them to work as teams.
• Provide clear directions on tasks and develop a culture of listening among
learners.
• Use formal concept building activities that can promote the concept acquisition
skills of all learners.
• Design a sound social contract and clear logical consequences to minimize
disciplinary problems.
• Provide concrete specific feedback and healthy praise
It might not be an easy task for teachers to incorporate all teaching styles that match
with learners' styles in all classes. With the use of above practices and attempts of
matching the styles, academic achievement of learners in rural schools of Lesotho
might increase.
88
Principle 4. Be mindful and respectful of the needs of learners on the other side
of each learning style dimension.
As teachers become knowledgeable of their own styles, it is common to discover that it
has been easier to teach in ways that has worked better for the learners with the same
styles, thus ignoring other learners with different styles. Felder (1993: 289) suggests
that teachers should incorporate practices that meet a wide range of needs, and more
importantly to create an environment that supports learners on both sides of each
learning style dimension. Therefore, teachers in the rural schools of Lesotho may need
to come out of their comfort zones of using their preferred styles, and include those
styles of learners that do no receive enough attention.
Principle 5. Provide opportunities for learners to work in their strengths areas for
some part of the overall learning experience.
This principle suggests that teachers should illuminate the conditions in which different
types of learners work best so that they can create opportunities for each learner to
work to their particular strengths. While it is not reasonable to individualize a program
for each learner, it is useful to consider each type when planning a lesson or unit and
ensure that all learners have opportunities to work on their strengths (Shindler, 2006: 9).
On the other hand, Kovacic (2003: 801) contends that to some extent learners should
also be exposed to the teaching style which is different from their preferences to
prepare them for the real world. All in all, in the rural schools of Lesotho, teachers may
need to focus on improving learners' academic potentia Is by matching teaching with the
styles that learners already prefer. In relation to this, some techniques need to be
established that could address learners' challenges as well.
Teachers in rural schools of Lesotho could use these principles to guide them in
selection of teaching styles, lesson planning and presentation of lessons to address
their learners' learning styles. According to Shindler (2006: 2) these principles could be
89
considered to be hierarchical in nature, each element building upon the last, as
illustrated in Table 3.5 below.
Table 3.5: Principles of teaching styles.
I
Sound Pedagogy
Understanding Learner Preferences
Teacher Self-Awareness
Adapted from Shindler ( 2006: 2)
As much as these principles could be considered hierarchical, the manner in which they
are used can follow any order (Shindler, 2006: 2). Teachers in rural schools of Lesotho
can use them in any way that enables them to promote learning in their classrooms, as
long as the principles are implemented positively. However, the issue of matching and
mismatching teaching and learning styles still requires further consideration. Therefore
the next section is on matching/mismatching teaching and learning styles.
3.7 MATCHINGI MISMATCHING REVISITED
Maallem (2007: 220) notes that research on learning styles and academic achievement
has shown that teaching learners how to learn and how to manage their own learning
styles is crucial to their academic success. On the same note, Isemonger and Sheppard
(2003: 196) state that knowing a learner's learning style is a first step to a personalized
approach to him or her, and also a starting point in helping the learner to improve on the
weak styles and making use of his/her strong styles. Even though knowing learners'
90
learning styles may be that important, there are debates among researchers as to
whether matching or mismatching teaching and learning styles improves academic
achievement.
Isemonger and Sheppard (2003: 196) indicate that there is empirical support for the
claim that learning in a manner consistent with one's learning style produces better
results than otherwise. Dunn (2003: 12) also notes that from research conducted by
Farr (1971); Domino (1970); Cafferty (1980); Copenhaver (1979); Lynch (1981); Pizza
(1981); Krimsky (1982); and Shea (1983), learners were administered a self-report
instrument in which they were asked to identify the ways in which they would achieve
best. Experimental investigations from these studies revealed that when taught as they
indicated, learners achieved better than when taught in ways that were different from
their preferences. Table 3.6 includes evidence from these investigations.
Additionally, Graf et al., (2007: 79) point out that learners with a strong preference for a
certain learning style may have difficulties it the teaching style does not match their
preferred learning styles. To be more precise, Felder (1993: 288), Jones (1998: 117),
Morrison et al. (2003: 208) and Maallem (2007: 217) suggest that learners whose
learning styles match with the given teaching style tend to retain information longer,
apply it more effectively, and retain more positive attitudes toward the subject than
those who experience mismatches. Secondly, Jones (1998: 117) contends that a
mismatch condition leads to a grossly inferior performance while a matching condition
promotes a greater interpersonal attraction that could motivate learners to achieve.
From the above, matching of teaching and learning styles therefore seems to have a
positive impact on academic achievement. However, as there are many research
findings to support the benefits of matching teaching styles to learning styles, teachers
in rural schools of Lesotho should be aware that there are also those studies that are
opposed to matching as a good solution to poor academic achievement.
91
Table 3.6: Matching teaching and learning styles
Researcher Population Findings
and date
Cafferty, 1,689 teacher- lo The greater the match between the learner's and the
1980 student pairs teacher's style, the student's grade point average.
2. The greater the mismatch between the learner's and the
teacher's style, the lower the student's point average.
Copenhaver, 76 high school lo learners' learning styles remained consistent regardless
1979 students of the subject being studied.
2. Significantly more positive attitudes resulted when
students' styles were similar to their teachers'.
Domino, 100 college lo learners taught in preferred styles scored higher on tests,
1979 students fact knowledge, attitude, and efficiency than those
taught in a manner dissonant from their orientations.
Farr,1971 72 college lo Individuals accurately predicted the modality in which
students they would achieve superior academic performance.
2. It was advantageous to learn and be tested in the
preferred modality.
3. The above advantage was reduced when learning and
testing were both in the non-preferred modality.
Krimsky, 32 fourth 1. learners who preferred bright light performed
1982 graders statistically better when tested in brightly lit areas; those
who preferred reading in dim light did equally as well in a
low-light setting.
2. Both groups performed statistically less well when tested
in mismatched situations.
lynch, 1981 136 high school lo When matched with their time-of-day preference and
students mismatched for teacher assignment, chronic truants
attended school more frequently.
2. A significant interaction (at the .01 level) occurred among
degree of truancy, learning style preference, and English
teacher assignment, suggesting that time preference was
a crucial factor in the reversal of truancy patterns.
Pizzo,1981 64 sixth graders lo When learners were matched with their learning style
preferences, statistically higher reading and attitude
scores resulted at the .01 level
2. learners who were mismatched achieved significantly
below the matched students.
Shea,1983 32 ninth graders 1. When learners were matched with their learning style
preferences for design, statistically higher reading scores
resulted at the .01Ievel.
2. learners who were mismatched for informal design
achieved significantly lower than when matched.
92
Dreyer, 1999 200 university 1. Greater congruence between teaching and learning styles
students increases the probability of learners' ability to master
content, acquire critical thinking skills, and understanding
of complex issues.
Dasari, 2006 87 sixth graders 1. Matching learners' learning styles with their teachers'
teaching styles, learners' attitude and motivation to
study increases.
2. Matching teaching and learning styles have a positive
impact on the academic achievement of sixth grade
science learners.
Adapted from Dunn (2003: 13)
Some researchers assert that there is a lack of evidence to support the view that
matching teaching and learning styles is educationally significant. Ellis (2001: 156)
states some criticisms based on matching teaching and learning styles. These are:
• The experimental designs employed in classroom based learning styles research
appear to be weak and do not have adequate controls.
• There could be some element of bias on the part of the researchers as each one
stands to gain financially from propagating their own theory and accompanying
instrument that measures learning styles.
• Some researches base their findings on unpublished studies, journals and
doctoral studies.
• There have been no published accounts of any large scale program evaluation
conducted to determine whether an in-service program on learning styles has
contributed much to learners' academic achievement.
Again, other theorists are uncertain about whether it is of great importance to teach to
an individual's strengths or to try to help learners overcome their apparent challenges.
Kolb (1984: 32) argues that learners need to be helped to overcome challenges in their
cognitive styles and to develop a more integrated approach to learning by mismatching
teaching with their learning styles. Jones (1998: 117) further indicates that learners
need to develop the compensation techniques needed for situations in which style
93
conflicts exist. However, learners still need to exercise their strengths to gain more
confidence and learn effectively.
Another argument forwarded against matching is that it is hard to imagine teachers
changing their teaching style to accommodate up to thirty different learning styles in one
classroom. This sentiment is echoed by Doyle and Rutherford (2003), who believe that
teachers will be faced with formidable problems because of the diversity of work
teaching to learning styles entails. Doyle and Rutherford further argues that of twenty
two studies on the effects of matching reviewed, only two showed significant effects on
academic achievement.
To the above argument, Felder (1993: 287) suggests that the point should not be to
teach to each of the identified learning styles in class, but it should be to address each
side of each learning style dimension at least some of the time. However, he also
contends that to some extent learners should be exposed to the teaching style which is
different from their preferences to prepare them for real life.
Finally, the debates on matching and mismatching teaching and learning styles have
been discussed. Suggestions have been made on how to match teaching and learning
styles, and the related criticisms also discussed. On the other hand, suggestions have
also been made on how to use mismatching to help learners, and the criticisms
interrogating this view have also been outlined. In the end, this research proposes that
teachers in rural secondary schools of Lesotho should find ways of matching their
teaching styles to their learners' learning styles to improve academic achievement. This
can be done by identifying the existing learning styles in class, with a focus on teaching
to these styles at different times of the lessons or in different lessons, and also using a
variety of teaching styles that cut across all learning styles dimensions at certain times,
to help learners overcome their challenges.
94
3.8. CONCLUSION
On the whole, teachers need to be aware of the teaching style theories and should
equip themselves with knowledge that can help them address learning styles of their
learners. Teachers also need to realize the pitfalls of subscribing too much to the notion
of learners having one dominant style that is fixed. Dasari (2006: 35) cautions that the
most serious undesirable side effect in using learning styles is that they are often
considered to be fixed by the teacher, and in this way it could limit the learners' ability to
learn in ways that do not fit their teaching style. Again, while focusing on matching
teaching and learning styles, it may also be worthwhile to attempt to expand a learner's
thinking by deliberately setting work outside his or her preferred learning style, to
improve academic achievement. The next chapter reviews the concept of academic
achievement and all that it entails with respect to learning.
95
CHAPTER4
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND ITS RELATION TO THE RURAL SCHOOLS OF
LESOTHO
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Achieving well academically is a very important aspect for any learner, especially for
learners in secondary schools and high schools, as decisions regarding their futures are
often based on their academic achievement (Calitz, 2001: 1). This idea applies in
countries like Lesotho where learners have to perform well in secondary and high
schools in order to be selected for entrance to higher learning institutions. In the
previous chapters, teaching and learning styles and matching the two to improve
academic achievement, were discussed. In this chapter, therefore, academic
achievement will be described and discussed with the focus on the context of rural
schools in Lesotho.
4.2 UNDERSTANDING ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
In the following section, academic achievement will be described in terms of its nature
and research issues related to its measurement. Factors that impact significantly on
academic achievement will also be highlighted later in this chapter.
4.2.1 Nature of academic achievement
A general theory of work performance articulated by Campbell and colleagues
(Campbell, 1990: 689) and the application of this general theory to the academic
performance domain (Kuncel, Hezlett, & Ones, 2001: 167; 2004: 152) will be considered
to describe academic achievement. This theory proposes that academic achievement is
a function of three direct proximal determinants: declarative knowledge (knowledge of
96
facts and procedures), procedural knowledge (the skill to do what is required in a
situation), and motivation (the willingness to engage in and sustain a high level of effort
in completing the task). The theory is also characterized by a series of indirect and more
distal determinants, such as cognitive ability, interests, personality; and education,
training and experience. The effects of these distal determinants on achievement are
fully mediated by the three direct determinants. In other words, effective performance on
a dimension of a learner's achievement is directly a function of task-relevant knowledge
and skill and the immediate willingness to engage in a high level of effort that is
sustained over time.
Secondly, the theory describes academic achievement in terms of two stages of
performance that can lead to achievement. The first stage includes the behaviours
involving studying, time management and avoidance of behaviours that could inhibit
classroom success. Successful performance at this stage involves effectively engaging
in behaviours related to knowledge and skill acquisition, such as studying,
communicating with peers, choosing to read at the library to avoid distractions and so
on. On this note, Kuncel and Crede (2008: 15) contend that learners must act to
acquire knowledge (study, practice, integrate, retain) before it can be translated into
performance on a test or exam. Therefore, this stage of performance determines the
amount of knowledge and skill acquired.
In the second stage, the accumulated knowledge and skills are assessed in exams,
during presentations and in written papers. Performance at this stage involves the
actual evaluation (taking the exams, giving the presentation, etc). Performance at the
second stage determines grades and is the most observable aspect of learners'
performance in learning, which could be regarded as their academic achievement.
Moving away from the theory above, Calitz (2001: 7) asserts that academic
achievement can be viewed as the degree to which learners are able to attain a
standardized academic goal or, in other words, the degree to which learners master
those tasks which they are expected to master for the respective academic year. This
definition implies that individuals perceive achievement or performance in terms of
standards of excellence. Kennedy (as cited in Mekgwe, 1998: 14) relates it to
97
achievement test scores and teacher-given grades and percentages in academic
subjects. In the same way, the academic achievement of learners in this research is
represented by the end-af-year examination marks of Form C learners in their
respective schools selected for the study.
Numerous methodological problems exist that relate to the determination of the.
predictive relationship between academic achievement and other variables (Mokoena,
1997: 27). The biggest problem area is, however, related to the operational definition
and measurement of academic achievement with a consistent standard of judgement.
Stott (1950: 107) and Schaefer (1996: 28) used five operational elements in an attempt
to confront this challenge. These elements are:
• Satisfactory academic progress: Performance that leads to the completion of a
given course or career.
• Academic competence: Satisfactory quantitative and qualitative performance in
studies.
• Academic satisfaction: verbalizing sufficient satisfaction with academic
competence, work or progress.
• Fitness
• Satisfactory adjustment to learning content/ activities or environment.
According to Stott, academic achievement is defined in terms of good interrelatedness
and harmonious integration of all the above-mentioned elements. He also cautions that
it is common practice to determine academic achievement with reference to the first two
elements that involve objectivity only. This objectivity is achieved in terms of using
standardized tests and examinations to measure academic achievement. In this case
subjectivity, which is viewed in terms of the learners' perceptions about the academic
activities, environment and self-image, is compromised.
Entwistie and Ramsden (1983: 25); Biggs, Kember and Leung (2001: 142) concur with
the notion above, and indicate that better learning and satisfactory academic
achievement is determined according to the following criteria:
98
• The quality of understanding
• Satisfaction
• Self-rated performance
• Long-term memory of factual material
• Degree results
• Course marks
• Examinations
High scores with reference to all of the above criteria imply high academic achievement
as evidenced by research in America, Australia, Britain and Sweden (Mokoena, 1997:
29). Furthermore, measures such as a test, end of quarter, semester, year or final
examination results, still remain the primary indicators of academic achievement as
evidenced in a significant majority of related studies (Kreitler, Ziegier, Kagan, Olsen,
Weissler, & Kreitler, 1995: 299; Tinajero & P'aramo, 1997: 206). This is the case despite
the criticisms that prevail on theoretical grounds of this issue.
In criticizing the use of exam results as indicators of academic achievement, Cox (as
cited in Mokoena, 1997: 29) emphasizes their lack of reliability and validity, which may
at times lead to the inconsistent assessment of the same 'learner on different occasions.
Supporting reasons are given for this criticism, and these are:
• The marking of essay-type questions often does not have enough checks and
balances against subjectivity by the markers.
• Different markers tend to use different criteria for marking essays. In extreme
cases, some allocate marks at random.
• Safeguards against variability in the quality or standard of questions overtime is
often lacking.
• The content covered and quantity of questions may not be an adequate sample
of the learners' full body of knowledge.
Mokoena (1997: 30) further indicates that other variables are claimed to undermine the
validity and reliability of exam marks. These variables include the combination of marks
from different subjects, such as mathematics and philosophy or combining marks
99
obtained by different assessment methods, such as essays or objective tests which
result in contrasting interpretations and meanings.
Despite the criticisms that exist, examination results can still be the appropriate indicator
of academic achievement, especially when they are properly used. Entwistie and Wilson
(1977: 34), and later, Farrington and Small (2006: 6) maintain that rescaling the marks,
i.e. making the numerical scales equivalent, can render exam marks more valid and
reliable than otherwise. This rescaling involves recalculating the scaled marks on the
assumption that the various marked subjects have an equal standard deviation (mean
and distribution of marks). Teachers would, however, need skills to rescale the marks of
their learners, and thus training would be required.
Lastly, Mokoena (1997: 27) contends that academic achievement is an index, not only
of the learners' ability and learning effectiveness, but also of the impact teaching has on
the respective learners being taught. Therefore it may be of importance that teachers in
the rural schools of Lesotho review their teaching styles and methods to address
academic achievement that was recorded to be low over the past years. On the other
hand, it is also important to review the factors and challenges of academic achievement
in Lesotho.
4.3 FACTORS AND CHALLENGES OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN LESOTHO
There are a number of factors within the learner and within the learning context that
affect the academic achievement of individual learners. Researchers relate academic
achievement to psychological, physiological, socio-economic and educational system
factors (Motsau, 1990: 8); internal and external factors (Brimer & Pauli, 1971: 63);
cognitive, biographical, affective and social factors (Calitz, 2001: 4); and school-related,
learner-related and parent-related factors (Lecroy & Krysik, 2008: 197). There seems to
be some overlapping among the above-mentioned factors. Therefore, for this research,
learner-related, parent-related and school-related factors will be considered.
100
4.3.1 Learner-related factors
In schools, not every learner achieves a standard of excellence academically due to
many variables. Some learners may never develop true formal operational thinking
because of either limited mental, physical or learning abilities; or environmental and
cultural limitations (Mekgwe, 1998: 14). In this section, some of the factors that
influence academic achievement are reviewed. These factors include certain cognitive
processes and structures, motivation and interest, self concept of ability and other
factors, such as gender and discipline. Learners in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho may achieve high or low as a result of the characteristics they possess with
regard to the factors mentioned above. Therefore, reviewing the factors influencing
academic achievement would assist teachers in knowing which aspects to consider,
when matching teaching and learning styles to improve academic achievement.
4.3.1.1 Cognitive Factors
Cognitive theorists, with regard to academic achievement, link cognition with the ability
of an individual to think and reason logically with understanding (Tsepa, 2008: 30).
Cognitive factors include information processing, concept formation and intellectual
development, cognitive styles and the learning styles.
a) Information processing
Information processing involves different types of data coding (Das, Kirby &
Jarman, 1979: 12) and levels of data coding processes (Biggs, 1993: 4) that
underlie different styles of thinking that influence learning styles and approaches.
Mokoena (1997: 34) indicates that information processing accounts for the
internal factors of an individual learner that affect the learning process and
learning styles of each individual. This idea implicates that it cannot be assumed
that all learners in the rural schools of Lesotho will process information presented
to them in the same way.
101
b) Concept formation
Concepts are non-personal and non-evaluative devices whereby objects or
events are classified. The basic universal characteristic features of objects or
events, which may either be concrete or abstract, serve to classify concepts into
concrete and abstract correspondingly. But the abstract idea of a concept can
apparently be established only after the formation of a concrete one (Mokoena,
1997:43). In this case, conceptualization might be significant in learning in
general as well as learning styles and academic achievement in that people may
develop or construct networks of interrelated concepts that enable them to render
their experiences meaningfully, store information and communicate ideas.
c) Intellectual development
Intellectual development in learners occurs simultaneously during the
construction of concepts. When developing intellectually, learners acquire mental
operations that facilitate the manipulation and formation of interrelationships
between the contents of the long-term memory (Mokoena, 1997: 44). Piaget in
(Piaget & Inhelder, 1969: 34; Antherton, 2005a: 2) perceives cognitive
development in terms of periods and stages that are related to distinctive
progressive and qualitative changes in intellectual functioning. These changes
result from both associations and, most importantly, from the internal
organization and adaptation of conceptual structures. Consequently, these
changes may also influence learners' level of understanding and acquisition of
new knowledge and skills, thus affecting academic achievement. Furthermore,
Tsepa (2008:30) is of the opinion that intellectual development refers to the
changes that occur in children's mental skills and abilities over time, that enable
learners to perform well in learning.
d) Cognitive styles
Cognitive styles refer to the preferred way in which an individual processes
information, which is different from how other individuals process information
(Calitz, 2001: 13). This implies that cognitive styles determine how learning
102
material will be manipulated by each individual learner, and that for each
individual to develop cognitively, all aspects of their perception should be used
effectively.
Both Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences and Vygotsky's theory of Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD) provide significant insight into the development of
cognitive styles. According to these theorists, cognitive styles are more
concerned with process differences in thinking, rather than with differences in
intellectual abilities. According to De Villiers (1996: 136), Vygotsky's theory of
cognitive development centres around the idea that higher levels of thinking are
dependant on social transactions and a social relationship with a mediator, while
the internalizing of regulative processes is necessary for effective individual
learning. In other words, there is a difference between what a child is capable of
achieving individually and what a child is capable of achieving with the guidance
of the mediator. Vygotsky (as cited De Villiers, 1996: 137) called this relationship
the zone of proximal development which he defined as the distance between the
actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the
level of potential development as determined through problem solving under
adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. This implies that
social relationship and interactions might be vital determinants for the
development of cognitive styles. In the rural secondary schools of Lesotho,
teachers might need to use classroom and learning activities that reinforce social
relationships and interaction as a way of enhancing the cognition of their
learners.
On the other hand, Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences focuses on the
content of learning that influences the process of thinking and the development of
cognitive styles (Silver, Strong & Perini, 1997:24). According to Gardner in Gregg
(1997:146), different ways of processing information are presented by different
systems. On this note, Gardner postulated that learning should be structured
around all eight modes of thinking so that learners could be exposed to a variety
103
of methods of processing information. These modes of thinking are referred to as
multiple intelligences, namely:
o The spatial intelligence: It allows learners to perceive the visual-spatial
world accurately and represent this world internally in their minds. In the
classroom, teachers can accommodate this intelligence by giving learners
some opportunities to draw maps, pictures, diagrams and charts; and to
make models.
• The bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: it tends to encourage learners to
use their body parts to solve problems and express ideas. Teachers can
incorporate the use of drama, role-play, and hands-on activities in their
lessons, to accommodate this intelligence.
• The musical intelligence: Learners have the ability to think in and hear
music almost continuously, and to remember and transform musical
patterns. During lessons, teachers can have learners sing, learn tunes;
and play background music.
• The linguistic intelligence: This intelligence allows learners to use oral
or written language effectively to learn and express ideas. Learners should
be provided opportunities to read and write stories, letters, assignments;
and debate.
• The logical-mathematical intelligence: It fosters logical reasoning and
the use of numbers and mathematical operations. Teachers, in addressing
this intelligence, could have learners draw and interpret maps; and solve
puzzles. Concepts can also be presented to learners in mathematical form
so that they understand them better.
104
• The interpersonal intelligence: Encourages sensitivity to other people's
moods and feelings, allowing understanding and correct interpretation of
verbal and non-verbal behaviours. Learners should have opportunities to
lead and participate in discussions, ask and answer questions during and
after lessons.
• The intrapersonal intelligence: It facilitates self-awareness and allows
learners to understand and act in accordance with their own challenges
and strengths. In this case, teachers can have learners work in small
groups and alone to solve problems.
• The naturalistic intelligence: In this intelligence, sensitivity to one's
natural surrounding is fostered. To accommodate this intelligence in
learning, teachers can have learners work outside their classrooms, ask
them to find origins or incorporate excursions to naturally reserved areas.
The above-mentioned multiple intelligences imply that teachers in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho may need to understand and realize the pattern of
thinking among their 'learners, with an aim of improving the learning process and
academic achievement. According to Rosa (2004: 34) teachers have neglected
to attach the necessary importance of cognitive styles in curriculum development
and teaching approaches. Therefore, while teachers attempt to address the
learning styles of their learners, it may also be important to gather knowledge on
both cognitive styles and learning styles.
4.3.1.2 Motivation
One of the most popular explanations of learners' failure is that they lack motivation.
Much of the chronic failure of learners can be understood as reflecting problems in
motivation. According to Motsau (1990: 21) far too many learners perform poorly in
school, not due to lack of intellectual abilities, but because they have low expectations,
feel hopeless, lack interest or give up in the face of potential failure.
105
Of course there are a number of researchers who have investigated the relationship
between motivation and academic achievement. Motivation could, according to
Entwistie (1981: 176) and Springer (2008: 1), refer to anything or a drive that motivates/
compels people to act or behave in a certain purposeful way. It is greatly influenced by
what people want to achieve in order to satisfy their needs. Zane (1987: 36) and Ahmed
(2002: 1) contend that motivation is a primary requirement in any teaching-learning
situation. In the school context, it includes variables which influence the learners' active
attitude and independent interest in learning. Zane (1987: 45) further indicates that
motivation to learn and study relates to the learners' intention to put in some effort to
perform a learning task. In fact, Caprara et al. (2000: 305) emphasize that motivational
and other self-regulatory factors account for a good share of the variance in academic
achievement.
Motivation can also be described in terms of its classification, in which each class or
kind of motivation has certain influences on individuals with regard to learning. Ryan
and Oeci (2000: 61) outline the taxonomy of motivation, and this is illustrated in Figure
4.1 below.
Figure 4.1: A taxonomy of human motivation: Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation
REGULATORY ~ 1:,',
STYLES ~
ASSOCIATED Percei ved non- Saliance of Ego involvement Conscious valuing Hierarchical
PROCESSES contingency Interest/extrinsic Focus on of activity synthesis of
Low perceived rewards or Enjoymentapproval from Self-endorsement goals
competence pubishments Inherentself or others of goals Congruence
Nonrelevance satisfactionCompliance!
Nonintentionality Reactance
PERCEIVED Impersonal External Somewhat Somewhat Internal Internal
LOCUS OF External Internal
CAUSALITY
106
Adapted from Ryan and Deci (2000:62)
From the above diagram, amotivation refers to the state of not being motivated at all. In
motivation, the most basic distinction is between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic
motivation. Intrinsic motivation refers to doing something because it is inherently
interesting and enjoyable whilst extrinsic motivation refers to doing something because
it leads to a separable outcome (Ryan & Deci, 2000: 62). Other researchers such as
Motsau (1990: 22) and Shatter (1999: 448) distinguish among three kinds of motivation,
namely intrinsic, extrinsic and achievement motivation
• Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation depends on seeing the task as relevant and interesting in its
own right. It is the desire, interest, intention and attitude to do something which is
inspired from within a person (Matiwane, 2001: 28; Department of Education
Directorate, 2002: 40). People who are intrinsically motivated work on tasks
because they find them enjoyable and because they believe that participation in
a task will give desirable results. Entwistie (1981: 178) postulates that in intrinsic
motivation, the drive is inherent in the task itself or satisfies an inner need and
that the internal need satisfaction in turn leads to increased motivation, interest
and self-confidence.
Ministry of Education (as cited in Tsepa, 2008: 36) argues that intrinsic
motivation may depend on learners finding activities challenging or on learners'
curiosity being stimulated by activities that are surprising or it may also derive
from learners' experiencing a sense of control over their learning. This intrinsic
motivational tendency is a critical element in cognitive, social and physical
development, because it is through acting on one's inherent interests that one
grows in knowledge and skills. People are intrinsically motivated for some
activities and not others, and not everyone is intrinsically motivated for any
particular task (Ryan & Deci, 2000: 56). Intrinsic motivation therefore could be
107
one of the factors influencing academic achievement in the rural schools of
Lesotho.
To support learners with intrinsic motivation in the classroom, teachers may set
goals for learning and explain or show why learning a particular content or skill is
important. At the same time, teachers can also relate learning to learners' needs
to maintain and create curiosity (Ryan & Deci, 2000: 63). Table 4.1 illustrates the
type of activities and the environments that teachers may use to support learners
with intrinsic motivation in their classes.
Table 4.1: Activities and environments that support intrinsic motivation
Condition Support for intrinsic motivation
II Activities that - Allow a sense of autonomy
- Stimulate a sense of competence
- Stimulate curiosity
- Present optimal challenges
- Are freely chosen
- Allow acknowledgement of feeling
II Environments that - Provide competence promoting feedback
- Involve supportive personal relationships
- Are safe and provide a sense of security
- Are free from demeaning evaluations
Adapted from Ryan and Deci (2000:63)
• Extrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation occurs as a result of the use of external factors, such as
some incentive, reward or punishment which lie outside the task itself (Entwistle,
1981: 179; Matiwane, 2001: 11; Tsepa, 2008: 36). The incentive or reward can
108
be in a form of an award for doing well in an examination or the marks
themselves, while punishment can be any action taken by teachers or parents as
a way of showing disapproval for learners' poor performance.
In fact, Motsau (1990: 21) and Owen and Taljaard (1989: 58) hold the view that if
learners know that they can earn rewards based on what they have
accomplished, this instills a sense of self-efficacy for performing well, a sense
which is validated as they work and perceive that they are making progress. This
implies that rewards are motivational because learners expect that behaving in a
given way will be rewarded and that this may lead them to act in ways that will
bring about good academic achievement. Teachers in the rural schools could use
certain incentive measures to improve their learners' interest in learning.
With an attempt of supporting extrinsic motivation, teachers may need to provide
clear expectations of the tasks and content and also provide corrective feedback
on tasks and assignments (Ryan & Deci, 2000: 64). Table 4.2 below illustrates
the type of activities and environments that may be used to support learners with
extrinsic motivation.
Table 4.2 Activities and Environments that support extrinsic motivation
Condition Support for extrinsic motivation
• Activities that - Involve goals imposed by others
- Involve deadlines and pressures
- Involve tangible rewards given only on the
basis of task performance
• Environments that - Involve extrinsic rewards
- Involve pressured evaluations
- Involve threats or directives to perform
Adapted from Ryan and Deci (2000: 63)
109
With regards to intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, Motsau (1990: 22) suggests
that teachers need to use as much of the activities and environments that
support both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as possible to support all learners'
motivational needs.
• Achievement motivation
The individual plays a very important role in his own motivation in terms of his
goals, expectations, self-confidence and interests. When a task is not perceived
as important by the learner, amotivation may result. Learners' beliefs about their
success on specific tasks, their competence and the desire associated with
participation in the tasks all influence their willingness to engage and the amount
of effort to put in the tasks (Springer, 2008: 3). Shaffer (1999: 449) contends that
achievement motivation is described in terms of three types of goals to achieving,
namely: the mastery, performance and social goals. Mastery goals focus on
gaining competence or mastering a new set of knowledge of skills. In this case
learners feel that they can learn or have the ability to learn, and they desire to
become a master in the area. Learners with mastery learning are more motivated
to learn and are more likely to work harder in the classroom (Springer, 2008: 3).
Performance goals refer to the fact that the main purpose of some learners'
learning is not to become a master in the specific learning task, but to perform
well in front of others, to impress others, or to do well without a lot of effort.
These goals relate closely to social goals, which focus on relationships among
people or learners (Shaffer, 1999: 449; Springer, 2008: 3).
Therefore, teachers might need to put less emphasis on performance and social
goals which focus on social comparison or competition and lead to avoidance of
deep learning and negative effects of achievement motivation. On the contrary,
teachers might need to assign learners to appropriately challenging and
meaningful academic work, evaluate learners in a manner that emphasizes and
rewards improvement and growth within themselves, and provide learners with
more choice and autonomy in the classroom. Moreover, teachers can motivate
110
learners to achieve if the learning experience fuifiIIs the learners' needs for
competence, intrinsic interest, extrinsic rewards and social support (Owen &
Taljaard, 1989: 40). These perspectives imply that all kinds of motivation are
important for learners in the acquisition of good academic achievement.
On the other hand, Brophy and Everton (cited in Motsau, 1990: 21) contend that
there is a strong interaction between achievement motivation and the effects of
praise and criticism on learners. Those with high achievement and a generally
successful record of achievement responded better to criticism than to praise,
while those with lower academic achievement motivation and lower actual
achievement responded much better to praise than to criticism. According to
these researchers, a learner who is accustomed to success expects success and
is capable of achieving success with reasonable effort, tends to respond well to
criticism for failure that results from lack of effort or persistent application of skills.
In contrast, a learner who is accustomed to failure expects failure and has
difficulty in mastering tasks even if he persists long and hard. Such a learner is
also much more likely to be negatively affected by criticism.
Besides the individual and teacher influences, the home setting and peer
relationship also influence the achievement motivation of learners. With regards
to home setting, learners who are securely attached to their parents and care-
givers are more likely to solve problems successfully, have a strong sense of
curiosity and eagerness to learn than otherwise (Shaffer, 1999: 452; Matiwane,
2001: 39-41). Again, learners' tendency to be motivated in exploring, acquiring
new skills and solving problems also depends on the type of challenges the
home environment provides (Springer, 2008: 5). That is, if learners are given
challenging tasks at home and succeed in those tasks, they may develop
confidence and willingness to do more, even at school. Moreover, child-rearing
practices, such as independence training, setting standards and providing
encouragement may have influences on achievement motivation. According to
Shaffer (1999: 452) and Springer (2008: 6), when parents provide enough
111
encouragement and realistic expectations for their children, the children tend to
perform better with their school work and the quality of the parent-child and
parent-school relationship also influences adolescents' motivation and school
success.
Lastly, peer interactions and relationship in school may also affect motivation.
According to Shaffer (1999: 453) and Matiwane (2001:17), peer support
motivates children to co-operate, be socially responsible and follow classroom
rules. Learners' attitudes towards the classroom can vary depending on the
attitudes of their friends. Learners also tend to associate with peers who have the
same motivational characteristics.
The above notion implies that teachers should provide opportunities for learners
to work in co-operative groups in the classroom to fuifiII their relatedness and
connection needs. Teachers can also allow learners to complete assignments
with friends. When teachers focus only on independent work and do not provide
opportunities for learners to work together, students' needs for relatedness may
not be fulfilled and some learners might feel forced to choose between academic
achievement and social needs.
All in all, extrinsic, achievement, and intrinsic types of motivation are associated
with poor, good and excellent academic achievement respectively (Mokoena,
1997: 56). This implies that teachers and parents in the rural places of Lesotho
may need to provide learners with support that will compensate for other aspects
of motivation they may be lacking. Glasser (cited in Motsau, 1990: 21) indicates
that where children come from homes in which failure is part of the home and
neighborhood environment, deficient motivation led to no motivation or anti-
motivation. Thus, such children fail in school, usually locking themselves into
failure for life.
112
4.3.1.3 Self-concept and Learning ability
According to Mekgwe (1998: 19) it is perfectly clear that learners cannot achieve at any
level without the necessary ability, but that ability does not need to be as high as it is
generally believed to be. This means it is possible for one learner with a high
Intelligence Quotient (I.Q) to fail his or her studies while another one with a low I.Q.
gains good marks, provided that he or she possesses other attributes which enable
effective study and provided the opportunity to exercise those attributes is created.
Calitz (2001: 17) supports the idea that learners of low measured abilities sometimes
complete their studies while some of the most promising fall by the wayside. Indeed,
Caprara et al. (2000: 305) postulate that ability is not a fixed property, but rather a
generative capability in which self-referent, motivational, affective and self-regulatory
factors operate as influential factors. That is, individuals with the same intellectual ability
may perform poorly, adequately, or skillfully depending on pre-existing or experimentally
instilled beliefs of intellectual efficacy.
Ability is also influenced by the learners' self-concept. Studies have shown that learners
who believe in themselves, in their worth as individuals and in their ability to do what is
expected of them, develop high levels of learning ability and reach required levels of
achievement more easily than otherwise (Clarke- Steward & Koch, 1983: 53; Motsau,
1990: 19). On the other hand, learners who experience failure for a long period of time
may feel helpless and give up on their learning. When learners are doing poorly at
school, their teachers, parents and peers may conclude falsely that they are untalented
or even stupid. These learners may be depressed and learned helplessness and this
behaviour may be preventing them from fulfilling their potentials. Learned helplessness
is defined by Shaffer (1999: 455) and Seligman (as cited in Maier, Peterson & Schwartz,
2000: 1) as a tendency to give up or to stop trying after failing, because these failures
have been attributed to a lack of ability that one can do little about. These learners do
not complete work. They give up quickly when faced with a task that is difficult for them
and become anxious when they must read aloud or take a test.
113
Maier et al. (2000: 16) revised the learned helplessness as it applies to people by
proposing that when individuals encounter an uncontrollable event, they ask themselves
why. The answers people give to this question and the causal attribution they entertain
sets the parameters for the helplessness that results. That is, if the attributed cause is
stable ("it's going to last forever") rather than unstable, then helplessness would be
long-lasting. If it is global ("it's going to undermine everything") rather than specific, then
helplessness would be general. And if the causal attribution were internal ("it's me")
rather than external, then helplessness would be accompanied by a loss of self-esteem.
The pattern of causal attributions for a particular instance of uncontrollability would
affect a person's expectations for the future. And these expectations would in turn affect
the self concept and self-esteem of a learner.
In fact, Caprara et al. (2000: 305) contend that perceived academic, social and self-
regulatory efficacy and academic aspirations foster learners' academic achievement
and their occupational trajectories. This idea means that once learners in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho are convinced they cannot learn the task of teachers in
matching teaching and learning styles may not yield the expected improvement in
academic achievement. Therefore, to address learned helplessness, teachers can use
attribution-training in which a learner is persuaded to attribute his/her failures to
unstable causes, such as insufficient effort, that he/she can do something about. The
other way of addressing learner-helplessness is by giving learners a success-only
therapy in which they work on problems they could solve and receive tokens for their
successes. Parents in this regard may also contribute by using tokens or any other form
of incentives that could improve on their children's self concept (Shaffer, 1999: 456).
4.3.1.4 Gender and sex-role influences
It has been discovered by a number of studies that gender differences do, indeed, play
a role with respect to academic achievement. Bland (2001: 2) asserts that males are
more vulnerable to problems, such dyslexia and hyperactivity, both of which are
exacerbated by lack of hemispheric co-ordination: their compartmentalized thinking
enables them to isolate specific problems as they attempt to solve them. Hence males
114
are more likely to excel in mathematics, mechanics and engineering, while females are
able to take a more holistic view and are more likely to integrate logic emotion. In this
case, females' performance seems to be affected more by motivation than ability
(Mokoena, 1997: 58).
Again, Hannan (2007: 3) further reveals that males generally have better right
hemispheres which dispose them towards spatial tasks, such as map-reading or
interpreting technical drawings. Females on the other hand have developed left
hemispheres which explains why they learn to speak earlier than males and are often
more adept at languages. On this note, Craig (1996: 24) and Mokoena (1997: 58)
indicate that girls tend to be more verbal and articulate than boys, and boys more
proficient on mechanical reasoning and spatial relations than girls, with verbal
differences becoming more marked in the late childhood and early adolescence.
On the other hand, sex-roles can also play an influential role in the development of
certain cognitive abilities. Calitz (2001: 14) argues that as boys grow up, they identify
with the notion that they should excel at mathematics, and thus often do, while girls,
however, learn that mathematics ability is not an acceptable feminine trait and tend to
avoid mathematics. Additionally, Bielby and Doherty (1990: 23) are of the opinion that
the sex differences that are evidenced with respect to intellectual abilities can arise or
be accentuated by sex-role biases that are embedded not only in the society as a
whole, but also in the classroom as well. This internal bias can lead the teacher to treat
males and females differently within the same classroom setting, and in doing so,
provide boys and girls an unequal quality of education.
On the whole, teachers may need to understand the influences of gender differences
and sex-roles in the way learners approach learning so as to try and eliminate practices
that promote inequality in education. Sometimes it may be that learners possess certain
learning styles or prefer certain styles over others as a result of sex-role influences in
their culture and environments. Therefore it could be of good benefit that teachers in the
rural schools of Lesotho become aware of such influences in order to enhance the
115
learners' weak learning styles, while also maximizing their potentials in the preferred
and strong learning styles.
4.3.1.5 Discipline
Indiscipline at schools has become a matter of concern to many educationists across
the globe. According to The American Heritage (2000), indiscipline refers to lack of
discipline or restraint. At Brent in England, part of the blame for shockingly poor
examination results in 1984 was for example put on the lack of discipline in schools
(Wilce, as cited in Motsau, 1990: 18). Again, a national survey of violence and
vandalism in 642 public secondary schools in the USA demonstrated that schools with
above average proportions of academically uninterested learners were also schools
with high rates of attacks against teachers and learners (Motsau, 1990: 18). Moreover,
Boyens (1990) indicates that education in black public secondary schools in Africa,
especially in South Africa, is being compromised by indiscipline and behavioural
problems that cause poor learning environments. This is also the case in Lesotho,
where discipline problems in secondary schools is an issue of concern to teachers and
parents who contend that learners fail to achieve reasonably at school because of
indiscipline and behavioural problems (Mulkeen, 2005: 21).
On the other hand, society expects schools to be orderly and to produce well-educated,
well-behaved people. Public concern about school results, learner misbehaviour and
dysfunctional schools are often reported in the media and are the subject of widespread
debate (Tsepa, 2008: 34). According to Squelch (2000: 1) discipline does not happen by
chance and needs to be purposefully managed. She further ascertains that although
there are various reasons for learners' misbehaviour, the school environment is as
much a factor as the home environment. Therefore it is necessary to create a positive,
disciplined school environment aimed at preventing disciplinary problems.
On the notion above, Squelch (2000: 4-5) suggests that a whole school behaviour policy
should be developed which should be based on the following aims:
116
• To develop an opportunity to put shared values about the ways school
communities should behave into practice.
• To develop a positive reputation for the school community.
• To enable all members of the school community to behave appropriately towards
each other and to co-operate in the teaching and learning environment.
• To provide the positive school ethos, conducive to teaching and learning.
• To enable each learner to have an appropriate environment for learning and
each teacher to have a suitable environment for teaching.
• To define what is meant by appropriate and inappropriate behaviour.
• To enable appropriate rewards and punishments to be developed.
Teachers in rural secondary schools can use these guidelines to develop their policy on
discipline, in an attempt to minimize the influence of indiscipline on academic
achievement. Following the above discussion on learner-related factors, it is evident
that learners' factors that influence academic achievement may be intellectual or non-
intellectual, but surely both contribute to a learner's academic achievement (Duckworth
& Seligman, 2005: 939). Understanding and addressing all these factors, teachers may
enhance academic achievement in the rural schools of Lesotho. On the other hand,
there are other factors besides those that are learner-related, that might also influence
learners' academic achievement. In the next section, parent-related factors will be
reviewed.
4.3.2 Parent-related factors
According to LeCroy and Krysik (2008: 197) earlier research concerning lower
academic achievement among minority populations focused, among other factors, on
parent-related factors. These factors include the socio-economic status of parents,
parental involvement in their children's education and parents' education level.
117
4.3.2.1 Socio-economic status
Motsau (1990: 22) states that socio-economic status is generally strongly linked with the
quality of the area in which families live, the access they have to the area's schools of
their choice, and also with the academic achievement of learners in schools. In the
same way, Lesotho Ministry of Education and Training (2005: 42) has indicated that
underlying the education crisis, are socio-economic problems of an enormous scale:
grinding poverty and massive unemployment place education beyond the reach of most
learners in the rural schools of Lesotho.
Again, Jubber (1988: 290) revealed in his study that the poorest homes proportionally
produce more underachievers than average and rich homes. He further contended that
family income contributed directly or indirectly to a child's cognitive development. That
is, its effects relate to such things as the relationship between income and nutrition,
health, quality of school attended, pre-school education, the quality of home, such as
information environment and the ability of the family to supply all kinds of educational
support, equipment and experiences which foster school success.
According to LeCroy and Krysik (2008: 198) in most developing countries, there are
inadequate numbers of centres of learning and other facilities to meet the educational
needs of the population as a result of economic barriers. These inadequacies in
provision are also linked to other factors, such as urban/rural disparities, as well as
those arising from discrimination on grounds such as gender, race and disability.
Beyond issues of inadequacy of services by discrimination, the Department of
Education (2002: 44) argues that lack of access to services, such as welfare and
communication also affects the learning process and leads to learning breakdown.
Transport and other basic services such as access to clinics also impinge on the
learning process and academic achievement of learners. In Lesotho's rural areas,
learners are, for example unable to reach schools because of lacking transport that is
caused by poor roads. This sometimes leads to absentees in schools, especially during
rainy days, and thus promoting academic underachievement.
118
Closely linked to the lack of access to basic services is the effect which sustained
poverty has on learners. Under-nourishment leads to a lack of concentration and a
range of other symptoms which affect the ability of the learner to engage effectively in
the learning process (Department of Education, 2002: 133). With this problem
prevailing, academic achievement becomes low, especially in the rural schools of
Lesotho which are characterized by poverty (Lesotho Government Gazette, 1994: 55).
To address this problem of academic underachievement, it is important for teachers to
improve on other factors that could enhance achievement, such as matching teaching
and learning styles.
4.3.2.2 Parental involvement
Calitz (2001: 17) indicates that parental involvement and parental attitude are crucial
factors affecting the young person's desire to finish a high school education. On the
other hand, parents want their children to become successful and caring adults and try
to be involved with the formal education of their children. In the Lesotho Ministry of
Education and Training (2005:40) there are, however, concerns about the fact that
sometimes parents do not know how to make contributions and positive connections
with the school, especially in rural areas. This is why, in most cases, learners attain
poor academic achievement when they leave secondary schools.
According to Mqhatazane, Mokhethi and Anderson (1979: 89) and the Lesotho Ministry
of Education and Training (2005: 40) it is observed that parents' involvement in their
learners' education is mostly confined to paying school fees and other school fares, and
they fail to follow their learners actual learning at both school and home. These
researchers also suggest that in the complex world of education, it takes more than a
good school and often a good home as well to educate children. Both family and school,
as educational institutions, should work together in providing quality education.
There is an increasing recognition within developmental, educational and sociological
theories that both school and home are important institutions that socialize and educate
children. The family (parents in particular) has been described as playing a central role
119
in the social, psychological and academic development of children and adolescents
(Lesotho Ministry of Education and Training, 2005: 30). In the process of socialization,
children internalize the reflected appraisals expressed towards them and come to
respond to themselves in a way that develops self-perceptions similar to those
expressed by the significant others in their lives, most importantly their parents (Lesotho
Ministry of Education and Training, 2005: 39). In other words, children define and
evaluate themselves in terms of how they perceive others to define and evaluate them.
In this case, if children perceive their parents' behaviour towards them as expressing
positive evaluation, such as being helpful, supportive and interested and a source of
encouragement, they may evaluate themselves positively, and thus may strive for the
best and obtain higher academic achievement.
Again, parents have a strong influence on the development of their children's
achievement motivation and their related expectations which are closely linked to
motivation (Mekgwe, 1998: 22). That is, children whose achievement, initiative and
competitiveness are reinforced by their parents are more likely to develop a high level of
achievement motivation. Still on this note, Zigarelli (1996: 104) states that the more
parents are involved in a school, the better the educational experience of the learners
and an improvement in overall academic achievement. In support to this notion,
Mathibeli (1996: 29) holds that the kind of attitude parents have towards their children's
education's education is a key determinant to their children's level of academic
achievement.
In Lesotho some parents, still have negative attitudes towards schooling and believe
that their sons and daughters should focus on domestic work, such as herding or house
chores to become good adults, while in some cases boys alternate between going to
school and herding the animals (Lesotho Ministry of Education and Training, 2005:
102). In this case, school attendance becomes very poor and may result in low
academic achievement.
Mekwe (1998: 19) holds that successful academic achievement appears to be greatly
influenced by good parenting skills, and that a prompt effective adult response to
learner's behaviour problems and learning problems early in secondary school may
120
short-circuit what otherwise may be a flow of negative school experiences and poor
academic achievement. When one parent, for example ignores his or her child's
questions, but another parent responds and assists the child, two different environments
are created. The first parent has created an environment that operates against learning
while the second one has promoted learning. In an attempt to improve academic
achievement, teachers in the rural schools of Lesotho may also need to advise parents
on how to support their children. Likewise, parents can also be informed of their
children's strong and weak learning styles and be advised to help them appropriately.
4.3.2.3 Parents' education level
It has been found by numerous researchers that a high education level of a learner's
parents is related to the learner's high academic achievement, while a low educational
level of parents is related to poor academic achievement (Moller, 1995: 88; Calitz, 2001:
24). Moller (1995: 88) further indicates that completion of secondary school education
on the part of the learner's parents is a significant indicator for the high academic
achievement of learners, while most of the learners whose parents have a tertiary
education are able to achieve even more than others.
According to Calitz (2001: 24) fathers who have higher qualifications are often able to
enrich their children's intellectual lives with their own knowledge, while those fathers
with lower qualifications find this enrichment harder to do. Highly qualified fathers are
likely to have a wide variety of books and magazines in their homes, which better equip
their children with resources that enable them to effectively complete projects and
assignments that are given at school. With regard to the rural places in Lesotho, only a
small percentage of fathers may have completed their education due to prominent
practices that have been prevailing in the past years, such as herding and ploughing,
while other parents seek employment in mines of the neighbouring countries at an early
age. As a result of these factors, it could be very difficult for parents in these places to
support their children, unless teachers give them the necessary support.
121
In the same way Motsau (1990: 27) and Calitz (2001: 25) contend that the mother's
education level has an impact on the academic achievement of the learner in that
learners, whose mothers possess higher education levels, perform better academically.
This notion they attribute not only to the fact that there is a likelihood of having good
resources available for the child in the home, but also to the fact that they found that
these mothers seem to be more involved with their children's day-to-day educational
activities.
In Lesotho, especially in rural places, many mothers may have low levels of education
because of the old Basotho tradition and custom that girls are supposed to practice
house chores in order to be good mothers, while women are supposed to look after the
family when men have gone out to work. In this case, there may be little educational
support for learners in the rural homes of Lesotho that could be compensated for by
teachers in schools as a means of improving academic achievement that is seemingly
low.
4.3.3 School-related factors
It can be expected that school related factors would have an impact on the academic
achievement of a learner, as it is in this environment that the child is expected to
perform the scholastic tasks and excel at them. The discussion in this section will focus
on the influence of factors, such as school facilities and infrastructure, teacher
qualifications, teaching styles, class size, medium of instruction, transition from primary
to secondary education and discipline on academic achievement. These factors will also
be considered with regard to the prevailing situations in the rural schools of Lesotho.
4.3.3.1 Facilities and teaching aids
Calitz (2001: 26) states that facilities and equipment made available to learners at
school play an important role in the academic achievement of such learners. According
to Calitz, the lack of facilities, such as libraries, laboratories and an adequate number of
122
classrooms and equipment, such as desks, scientific apparatus, computers and other
teaching aids, serve to lower the academic achievement of learners as their experience
of school is negative and their experiential learning opportunities are limited. Motsau
(1990: 13) concurs with the idea that in order to have a positive school environment that
encourages learning and improves academic achievement, the minimum requirements
for every school should include an adequate space for learning, an adequate number of
classrooms with no broken windows, doors and roofing, an equipped library and
adequate teaching materials.
According to Mtshali (2006: 44) the differences between urban and rural schools with
regard to the facilities and resources available to them, promote the inequality in the
level of academic achievement of learners. The Department of Education (2004: 35)
states that the rural schools of Lesotho are way behind in as far as provision of
infrastructure, availability of resources and facilities are concerned, and this fact
accounts for the poor learning activity and low academic achievement in those schools.
Additionally, in some of the rural schools that have many classrooms there are broken
windows and roofing, while in other schools, text books, classroom teaching aids and
scientific material are very limited. In these inappropriate learning situations, teaching
and learning may be hectic, and may require certain ways, such as improvising for the
teaching materials and also directing teaching to the needs of learners to improve
academic achievement.
4.3.3.2 Teacher qualifications
Many researchers, such as Mqhatazane et al. (1979: 23), Motsau (1990: 10), and
Mulkeen (2005: 10) have found that one of the main factors contributing to the poor
academic achievement of learners is the low calibre of teachers who teach them, as
well as the poor teaching methods and inappropriate teaching styles they employ.
In relation to the above-mentioned, Motsau (1990: 10) indicates that teachers in the
third world countries have tremendous academic and professional shortcomings that
result from poor professional guidance from higher learning institutes or as a result of
123
unqualified teachers who work in schools without the knowledge and skills that are
required. Such teachers become less competent in a classroom and also find it very
difficult to handle new materials. In the same way, Mqhatazane et al.(1979: 24) and the
Department of Education (2004: 23) found that poorly qualified teachers are among the
factors contributing most to the poor academic achievement of learners in Lesotho,
especially in the rural areas.
As it was stated earlier in this research, there are a very low percentage of qualified
teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. Among other reasons, this could be
caused by teacher deployment in Lesotho, which is based on the local hiring of
teachers. The Ministry of Education in Lesotho "grants" teachers to schools in relation to
the total school population and budget considerations. Once the school is granted a
post, the school management committee can select the teacher, and then paper work,
known as "the nomination form", is sent to the Teaching Service Commission (TSC) for
ratification and ultimate payment of salaries by the government.
According to Mulkeen (2005: 10) this local hiring system has a number of implications.
Firstly, teachers are not sent to schools; instead they apply to schools where they would
be willing to work. Schools do not have problems with teachers refusing postings;
therefore qualified teachers who are unwilling to work in rural areas do not apply for
posts in those areas. Instead, these qualified teachers compete for jobs in urban areas,
and so many of the rural schools recruit unqualified teachers. Secondly, the
appointment of teachers in schools favours local applicants more than teachers from
other outside areas. In this case, although posts are advertised, many schools have a
person in mind before they begin the selection process. In some cases this results in a
local person being appointed in preference to an outsider. These cases could even lead
to qualified teachers being rejected by the schools wishing to hire local, but unqualified
teachers.
The other reason for the low percentage of qualified teachers in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho is the lack of incentives for teachers (Mulkeen, 2005: 13). A teacher
who is employed in a rural secondary school receives an amount of 275 Maloti
(equivalent to Rand) per month, which is included in a teacher's salary. This amount,
124
however, is far too little in as much as it does not cover the travel expenses and the cost
of living in rural areas, and is thus too small to encourage qualified teachers to locate to
rural areas (Mulkeen, 2005: 13 and Tsepa, 2008: 48).
4.3.3.3 Teaching styles
Various authors castigate the teaching styles of some teachers as contributory to poor
academic achievement (Jacobs et al., 2004: 128). On this claim, Motsau (1990: 12)
contends that in-school and in-class differences in teaching style can affect
achievement and that schools inefficiently influence learners' levels of literacy and
academic achievement.
The significance of the relationship between the teaching styles and learning styles
merits more attention, because of the shift of emphasis from teacher-centred to learner-
centred learning (Mokoena, 1997: 59; Jacobs et al., 2004: 128). Several definitions and
descriptions of teaching style have been covered in chapter 3. From the researcher's
view point teaching style could, however, mean the persistent and pervasive way in
which a teacher prefers to structure and present the learning content in an attempt to
promote learning.
Mokoena (1997:59) distinguishes between the different classroom types that
characterize different teaching styles, as described by Solomon and KendalI (1979) and
Benett (1978). These classroom types are illustrated in Table 4.3 below.
Table 4.3 Classroom types as described by Solomon and KendalI, and Bennett
Classroom Solomon and KendalI Bennett classroom types
type classroom types
1. Permissive and uncontrolled with Integration of subject matter, learner
much learner autonomy. choice of work and where to sit; little
control of movement around
classroom, little emphasis on testing.
125
2. Warm and friendly, strongly Integration of subject matter, low
orientated towards learner teacher control, less freedom of choice
expressiveness and creativity on seats and work to do, little
(rather than traditional academic emphasis on testing.
outcomes) and moderate with
respect to teacher control and
learner autonomy.
3. Academically orientated, with Whole-class teaching and group work
individualized teacher-learner both used, but integrated subject
interaction. matter preferred.
4. Learner self-direction within a Separate subjects taught, but a good
controlled, disciplined and deal of freedom left to the learners.
somewhat impersonal setting.
5. Limited self-direction and little Separate subjects taught with an
formal assessment. emphasis on class teaching and
individual work. Little movement and
formal assessment allowed.
6. Hostile, arbitrary and Separate subjects, whole-class
regimented, but also somewhat teaching, individual work, little freedom
uncontrolled and disorganized of choice or movement allowed,
teaching and learning. corporal punishment used.
7. Controlled, disciplined, Extreme emphasis on formal methods
academically orientated and and control, but with emphasis on
supportive teaching and learning assessment rather than punishment.
environment.
Adapted from Mokoena (1997: 60)
The classroom types indicated above could be used by teachers in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho to select teaching methods, techniques, practices and environments
126
to use that could be appropriate to the teaching styles they have chosen to be matching
their learners' learning styles. Beside these classroom types, teachers could consider
differential factors and outcomes related to contrasting teaching styles, as indicated by
Dixon and Wool house (1996: 16) and Mokoena (1997: 62). These factors and outcomes
are as follows:
o Peak academic achievement is associated with controlled and disciplined
teaching styles while the poorest academic achievement to permissive and
uncontrolled teaching/ learning contexts.
• Teaching styles do not seem to be significantly related to the learners' aptitudes.
For example, learners with above average aptitude scores, particularly in verbal
reasoning, display consistently higher levels of academic achievement in spite of
exposure to contrasting teaching styles.
• Teaching styles, anxiety and academic achievement seem to interrelate
substantially. The less anxious learners learn more effectively by means of
facilitative or learner-centered exploratory approaches while the more anxious
learners learn better with didactic teacher-controlled and supportive approaches.
• A mismatch between teaching style and learning style seems to have detrimental
effects on attainment, and could either impede or even impair the learning
process.
• Teaching styles are reflective of teachers' learning styles and contrasting
underlying cognitive styles.
• It is possible for teachers to suffer from improvidence, and this could predispose
learners to suffer the same reasoning problem in relation to their learning styles.
127
The importance of optimal academic achievement by ensuring compatibility between
the teaching styles, methods and aids has been discussed in this section. Teachers
can use this literature to find ways suitable to the context in which they can best
address their learners learning styles. Most importantly, as discussed in previous
sections the shortage of teaching aids in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho is of
great concern, thus affecting the selection of teaching styles and methods used by
teachers, but these teachers should find ways of improvising and using the limited
resources they have to teach effectively according to the learning styles in their
classes.
4.3.3.4 Class size
Motsau (1990: 15) and Tsepa (2008:45) assert that as the class size increases, the
teacher-learner ratio also increases, and teachers manage to know a smaller
proportion of the total number of learners. Similarly, Khati (1993: 54-60) contends in
his study that the immediate effects of the increase in learner numbers are among
other factors that caused a serious shortage of classrooms. In turn, that led to
overcrowded classes and high teacher-learner ratios which resulted in a high drop-
out rate and poor academic achievement.
In accordance with Masitsa (2006: 20) conditions in many black schools are poor,
particularly in rural areas due to overcrowding. These conditions include shortage of
desks, shortage of instructional materials and teaching aids, and also limited
opportunity for individual attention from overloaded teachers. This overload makes
class management difficult, inhibits teacher-learner interaction and militates against
giving learners individual attention. This situation also applies to Lesotho, where
there are shortcomings in learning as a result of overcrowded classes in secondary
schools. According to the Lesotho Government Gazette (1994: 22), it is indicated
that teachers' workloads in overcrowded classes in Lesotho have become a
deterrent to teachers' effective teaching. Such workloads do not only pose a threat
128
to effective teaching, but also to effective evaluation and prompt feedback, while
revision of work done also becomes only remotely possible.
From the situation above, the class may become a breeding ground for
underachievers who work at a slow pace as a result of not receiving individual
attention, while the intelligent learners may also achieve poorly as a result of
teachers not being able to identify their strengths. Furthermore, teachers in the rural
schools of Lesotho may not be able to use certain teaching styles that match up with
their learners' styles as a result of a high classroom population and limited
instructional materials. Teachers could, however, in the meantime try to use some
techniques, such as group-work and peer-tutoring, even though such techniques
may have certain shortcomings.
4.3.3.5 Medium of instruction
In schools there is a choice as to which language will be used as the medium of
instruction. According to Calitz (2001: 27) this, however, places a number of
learners who do not speak the chosen language at a disadvantaged learning
situation, more especially when required to compete with learners who are native
speakers of the language. It can be expected that the language used by the school
will significantly influence the educational outcomes of the learner. This is so
because during the teaching and learning process learners express emotion, refer to
events and learn more about their world using their language (Lesotho Ministry of
Education and Training, 2005: 15). This notion implies that if the learner is unable to
understand what the teacher is saying in the classroom, the likelihood of capturing
that information is greatly reduced.
In Lesotho the medium of instruction is the English language from standard 5 at
primary level to Form E, which is the exit level of secondary education. In these
levels the proficiency of learners in English may yield good knowledge and
understanding of the English language, which is one of the subjects that is taught,
and vice versa. Matsaso (1995: 11) attributes the failure of English as a subject to
129
the lack of proficiency in English of the majority of the teachers, for whom English is
a second language in which they themselves were poorly taught. With the low
percentage of qualified teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho, as
indicated earlier, many teachers may be struggling to communicate clearly to
learners as a result of their limited proficiency in English. In this case, even if
teachers could match the teaching and learning styles, the effect might not be that
much, due to the communication breakdown brought about by language problems.
Therefore, while focusing on the match between teaching and learning styles, it
might be important for teachers to get adequate training in English proficiency.
4.3.3.6 Transition from primary to secondary school
A number of researchers are of the opinion that poor academic achievement in the
secondary school phase has its roots in the primary school (Motsau, 1990: 16;
Mulkeen, 2005: 7; Lesotho Ministry of Education and Training, 2005: 18). These
researchers indicate that elementary school success is a precondition for success in
the secondary school and that difficulties which were less acute during the primary
phase seem to re-surface in the secondary school. In the Lesotho Ministry of
Education and Training (2005: 42), it is indicated that roughly half of all learners who
make it to the entry level of the secondary phase (Form A), reach the exit level of the
junior secondary phase (Form C).
A number of reasons could negatively affect the quality of instruction in the primary
phase, which in turn might also influence learners to reach the secondary phase with
a lack of basic skills in learning. In the rural primary schools of Lesotho, there is a
shortage of classrooms and a lack of equipment and teaching aids as a result of
Free Primary Education (FPE). This situation leads to a tremendous increase in the
numbers of learners in classes who do not receive adequate instruction. The
increase in school populations has also promoted the employment of unqualified
teachers (Curriculum and Assessment Policy, 2008: 38). In this case, it may be
important that teachers in primary schools are provided with some training or
130
knowledge on learning and teaching styles which could improve the effectiveness of
learning. With this idea in mind, research on teaching and learning styles at primary
schools of Lesotho may be required.
4.3.3.7 Curriculum and aims of.education
According to Entwistie (as cited in Mokoena, 1997: 66), there are two viewpoints
regarding the overall aims of education, namely the narrow and broad viewpoints
respectively. The former is mainly didactic and aims primarily at the attainment of
vocational qualifications. In this narrow view, teaching approaches are characterized
by intellectual/learning control by the teacher, less learner involvement and
responsibility as well as the use of certain principles of learning such as
reinforcement. The broad view of educational aims is mainly facilitative in nature in
that it is aimed at preparing the learners for life by the promotion of individuality, self-
expression as well as self-actualization and intellectual growth. The teacher's role in
this case includes the selection of suitable teaching material, methods and styles
appropriate for the different intellectual and maturity levels of learners. Discovery-
learning and co-operative-Iearning are examples of teaching approaches essential
for effective learning (Jacobs et al., 2004: 209)
Until recently, the curriculum of Lesotho has been more teacher-centred. Rote
learning and traditional teaching methods, such as lecturing and the text-baak-based
approach, have been common practices during lessons (Lesotho Ministry of
Education and Training, 2005: 45). Currently, it is indicated in the Curriculum and
Assessment Policy of Lesotho (2008: 38) that the focus of teaching in the curriculum
has shifted more towards teaching and learning methods that can further develop
creativity, independence and life skills of learners. Hence teaching methods and
styles that are more learner-centred are encouraged. Mokoena (1997: 59) and
Jacobs et al. (2004: 128) emphasize that the significance of the relationship between
the teaching styles and learning styles merits more attention, because of the shift of
emphasis from teacher-centred to learner-centred learning.
131
The Curriculum and Assessment Policy (2008: 39), however, indicates that at
schools, teachers are still relying on didactic-orientated teaching methods. The
researcher's experience as a teacher also confirms that in the secondary schools of
Lesotho, teachers heavily rely on didactic teaching methods, such as lecturing and
whole-class teaching, which could be inappropriate for the learning styles of certain
learners. On this note, matching teaching and learning styles might be a positive
action to improve the learning process and academic achievement of learners.
4.4 CONCLUSION
This chapter was meant to give an insight on academic achievement with regard to
the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. It is therefore evident that there are various
factors that influence the rural schools of Lesotho other than the use of teaching
styles. The researcher's idea in this case, however, is that as much as each of the
factors discussed has an effect on academic achievement, improving the learning
process by matching teaching and learning styles will significantly improve academic
achievement in these rural schools (Moallem, 2007: 217).
In the following chapter the research design and methodology will be addressed.
132
CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter outlines the empirical methods that were used to gather data that is
relevant to the research questions stated. The aim of this chapter is to describe the
empirical research design, methods of data-collection, sampling of participants, method
of data-analysis and the demarcation of the study. The description of these components
of research methodology is directed at identifying learning and teaching styles in the
rural secondary schools of Lesotho, and determining the extent to which matches of the
identified teaching and learning styles yield high academic achievement.
5.2 PREPARING FOR THE EMPIRICAL STUDY
Prior to conducting the empirical study, the researcher analyzed literature with respect
to the issues that relate to teaching and learning styles. After this analysis of literature,
the researcher was able to make an informed decision on the type of empirical study
that is appropriate in addressing the research questions. In preparation for the empirical
study, the researcher wrote a letter of consent to the Principal Secretary in the Ministry
of Education and the director of the Teaching Service Department in Lesotho,
requesting permission to conduct research in the ten educational districts of Lesotho.
This letter was accompanied by the study leader's letter of consent to the director of the
Teaching Service Department. After being granted permission to conduct research in
the rural secondary schools of Lesotho, the researcher was able to conduct empirical
investigations in such schools. The next section describes the empirical research design
that was used to decide on the type of data-collection instruments that were to be used.
133
5.3 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH DESIGN
A number of research methods can be used in conducting research. These methods
can be categorized under research designs, such as qualitative and quantitative
designs. It is the responsibility of the researcher to choose the method(s) suitable for
the research to be conducted. The selection of methods is basically guided by the aims
and objectives of the particular research to be conducted, and these methods therefore
will determine the appropriate research design. According to Mouton (2001: 80) and
Kumar (2005: 84), a research design is a set of guidelines and instructions to be
followed in addressing the research problem validly, objectively, accurately and
economically. All research designs address six basic elements, namely: the setting in
which the research occurs, the subjects to include in the research, the sample size or
number of subjects in the study, the conditions under which data is collected, the
methods used to collect data and the researcher's plan for analyzing the findings
(Massey, 1995: 49). In order to achieve the stated objectives, quantitative research
methodology was used in this study.
5.3.1 Quantitative research
The selection of this methodology was based on the assumption that it would provide
data that is relevant and appropriate in answering the research questions. Burns (2000:
43) contends that quantitative research is a numerical method describing observations
of materials or characteristics. In this approach, methods of data-collection are rigid,
strict and regimented. Numerical and graphical techniques are used for summarizing
data. According to Neuman (2006: 181), quantitative researchers move deductively
from abstract ideas, to specific data-collection methods, to precise numerical
information produced by the methods. Kumar (2005: 118) furthermore describes
quantitative data as data which can be sorted, classified, measured in a strictly objective
way.
In relation to objectivity, (Burns, 2000: 43) describes quantitative research as a positivist
approach that is based on the idea that there is an objective truth existing in the world
134
that can be measured and explained scientifically. Additionally, Creswell (2003: 2)
contends that quantitative researchers use theory as the starting point of an
investigation, because the quantitative approach follows a positivist approach that
focuses on positive facts and phenomena. Equally important, Niemann (2000: 22)
postulates that a quantitative approach can be used for the purpose of isolating causes
and effects through quantifying phenomena. Following the description of quantitative
research, it is important to review its advantages and disadvantages that might affect
the current research.
5.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research
Kruger (2003: 18-19) postulates that quantitative research methods allow us to
summarize vast sources of information and facilitate comparisons across categories
over time. Further, Niemann (2000:123) is of the opinion that in quantitative research, a
researcher can be immersed in an overwhelming amount of data by looking for patterns
in lives, actions and the words of people. In this case, the researcher is able to
accumulate and manipulate the large amount of data which can be collected from a
large sample. For this research, there are three sets of data, namely: data from the
teacher questionnaire, data from the learner questionnaire and learners' exam marks.
On the other hand, Kruger (2003: 18-19) holds the critique that quantitative methods
collect a much narrower information and superficial dataset. Results are limited as they
provide numerical descriptions in statistical form rather than detailed narratives and
generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception. Additionally, Kruger
indicates that these statistics can be humanely insignificant, therefore yielding
insignificant results. The researcher, however, believes that despite these
disadvantages, quantitative research methods seem appropriate in addressing the
research objectives at hand. The next section describes the methods of data-collection
employed in this study.
135
5.4 METHODS OF DATA-COLLECTION
According to Massey (1995: 79) and Struwig and Stead (2001: 80), data collection is the
process by which the researcher acquires subjects and collects the information needed
to answer the research question. The researcher may use various data collection
methods to gather information, such as questionnaires, scales, interviews, observation
and/or projective techniques. In quantitative research, methods that can be used include
questionnaires, scales and projective techniques. For this research a questionnaire
method was used to identify the learning styles of learners and their teachers' teaching
styles. The academic achievement of learners in Form C was also determined by their
end-of-year examination marks.
5.4.1 The questionnaire
De Vos, Strydom, Fouche and Delport (2005: 166) define a questionnaire as a group of
written questions on a form which is completed by the respondent in respect of a
research project. 8abbie and Mouton (2001: 233) further clarify that although the term
questionnaire suggests a collection of questions, a typical questionnaire will probably
contain as many statements as questions, especially if the researcher is interested in
determining the extent to which respondents hold a particular attitude or perspective.
The basic objective of a questionnaire is to obtain facts and opinions about a certain
phenomenon from people. Questionnaires are probably the most generally used
instruments in research.
A questionnaire usually consists of a number of measurement scales, open-ended
items, as well as closed-ended items. Closed-ended questions allow the respondents to
choose appropriate answers from a predetermined list of responses; such questions
facilitate analysis and ensure comparability of responses; although they are easy to
administer, they are difficult to construct. Open-ended questions, on the one hand, allow
the respondents to respond in their own words; although they typically provide detailed
information, they are time-consuming and sometimes difficult to analyze (Creswell,
2003: 58). Additionally, Massey (1995: 82) suggests that before one can construct any
136
question, one needs to consider the research objectives and decide on the questions to
ask in order to achieve those objectives.
As much as there are open-ended and closed-ended questions in a questionnaire, there
are also types of questionnaires which are characterized by certain types of questions.
According to Massey (1995: 82) and Struwig and Stead (2001: 92-95), a highly
structured questionnaire contains only predetermined questions and response options;
respondents are asked to respond to the same questions in the same order, using the
same set of response options. This type of a questionnaire is characterized by closed-
ended questions. In a totally unstructured questionnaire, the researcher collects data
with no preconceived plan of content or order of information to obtain; respondents are
encouraged to express themselves in relation to their experiences. A semi-structured
questionnaire contains some open-ended questions and some closed-ended questions
and a specific format of obtaining information is followed. In this study, a semi-
structured questionnaire was designed to determine teachers' knowledge on learning
and teaching styles, and also to determine the teaching styles of teachers. Also used is
a modified Felder and Solomon's instrument on learning styles, which is basically
characterized by closed-ended questions.
To achieve the stated objectives of this study, a questionnaire was chosen over other
methods of data-collection because of the perceived advantages of using it. The
following sub-section reviews the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires.
5.4.1.1 Advantages and disadvantages of a questionnaire
There are various advantages and disadvantages of using a questionnaire method for
the collection of data. Knowing these influential factors might help the researcher to
minimize the disadvantages and maximize the advantages. According to Massey (1995:
82), Ngxabazi (1997: 55), and BreakweIl, Hammond and Gife-Schaw (2002: 158) the
advantages of using questionnaires include the following:
137
• A questionnaire is advantageous because of its wide scope since it offers a
relatively inexpensive mass coverage. This means that it is efficient in terms of
money, because the researcher can post the questionnaire if the respondents
are far away. For this study, the questionnaires were hand-delivered to the
identified schools by the researcher while some were sent by post to the few
schools that were far from reach. Therefore, the distribution of these
questionnaires was inexpensive.
• Questionnaires are easier to administer. They can be sent to all respondents at
the same time, and respondents can fill them in on their own, at their own time.
The researcher, in this study, hand-delivered the questionnaires and gave the
respondents two days to fill them in, after which he collected them. With regards
to the posted questionnaires, the researcher had contact with a teacher in each
of the schools, who facilitated the completion of the questionnaires.
• Questionnaires are relatively efficient data-collection methods in terms of time.
Although the construction of questionnaires, especially those with closed-ended
questions, may be difficult, they are generally simple to record, score and
analyze. In this study, a large amount of information was collected in a relatively
short period of time. Kotze (1992: 258) argues that a great number of responses
would not be possible with another method. The validity of the study is also
significantly increased through a high percentage (%) of teachers and learners
who completed the questionnaires. In this research, 95 percent (%) of the
distributed questionnaires were completed and received back, thus increasing
the validity of the study.
• To obtain more reliable and valid data on certain issues, questionnaires are
appropriate because they offer the possibility of respondents' anonymity. The
questionnaire is preferable when addressing sensitive issues, because it avoids
the embarrassment of direct questioning and so enhances honesty and validity of
responses. In the rural schools of Lesotho, teachers might be embarrassed to
138
give true information on issues, such as age, educational qualifications,
knowledge of learning styles and teaching styles to strangers or for publications.
Therefore anonymity, in terms of not giving the name of the teacher, and giving
teachers an opportunity to complete questionnaires at the same time, was
ensured in this study. In the case of the learners' questionnaire, learners' names
were required for the purpose of data-analysis.
• Using a questionnaire method avoids potential interviewer bias, since it is
standardized; instructions to which the respondents are exposed are exactly the
same.
On the other hand, there are also disadvantages of using questionnaires for collecting
data in research. Massey (1995: 82), Ngxabazi (1997: 57), and Kumar (2005: 130)
argue that as much as questionnaires are appropriate for collecting certain types of
data, they have disadvantages that need to be considered by researchers. These are:
• Application is limited to a study population that can read and write. It cannot be
used on a population that is illiterate, very young, very old or handicapped. For
this study, this disadvantage does not apply because the respondents are all at
school where learning and teaching are taking place.
• Questionnaires are notorious for their low response rates: that is, people fail to
return them. The low response rate, in turn, reduces the sample size. The
response rate depends upon a number of factors: the interest of the sample in
the topic of the study; the layout and length of the questionnaire; the quality of
the cover letter; and the methodology used to deliver the questionnaire. To
overcome the problem of low response rate in this study, questionnaires were
printed on both sides to reduce the number of sheets used, while the posted
questionnaires were handled by teachers that were known by the researcher in
the case of each school.
139
• Questionnaires allow self-selecting bias in that not everyone who receives a
questionnaire returns it. Those who return their questionnaire may have attitudes,
attributes or motivations that are different from those who do not. Hence, if the
response rate is low, the findings may not be representative of the total study
population.
• In questionnaires, opportunity to clarify issues is lacking. If, for any reason,
respondents do not understand some questions, there is no opportunity for them
to have the meaning clarified. Respondents may also interpret questions
differently, and this affects the quality of the information provided.
• Spontaneous responses are not allowed for in questionnaires. Mailed
questionnaires are inappropriate when spontaneous responses are required,
because respondents have time to reflect before answering. Respondents may
also consult with other people before responding.
• The response to a question may be influenced by the response to other
questions. As respondents can read all the questions before answering, the way
they answer a particular question may be affected by their knowledge of other
questions.
Additionally, the vast distances and bad roads to the rural areas of Lesotho influenced
the distribution of questionnaires to the schools in that only half of the schools received
questionnaires by hand. The other 10 schools received these questionnaires through
post, and it took a long time before the questionnaires were received.
Although a questionnaire has several disadvantages, it is important to note that not all
data collection using this method has these disadvantages. Kumar (2005: 130)
contends that the prevalence of a disadvantage depends on a number of factors that
the researcher needs to be aware of in order to understand their bearing on the quality
of data. Despite the above-mentioned disadvantages, the researcher chose the
questionnaire method to collect data that is appropriate and relevant to the research
140
objectives. In the next sub-sections, the questionnaires that were used to collect data
are described.
5.4.1.2 Felder-Solomon Index of Learning Style
While there are several different instruments for measuring individuals' learning styles,
as discussed in chapter 2, the index developed by Felder and Solomon (2003) was
used. This instrument is also known as the Index of Learning Style (ILS), which is a
questionnaire based on the Felder-Silverman learning style model. The reasons for
choosing this particular learning style instrument are as follows: firstly, it covers all four
learning style dimensions and is based on a sound theoretical base. Secondly, the
instrument has been widely tested and used successfully in many studies in helping to
guide the design, development and use of effective learning environments. Thirdly, this
instrument is simple to use and the results obtained using the instrument are easy to
interpret. Fourthly, this instrument has good validation results (Graf et al., 2007: 83;
Kovacic, 2003: 796).
The Felder-Solomon ILS questionnaire consists of four dimensions, namely: Processing
with poles: Processing (active/reflective), Perception (sensing/intuitive), Input
(visual/verbal) and Understanding (sequential/global). The instrument consists of 11
questions for measuring each of the four dimensions, thus a total of 44 questions. Each
question about a dimension is designed to determine if a respondent tends to belong to
one category or another, on that dimension. This determination is ensured by asking the
respondent to choose only one of the two options where each option represents a
category. The Processing dimension, for example has two categories: active/reflective.
If a respondent chooses (a) in one of the 11 questions that represent the Processing
dimension, then the respondent tends to be active, while one who chooses (b) tends to
be reflective. Table 5.1 on the next page illustrates the distribution of questions across
the four learning style dimensions.
141
Table 5.1: Dimensions in the Learning Style Questionnaire
Dimension Style ILS questions style ILS questions
(answer a) (answer b)
Perception Sensory 2,6,10,14,18,22,26,30 Intuitive 2,6,10,14,18,22,26
,34,38,42 ,30,34,38,42
Input Visual 3,7,11,15,19,23,27,31 Verbal 3,7,11,15,19,23,27
,35,39,43 ,31,35,39,43
Processing Active 1,5,9,13,17,21,25,29, Reflective 1,5,9,13,17,21,25,
33,37,41 29,33,37,41
Understanding Sequential 4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32 Global 4,8,12,16,20,24,28
,36,40,44 ,32,36,40,44
According to Table 5.1, a respondent is classified as belonging to a particular category if
he or she chooses more of the options that correspond to those of that particular
category. Since there are 11 questions for each dimension, the range of data for each
dimension is from 0 to 11. This learning style instrument was used to measure the
learning styles of individual learners in the rural schools of Lesotho. To ensure that
these learners understand the questions and provide valid data that the instrument aims
to measure, questions 2, 10 and 18 in the instrument, were simplified. For example, the
original question 18 in the instrument is as follows:
"I prefer the idea of:
a) certainty
b) theory"
The modified question 18 is as follows:
'~Iprefer the idea of:
a) feeling sure about things
b) set of opinions that explain something"
142
5.4.1.3 Teaching Style Questionnaire
Teaching styles of teachers were measured by a self-designed questionnaire. This
questionnaire included both open-ended and closed-ended questions. It was divided
into three sections in which the first part (section A) sought to determine teachers
biographical information, the second part (section B) sought to determine teachers
knowledge on learning styles and teaching styles and the last part (section C) consisted
of the teaching style instrument. The design of this instrument (section C) was based on
the Felder-Silverman Teaching Style Theory, which suggest that as much as there are
various learning styles, a variety of teaching styles also exist (Felder & Silverman, 1988:
675). Felder and Silverman came up with four teaching style dimensions that
correspond to the learning style dimensions. The four teaching style dimensions are:
Processing with poles: (active/passive), Perception (concrete/abstract), Input
(visual/verbal) and Understanding (sequential/global). Table 5.2 illustrates the
dimensions and how they correspond to the learning style dimensions.
Table 5.2: Dimensions of Learning and Teaching style (Felder and Solomon)
Preferred Learning Style Corresponding Teaching Style
Sensory/intuitive Concrete/abstract
Visual/verbal Visual/verbal
Active/reflective Active/passive
Sequential/global Sequential/global
This teaching style instrument consists of 11 questions for measuring each of the four
teaching style dimensions, thus a total of 44 questions. In answering questions, the
questionnaire was designed in such a way that teachers choose between answer (a) or
(b), like in the learning style questionnaire. The range of data for each dimension is also
from 0 to 11. Table 5.3 gives an overview of the distribution of questions across all four
teaching style dimensions.
143
Table 5.3: Teaching Style Instrument
Dimension Style Questions Style Questions (answer
(answer a) bl
Perception Concrete 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 Abstract 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11
,11
Input Visual 12,13,14,15,16,17, Verbal 12,13,14,15,16,17,18,
18,19,20,21,22 19,20,21,22
Processing Active 23,24,25,26,27,28, Passive 23,24,25,26,27,28,29,
29,30,31,32,33 30,31,32,33
Understanding Sequential 34,35,36,37,38,39, Global 34,35,36,37,38,39,40,
40,41,42,43,44 41,42,43,44
The researcher chose to use the Felder-Silverman Teaching Style Theory to design the
questionnaire because it was able to provide the necessary guidelines of teaching on
each of the dimensions. Moreover, the teaching style dimensions and learning style
dimensions correspond and were developed by the same theorists, thus making it
easier for data analysis.
5.4.2 Academic achievement
Among data collected are the end-of-year examination results of learners, which
represented their academic achievement. At Form C level in Lesotho, learners write
examinations at the end of the year, which determine whether or not a learner will
proceed to the senior classes. These results were obtained from the national
newspaper, schools and some from the Examinations Council of Lesotho.
In order to determine the academic achievement of learners, these end-of year results
are classified into levels of achievement. This classification is ideal for this study as it
delineates many levels of achievement, which provide a good overview of learners'
academic achievement in rural secondary schools of Lesotho. These levels are
indicated in Table 5.4.
144
Table 5.4: Levels of achievement
Levels of achievement Description
Level 1 (0-29%) Not achieved
Level 2 (30-39%) Elementary achievement
Level 3 (40-49%) Moderate achievement
Level 4 (50-59%) Adequate achievement
Level 5 (60-69%) Substantial achievement
Level 6 (70-79%) Meritorious achievement
Level 7(80-100%) Outstanding achievement
Adapted from the Department of education (2005: 43)
5.5 CRITERIA RELEVANT TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE
In a study, the researcher may rely on an existing instrument or may develop a new one
to fit the study's needs. To determine whether the instruments will yield the accurate
and valid data, their reliability and validity need to be considered. Neuman (2006: 188)
contends that reliability and validity are central issues in all measurement because they
both connect measures to constructs.
5.5.1 Reliability
Massey (1995: 79) postulates that reliability refers to the degree of consistency and
accuracy with which an instrument measures a variable. Kumar (2005: 156) further
indicates that if a research tool is consistent and stable, and hence, predictable and
accurate, it is said to be reliable. That is, the greater the degree of consistency and
stability in an instrument, the greater is its reliability. Reliability implies that if the same
145
measurement is repeated under the identical or very similar conditions, the results
yielded will be the same. The opposite of reliability is a measurement process that
yields erratic, unstable or inconsistent results (Neuman, 2006: 188).
In this research, the Felder-Solomon ILS questionnaire seems to be reliable in
measuring learning styles, because it is relatively short and conveys more dimensions
of learning styles that are well defined. This instrument is often used and has been well
investigated in measuring learning styles (Graf et al., 2007: 83). Felder and Spurlin
(2005: 103) conducted studies that deal with analyzing the response data of ILS
regarding the distribution of preferences for each dimension as well as with verifying the
reliability of the instrument. Among the studies conducted, one tested the test-retest
reliability of the ILS. When testing this aspect, the interval between test administrations
was large enough so that respondents could not remember their responses from one
test to the next. The results concluded that the test-retest reliability of the Felder-
Solomon ILS is satisfactory, even after an interval of 8 months and a sample size of
only 24 respondents (Felder & Spurlin, 2005: 107).
Similarly, the self-designed teaching style questionnaire was designed according to the
existing theory of Felder and Silverman on teaching styles. The construction of
questions in this questionnaire was based on how Felder and Silverman describe the
teaching styles and also based on the type of questions in the learning style instrument.
Since the questionnaire was also tested in a pilot study, it may be considered reliable.
5.5.2 Validity
In terms of measurement procedures, validity refers to the extent to which an instrument
measures what it is designed to measure. Kumar (2005: 153) contends that validity
refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real meaning
of the concept under consideration. Neuman (2006: 192) cautions that when an
instrument is said to de valid, it is valid for a particular purpose and definition, and
therefore cannot be used for other dissimilar purposes. The same indicator may be less
valid or invalid for other purposes. With regards to reliability and validity, Massey (1995:
146
79) contends that an unreliable instrument cannot be valid, but a reliable instrument can
be invalid. This implies that validity is very difficult to achieve. On this note (Neuman,
2006: 192) postulates that validity is more difficult to achieve than reliability, and that
researchers cannot have absolute confidence about validity, but some measures are
more valid than others.
With regards to measuring learners' learning styles, the Felder-Solomon ILS
questionnaire seems to be valid. In studies by Felder and Spurlin (2005: 107), the
instrument was tested in terms of the extent to which it actually measures what it claims
to test. These studies confirmed the validity of this instrument, in that the instrument
scores correlated with quantities with which they were to correlate. In the same way, the
researcher believes that the teaching style questionnaire is valid because it was
designed from an existing theory which corresponds to the model on which the
development of the Felder-Solomon ILS was based. In fact, both the self-designed
teaching style questionnaire and the learning style instrument were administered in a
pilot study in an attempt to determine their applicability and validity in this study. Some
adjustments were made on the two questionnaires to make them appropriate to the
respondents of the study.
5.6 THE PILOT STUDY
De Vos et al. (2005: 210) postulate that a pilot study can be regarded as a small-scale
trial run of all aspects planned for use in the main study, which helps the researcher to
fine-tune the study. Neuman (2006: 190) further indicates that a pilot study is conducted
prior to a larger piece of study to determine whether the methodology, sampling,
instruments and analysis are adequate and appropriate. It is usually carried out when a
researcher wants to explore areas about which she/he has little or no knowledge.
In this research, the empirical investigation began with a pilot study which was done in
two rural secondary schools of Lesotho. In each school, 5 learners in Form C and 5 of
their teachers were selected randomly and completed the learning style questionnaire
and teaching style questionnaire, respectively. This sample consisting of 20
147
respondents were asked to indicate any problems they had with the instructions or the
items in the questionnaires. Among the problems they mentioned were the difficulty in
understanding the meaning of words and the missing instructions. The results from this
pilot study were analyzed to determine whether the research is feasible and the
instruments are valid.
5.7 SAMPLING AND SELECTION OF RESPONDENTS
Struwig and Stead (2001: 109) define sampling as taking any portion of a population or
universe as representatives of that population or universe. In this case, the sample
taken is considered to be representative. Neuman (2006: 219) states that in sampling,
the primary goal is to get a representative sample or a small collection of units from a
much larger collection or population such that the researcher can study the smaller
group and produce accurate generalizations about the larger group. Usually, there are
various reasons for using a sample in data-collection rather than using the whole
research population. On this note, Massey (1995: 71) contends that sampling is used by
researchers because it is an economical and efficient means of collecting data and
because collecting data from the entire population is not necessary or feasible.
There are two major types of sampling, namely: the probability (random) sampling, in
which sampling involves the selection of elements from the population using random
procedures in which each element has an equal and independent chance of being
chosen; the non-probability sampling, in which sampling involves the selection of
elements from a population using non-random procedures (Massey, 1995: 72,74). This
research is based on the random sampling method, in which the researcher used
stratified random sampling. According to Struwig and Stead (2001: 113) stratified
random sampling differs from a simple random sampling in that with simple random
sampling, the sample items or respondents are chosen form the entire universe, while
with stratified random sampling a predetermined number of items are chosen from each
stratum or section.
148
With regards to the sample of this research, the identified strata were districts and
schools in which a total sample of 300 respondents was randomly selected. Two
secondary schools per district were selected randomly from the rural areas of the 10
educational districts of Lesotho. The respondents were divided into 2 subgroups:
learners and teachers. The respondents were 10 learners in Form C class (equivalent to
Grade 10 in South Africa) and 5 of their teachers, in each school. All learners and
teachers were selected randomly. Each learner completed the Felder-Solomon ILS
questionnaire and each teacher completed a teaching style questionnaire. This means
that there were 15 respondents per school, and 30 respondents per district, making a
total of 300 respondents in all the 10 districts of Lesotho. Within this total of 300
respondents were 200 learners and 100 teachers.
In relation to the sample size, Van den Berg (1989: 25) states that respondents used in
a study need to be representative of the universe/ study population. This implies that the
researcher can, with confidence, deduce relevant assumptions with regard to the
universe. In conjunction with Van den Berg, Sekaran in Alexander (2004: 285) the
researcher is of the opinion that a sample for a universe/population representing 200
learners needs to be 132 and for a population representing 100 teachers needs to be
80. Additionally, a total sample of 300 (N=300) needs to be represented by 169
respondents. Table 5.5 gives an overview of the representative sample sizes.
Table 5.5: Sample size (s) for a given population/universe (n)
N 5 N 5 N 5 N 5
10 10 140 103 420 201 1800 317
15 14 150 108 440 205 1900 320
20 19 160 113 460 210 2000 322
25 24 170 118 480 214 2200 327
30 28 180 123 500 217 2400 331
35 32 190 127 550 226 2600 335
149
40 36 200 132 600 234 2800 338
45 40 210 136 650 242 3000 341
50 44 220 140 700 248 3500 346
55 48 230 144 750 254 4000 351
60 52 240 148 800 260 4500 354
65 56 250 152 850 265 5000 357
70 59 260 155 900 269 6000 361
75 63 270 159 950 274 7000 364
80 66 280 162 1000 278 8000 367
85 70 290 165 1100 285 9000 368
90 73 300 169 1200 291 10000 370
95 76 320 175 1300 297 15000 375
100 80 340 181 1400 302 20000 377
110 86 360 186 1500 306 30000 379
120 92 380 191 1600 310 40000 380
130 97 400 196 1700 313 50000 381
Adapted from Sekaran in Alexander (2004: 85)
Considering the representative sample sizes of research populations above, the
researcher concludes that the total of 285 respondents was representative of the
population of this study. This total number consisted of 190 learners and 95 teachers
who completed and returned the questionnaires. This implies that a total of 285
questionnaires was completed and collected from respondents, giving 95 percent (%)
response rate. In this case, a high degree of validity was ensured.
150
5.8 DEMARCATION OF THE STUDY
The demarcation of this study was confided to the ten educational districts of Lesotho
so that every district was being represented. In all these districts, there are schools
situated in rural areas, which consist of the following ecological regions, namely the
foothills and mountainous zones. As has been mentioned in chapter 1, these schools
are lacking resources and facilities as a result of, among other reasons, the ecological
environments in which they are positioned. The choice of rural secondary schools as
the research area follows the researcher's concern on the low academic achievement in
such schools. It is believed that the selection of two schools, which make a total of 20
schools, will ideally represent the whole of rural secondary schools in Lesotho.
5.9 PROCEDURE
Most of the rural schools of Lesotho are not easily accessible due to bad roads. In some
cases the researcher had to walk a distance of about 7 kilometers to a school. As a
result of this situation, the researcher was able to deliver questionnaires by hand to 10
schools among the selected 20. In four schools, teachers and learners were able to
complete the questionnaires immediately, giving the researcher a chance to leave with
them the same day. In the case of another six schools, these questionnaires were
collected two to three days later, because teachers indicated that they were busy
preparing learners for trial examinations. The remaining questionnaires were sent by
post to schools that could not be reached by the researcher. In this case, the researcher
assigned a teacher in each of the schools to facilitate the completion and mailing of the
questionnaires. These questionnaires were sent together with a return envelope which
contained the postage stamp and the researcher's address. Among those 20 schools
that were selected for this study, only 19 schools returned the questionnaires. Therefore
a total of 285, out of 300 questionnaires, were received back.
151
5.10 DATA ANALYSIS
According to Massey (1995: 92), data analysis involves various techniques to
summarize and examine the collected information to help determine trends and
relationships among the variables. Its primary purpose is to organize voluminous data
so that conclusions can be made and communicated. Struwig and Stead (2001: 150)
postulate that quantitative data analysis involves the use of statistical computations to
summarize the collected data, compare and contrast the data, test theoretical
relationships, generalize about the population based on sample findings and evaluate
cause-and-effect relationships.
Computers can help the researcher to detect data coding and entry errors, merge data
from two or more sources into one data file, store the data for retrieval and display the
data in table or graph form. In this study, the program on statistical packages for the
social sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze data. To address the research objectives,
the descriptive statistics used included measurement and analysis in forms of
distributions, frequencies and correlations. In this case, data presentation includes
tables, graphs, pie-charts and histograms.
5.11 CONCLUSION
This chapter outlined the research methodology of the study. In the chapter it was
indicated that the empirical investigation of this study was basically quantitative with the
use of questionnaires to collect data. The method of sampling, demarcation of the
study, the procedure followed in collecting data and the type of data-analysis, have
been described to provide an overview of the empirical investigation. In the next chapter
the findings will be presented, analyzed, and interpreted.
152
CHAPTER 6
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTEPRETATION OF THE RESEARCH
RESULTS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The overall aim of this study was to investigate which teaching and learning styles are
dominant in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho and to develop a teacher manual
that can help in matching these styles with an aim of improving academic achievement.
In the preceding chapters, a literature study described issues that relate to teaching and
learning styles and issues that relate to the matching of these styles. In chapter 5, the
empirical design was outlined. Therefore, in this chapter, the empirical results are
presented and interpreted in accordance with the aim of the study. However, the first
section comprises of the presentation and intepretation of the participants' biographical
data.
To achieve the aim of this study, an empirical investigation was conducted to gather
information on these specific research questions:
• Do teachers have adequate knowledge about teaching and learning styles to
direct their teaching to the learning styles of their learners?
• What are the predominant characteristic learning styles of learners and teaching
styles of their teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho?
• To what extent does matching teaching and learning styles improve learners'
individual academic achievement?
• What strategies can be deduced from these research findings to help in
addressing the learning styles of learners in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho?
153
The analysis and interpretation of the research results is done by means of the
measurement frequencies for respondents in the different educational districts of
Lesotho, with data being presented in frequency tables, histograms and pie charts in
accordance with the questionnaire sections and the above-stated research questions.
Furthermore, cross-tabulations were used to determine the frequency of teaching and
learning styles across biographical factors.
6.2 BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
The first section of the two questionnaires included personal particulars such as age,
gender, subjects and teaching qualifications, in the case of teachers. In this section, this
biographical information is presented.
6.2.1 Demographics of learners
Questions 1 to 4 in section A of the learner questionnaire (Appendix A) sought
information on the names, age, and gender of learners. The presentation below entails
the age and gender of learners.
154
QUESTION 3: AGE OF LEARNERS
Table 6.1: DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNERS ACCORDING TO AGE.
Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
1 0.5 0.5 0.5
15 16 8.4 8.4 8.9
16 39 20.5 20.5 29.5
17 45 23.7 23.7 53.2
18 25 13.2 13.2 66.3
19 26 13.7 13.7 80
20 23 12.1 12.1 92.1
21 5 2.6 2.6 94.7
22 6 3.2 3.2 97.9
23 1 0.5 0.5 98.4
24 3 1.6 1.6 100
Total (N) = 190 100 100
Average age=19, median=19
25
20
15
10
• Percent
5
age
FIGURE 6.1: DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNERS ACCORDING TO AGE.
155
According to Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1, most of the learners (23.7%) and (20.5%) in
Form C from the rural secondary schools of Lesotho were 17 and 16 years of age
respectively. Learners between 14 and 20 years made up a total of 92.1%. A minority
(7.9%) of the learners were more than 20 years old.
QUESTION 4: GENDER OF LEARNERS
TABLE 6.2: DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNERS ACCORDING TO GENDER.
Gender Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative
percentage
I Male 88 46.3 46.3 46.3
Female 102 53.7 53.7 100
Total 190 100 100
Percent
• male female
FIGURE 6.2: DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNERS ACCORDING TO GENDER.
Table 6.2 and Figure 6.2 indicate that the majority (54%) of the Form C learners in the
rural schools of Lesotho were females. Only 46% of the learners were males in these
schools.
156
6.2.2 Demographics of teachers
From the teacher questionnaire, questions 1 to 9 in section A were used to gather
biographical information such as subjects taught, age and gender of the individual
teachers that participated in this study.
QUESTION 1: NUMBER OF TEACHERS PER SCHOOL
TABLE 6.3: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS PER SCHOOL.
School Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
6 5 5.3 5.3 31.6
8 5 5.3 5.3 42.1
10 5 5.3 5.3 52.6
12 5 5.3 5.3 63.2
14 5 5.3 5.3 73.7
16 5 5.3 5.3 84.2
18 5 5.3 5.3 94.7
Total (N) = 95 100 100
Table 6.3 above shows that a sample of five teachers from each of the nineteen schools
was selected to participate in the empirical investigation.
157
QUESTION 2: NUMBER OF TEACHERS PER DISTRICT
TABLE 6.4: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO EDUCATIONAL
DISTRICTS.
District Number of teachers Percentage Valid Cumulative
percentage percentage
As depicted from Table 6.4, all of the 10 educational districts of Lesotho participated in
this study. In nine of these educational districts, 10 teachers per district participated in
the study. In the Thaba- Tseka district, only 5 teachers participated in this study.
158
QUESTION 3: SUBJECTS TAUGHT
TABLE 6.5: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO SUBJECTS TAUGHT.
Subject No. of teachers Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
English 19 20 20 20
Sesotho 19 20 20 40
Mathematics 19 20 20 60
Science 19 20 20 80
3 3.2 3.2 83.2
Business Education 9 9.5 9.5 92.6
Development Studies 4 4.2 4.2 96.8
Agriculture 2 2.1 2.1 98.9
Geography 1 1.1 1.1 100
Total 95 100 100
20 • English
• Sesotho
15 Math
~-<II • Science
.1.1.0til
c: 10 • Religious studies
.<Iu..I
<II • Business Education
c.. 5 Development Studies
Agriculture
0 Geography
Subjects
FIGURE 6.3: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO SUBJECTS
TAUGHT.
Table 6.5 and Figure 6.3 reveal that the majority (20%) of teachers in this study taught
English, Sesotho, Science and Mathematics, respectively. Again, 9.5% of teachers
taught Business Education, while 4.2% of teachers taught development studies.
Additionally, 3.2% of teachers taught Religious Studies, 2.1% of teachers taught
agriculture while 1.1% of them taught Geography.
159
QUESTION 4: ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION
TABLE 6.6: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO ACADEMIC
QUALIFICATIONS.
Qualification Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Icose 6 6.3 6.5 6.5
Certificate 22 23.2 23.7 30.1
Diploma 32 33.7 34.4 64.5
Bachelor's Degree 33 34.7 35.5 100
Total 93 97.9 100
Missing 2 2.1
Total 95 100
35
30 -.>--
* 25 /"CII.t.i"l.) 20 .COSCra
c:
.. • Certificate.C.II.. 15
CII 10 Diploma0...
5 • Bachelors Degree
0
Academic qualifications
FIGURE 6.4: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO ACADEMIC
QUALIFICATIONS.
According to Table 6.6 and Figure 6.4, most teachers (34.7%) asserted that they had a
degree in the subjects they taught. Again, 33.7% of teachers held a diploma, while
23.2% had certificates. Moreover, 6.3% of teachers were teaching with a high school
qualification.
160
QUESTION 5: TEACHING EXPERIENCE
TABLE 6.7: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO TEACHING
EXPERIENCE.
No. of years Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
1-10 55 57.9 59.1 59.1
11-20 28 29.5 30.1 89.2
21-30 9 9.5 9.7 98.9
31+ 1 1.1 1.1 100
Total 93 97.9 100
Missing 2 2.1
Total 95 100
70
60 57.9
50
~
~ .1-10ycars
.Qn..O 40lc:: .U-20years
.~u~..
30 21-30ycars
c..
20 .31+years
10
1.1
0
Teaching years
FIGURE 6.5: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO TEACHING
EXPERIENCE.
Depicted from Table 6.7 and Figure 6.5, the majority (57.9%) of teachers had teaching
experience that ranged between 1 up to 10 years. Teachers that had teaching
experience of between 11 and 20 years represented 29.5% of the sample. The most
experienced teachers with 21 to 30 years and above 30 years in teaching were
represented by 9.5% and 1.1% respectively.
161
QUESTION 6: PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATIONS
TABLE 6.8: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO PROFESSIONAL
QUALIFICATIONS.
Professional qualification Frequency Percentage Valid Cumulative
percentage percentage
23 24.2 24.2 24.2
STC/ACE 23 24.2 24.2 48.4
Dip. Ed/Dip. Se Ed/Dip. Agrie Ed. 26 27.4 27.4 75.8
B. Ed/BSc. Ed/BA. Ed 20 21 21 96.8
B. Ed(Hons) 2 2.1 2.1 98.9
M. Ed 1 1.1 1.1 100
Total 95 100 100
30 2T.4
• none
25 24.2 24.2
• STC/ACE
20
~
Q.I Dip.Ed/Dip.Sc
QC
.1c.
1.1. 15 Ed/Dip.Agric Ed.
Q....Iu • B.Ed/BSc.Ed/BA.Ed
Q.I
Q. 10
5 • B.Ed(Hons)
0 .M.Ed
Professional qualifications
FIGURE 6.6: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO PROFESSIONAL
QUALIFICATIONS.
In reference to Table 6.8 and Figure 6.6, most teachers (27.4%) indicated that they had
diplomas in teaching, while 24.2% of teachers did not have any teaching qualifications.
Another 24.2% of teachers had teaching certificates while 21% had teaching degrees.
Only a few teachers (3.2%) had post-graduate degrees in teaching.
162
QUESTION 7: NUMBER OF LEARNERS IN CLASS
TABLE 6.9: DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER OF LEARNERS PER CLASS
No. of learners in class Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
4 4.2 4.3
5 5.3 5.3
10.5 41.5
63 5 5.3 5.3 52.1
65 5 5.3 5.3 62.8
Total 94 98.9 100
Table 6.9 above indicates that the class ratio for 15.8% of teachers was 1:67.
Additionally, 15.9% of teachers taught classes with more than 70 learners, while 5.3%
of these teachers had 82 learners in their respective classes. The average number of
learners per class in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho was depicted to be 53.
From table 6.9, it is also depicted that about half (48.9%) of the respondents had large
classes that consisted of more than 63 learners.
163
QUESTION 8: GENDER OF TEACHERS
TABLE 6.10: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO GENDER
Gender Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Male 42 44.2 44.2 44.2
Female 53 55.8 55.8 100
Total 95 100 100
Gender in Percentage
.male
• female
FIGURE 6.7: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO GENDER
A vast majority (55.8%) of teachers in the research population indicated that they were
females, while only 44.2% were males. These percentages were representative of the
total number of teachers in all the ten districts that participated in the study.
164
QUESTION 9: AGE OF TEACHERS
The information on teachers' age is presented by Table 6.11 below. Figure 6.8
illustrates this information by showing the representation across the categories of age.
TABLE 6.11: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO AGE
Age Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
21-30 31 32.6 32.6 32.6
31-40 38 40 40 72.6
41-50 19 20 20 92.6
50+ 7 7.4 7.4 100
Total 95 100 100
45
40
40
35
30
~
~ .21-30yearsold
ti.!) 25
.n...l 20 .31-40yearsold
~c.u~..
20
41-50 years old
c.. 15
• above 50 years
10
5
0
Age categories
FIGURE 6.8: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHERS ACCORDING TO AGE
From Table 6.11 and Figure 6.8, most teachers (40%) in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho indicated that they were between 31 and 40 years of age. The other 32.6% of
teachers were between 21-30 years old while 20% were 41 to 50 years old. Moreover,
there were some teachers (7.4%) who were above 50 years of age.
165
6.3 TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLE KNOWLEDGE
Teachers were asked to provide information on the knowledge they have with regards
to teaching and learning styles. In this section, this information is presented as it was
addressed in the teacher questionnaire (Appendix B).
6.3.1 Background knowledge on teaching and learning styles.
Questions 1.1 to 1.10 in the questionnaire were asked to determine whether teachers
had enough knowledge about teaching and learning styles in order to direct their
teaching to the styles of learners.
QUESTION 1.1: I HAVE ENOUGH KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LEARNING STYLES
TABLE 6.12: KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LEARNING STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid Cumulative
percentage percentage
Disagree 40 42.1 42.1 43.2
Strongly agree 9 9.5 9.5 100
166
50 .41..3
45 ALl
40
35
*.111 30CI"11.D1
c 25
111
v 20
"-
III
e, 15 9.5
10
5 1.1
0 ....._ 1
strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.9: KNOWLEDGE ABOUT LEARNING STYLES
In accordance with Figure 6.9 and Table 6.12, many teachers (47.3%) agreed that they
had enough knowledge about learning styles, while 9.5% of teachers strongly agreed
that they had enough of this knowledge. Additionally, 42.1 % of teachers indicated that
they did not have enough knowledge on learning styles. Moreover, 1.1% of teachers
strongly disagreed that they had enough knowledge on learning styles.
167
QUESTION 1.2: I AM AWARE OF THE LEARNING STYLES OF LEARNERS IN MY
CLASS.
TABLE 6.13: AWARENESS OF LEARNING STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
~Disagree 46 48.3 48.9 48.9
Agree 43 45.3 45.8 94.7
Strongly agree 05 5.3 5.3 100
Total 94 98.9 100
Missing 1 1.1
Total 95 100
50 48.3 45.3
45
40
~ 35
-cvtil) 30nlc 25cv
u 20
c"v-
Cl. 15
10
5
0
disagree agree strongly agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.10: AWARENESS OF LEARNING STYLES
Most of teachers (48.3%) asserted that they were not aware of the learning styles of the
learners in their classes, whilst 45.3% of teachers indicated that they were aware of
these styles in their classes. A small percentage (5.3 %) of teachers strongly agreed
that they were aware of learning styles in their classes.
168
QUESTION 1.3: I HAVE ENOUGH KNOWLEDGE ABOUT TEACHING STYLES
TABLE 6.14: KNOWLEDGE ABOUT TEACHING STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Strongly disagree 2 2.1 2.1 2.1
Disagree 34 35.8 35.8 37.9
Agree 46 48.4 48.4 86.3
Strongly agree 13 13.7 13.7 100
Total 95 100 100
60
SO 48.4
'Q*'
40
• strongly disagree
J
.Q.t.)"c' 30 • disagree
.Q.Ju. agree
QJ
e, 20 l
• strongly agree
10
2.1
0
Descriptors
FIGURE 6.11: KNOWLEDGE ABOUT TEACHING STYLES
Depicted from Table 6.14 and Figure 6.11, most teachers (48.4%) indicated that they
agreed that they had enough knowledge about teaching styles, while 13.7% of the
teachers strongly agreed with this notion. On the other hand, 35.8% of the teachers
asserted that they did not have enough knowledge on teaching styles. Some teachers
(2.1%) indicated that they strongly disagreed with having knowledge on teaching styles.
169
QUESTION 6.14: I AM SUFFICIENTLY TRAINED TO TEACH LEARNERS WITH
DIFFERENT LEARNING STYLES
TABLE 6.15: TEACHER TRAINING
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Strongly disagree 5 5.3 5.3 5.3
Disagree 51 53.6 53.6 58.9
Agree 28 29.5 29.5 88.4
Strongly agree 11 11.6 11.6 100
Total 95 100 100
60 53.6
g 50
-cv 40til)I'Dc 30c..vIJ. 20
cv
t:l. 10 5.3
0
strongly disagree agree
disagree strongly
agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.12: TEACHER TRAINING
The majority (53.6%) of teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho indicated
that they were not sufficiently trained to teach learners with different learning styles,
whilst 5.3% of the teachers emphasized and strongly disagreed that they were
sufficiently trained. The two percent of teachers made up a total of 58.9% untrained
teachers. On the other hand, some teachers 29.5% and 11.6% indicated that they had
received enough training on teaching styles.
170
QUESTION 1.5: I TEACH TO ADDRESS INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES OF MY
LEARNERS
TABLE 6.16: ADDRESSING LEARNING STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Disagree 30 31.6 31.9 31.9
Agree 56 58.9 59.6 91.5
Strongly agree 8 8.4 8.5 100
Total 94 98.9 100
Missing 1 1.1
Total 95 100
70
60 58.9
~ 50
<U
CI.O 40 I
.tc.
o. 31.6:.
<U 30
u~
<U
0.. 20
10 8.4
0 T T
disagree agree str-ongly agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.13: ADDRESSING LEARNING STYLES
According to Table 6.16 and Figure 6.13, the majority (58.9%) of the teachers indicated
that they taught to address the learning styles of their learners. Again, 8.4% of the
teachers asserted that they strongly agreed with the notion. On the one hand, 31.6% of
the teachers disagreed that they addressed learners' individual learning styles in their
classes.
171
QUESTION 1.6: KNOWING LEARNERS' LEARNING STYLES IS IMPORTANT FOR
TEACHERS
TABLE 6.17: THE IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE ON LEARNING STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
2 2.1 2.1 2.1
Agree 37 38.9 38.9 41.1
Strongly agree 56 59 59 100
Total 95 100 100
70
59
60
~ 50 38.9
<II
QD 40
.n..l.
c::
<II 30
u...
<II
Q" 20 1
10 2.1
0 r
disagree agree strongly agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.14: THE IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE ON LEARNING STYLES
The information in Figure 6.14 and Table 6.17 indicate that the majority (59%) of the
teachers strongly agreed that knowledge about learners' learning styles was important.
The remaining 38.9% of the teachers also showed that they agreed with the notion;
whilst on the other hand, some teachers (2.1%) considered this knowledge to be
unimportant.
172
QUESTION 1.7: I HAVE ENOUGH TIME TO USE TEACHING STYLES THAT
ADDRESS INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES IN MY CLASS
TABLE 6.18: AVAILABILITY OF TIME IN ADDRESSING LEARNING STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
IStrongly disagree 26 27.4 27.4 27.4
Disagree 41 43.2 43.2 70.6
Agree 23 24.1 24.1 94.7
Strongly agree 5 5.3 5.3 100
Total 95 100 100
50
45 43.2
40
-~ 35cu 30 27~4
.C.>..O." 25 24.1c::
c.uu.. 20
cu
Cl. 15
10 5.3
5
0 l
strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.15: AVAILABILITY OF TIME IN ADDRESSING LEARNING STYLES
Most teachers (43.2%) in this study disagreed that there was enough time to address
individual learning styles. Additionally, 27.4% of the teachers strongly disagreed with the
adequate time available to teach to different learning styles. All in all, 70.6% of the
teachers indicated that there was not enough time to use teaching styles that addressed
the individual learning styles of their learners. On the other hand, 29.4% of the teachers
indicated that they had enough time to address different learning styles.
173
QUESTION 1.8: I KNOW THE FACTORS THAT CAN INFLUENCE EACH
LEARNER'S LEARNING STYLES
TABLE 6.19: TEACHERS' KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING THE FACTORS OF
LEARNING STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Strongly disagree 6 6.3 6.3 6.3
Disagree 38 40 40 46.3
Agree 45 47.4 47.4 93.7
Strongly agree 6 6.3 6.3 100
Total 95 100 100
SO 47.4
45 40
40
~ 35
QI
... 30CI.Onl
c: 25
Q...Iu 20
QI
0. 15
10 6.3 6.3
5
0 T
strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.16: TEACHERS' KNOWLEDGE CONCERNING THE FACTORS OF
LEARNING STYLES
Most teachers (47.4%) asserted that they had knowledge on the factors that relate to
the learning styles, while 6.3% of the teachers emphasized their knowledge on these
factors. Additionally, 40% of the teachers on the other hand, indicated that they did not
have knowledge on these factors, whilst 6.3% strongly disagreed with knowing the
factors.
174
QUESTION 1.9: EFFECTIVE TEACHING CAN BE ENHANCED BY MATCHING
TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES
TABLE 6.20: THE INFLUENCE OF MATCHING TEACHING AND LEARNING
STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Disagree 8 8.4 8.4 8.4
Agree 42 44.2 44.2 52.6
Strongly agree 45 47.4 47.4 100
Total 95 100 100
50 44.2 47.4
40
*-GIQ"O 30
.r.ac..
Q..)u. 20
Q)
0. 10 8.4
0 1
disagree agree strongly agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.17: THE INFLUENCE OF MATCHING TEACHING AND LEARNING
STYLES
Depicting from Table 6.20 and Figure 6.17, 44.2% of the teachers in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho indicated that they agreed with the statement that matching teaching
and learning styles enhanced effective teaching. Additionally, 47.4% of the teachers
also indicated that they strongly agreed with the statement. In contrast, 8.4% of the
teachers disagreed with this influence.
175
QUESTION 1.10: TEACHERS NEED SPECIAL TRAINING IN LEARNING STYLES IN
ORDER TO FULFILL LEARNERS' LEARNING STYLES
TABLE 6.21: NEED FOR SPECIAL TRAINING IN LEARNING STYLES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Disagree 2 2.1 2.1 2.1
Agree 16 16.8 16.8 18.9
Strongly agree 77 81.1 81.1 100
Total 95 100 100
90 81.1
80
70
-~ 60CII
.O.l.)!ti 50
c
CII 40
v...
CII 30c.. 20 16.8
10 2.1
0
disagree agree strongly agree
Responses
FIGURE 6.18: NEED FOR SPECIAL TRAINING IN LEARNING STYLES
Figure 6.18 and Table 6.21 indicate that the vast majority (81.1%) of the teachers in the
rural secondary schools of Lesotho strongly agreed that teachers needed special
training on learning styles in order to fuifiii the learners' learning styles. Other teachers
(16.8%) also agreed with this notion, and thus increased the number of teachers in
support of teacher training to 97.9%. On the other hand 2.1% of the teachers indicated
that training was not needed.
176
6.3.2 Factors that inhibit the accommodation of individual learning styles
In the teacher questionnaire, questions 3.1 to 3.6 were used to gather information on
the factors that had the possibility of inhibiting the use of instruction that addressed
individual learning styles for all learners in a class.
QUESTION 3.1: OVERCROWDED CLASSES
Table 6.22: OVERCROWDED CLASSES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Not at all 9 9.5 9.6 9.6
Small extent 16 16.8 17 26.6
Large extent 69 72.6 73.4 100
Total 94 98.9 100
Missing 1 1.1
Total 95 100
80
70
*- 60cv-CI"D 50111s:::: 40cv
u... 30
cv
0.. 20
10
0
not at all small extent large extent
Responses
FIGURE 6.19: OVERCROWDED CLASSES
The vast majority (72.6%) of the teachers were of the opinion that overcrowded classes
inhibited the use of instruction that could address the individual learning styles of all
learners in their classes. Some teachers (16.8%) indicated that although overcrowding
affected their teaching with regards to learning styles, this influence was limited to a
177
small extent. A small number of teachers (9.5%) asserted that overcrowded classes had
no influence in addressing learning styles.
QUESTION 3.2: TOO MUCH SUBJECT CONTENT AND TIME PRESSURE
Table 6.23: SUBJECT CONTENT AND TIME PRESSURE
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Not at all 3 3.2 3.2 3.2
Small extent 25 26.3 26.6 29.8
Large extent 66 69.5 70.2 100
Total 94 98.9 100
1 1.1
Total 95 100
70
60
*- 50
-41lrIaD 40c::
4 30..1u.
41 20
Q.
10
0
not at all small extent large extent
Responses
FIGURE 6.20: TOO MUCH SUBJECT CONTENT AND TIME PRESSURE
According to Table 6.23 and Figure 6.20, the vast majority (69.5%) of the teachers
indicated that too much subject content and time pressure to a large extent, did not
allow them to teach to their learners' learning styles. At the same time, 26.3% of the
teachers pointed out that it was only to a small extent that the subject content and time
pressure influenced their teaching with regards to learning styles. The other 3.2% of the
teachers indicated that they were not affected by subject content or time pressure.
178
QUESTION 3.3: FOLLOWING THE STRICT SYLLABUS
TABLE 6.24: FOLLOWING THE STRICT SYLLABUS
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Not at all 10 10.5 10.6 10.6
Small extent 36 37.9 38.3 48.9
L:argeextent 48 50.5 51.1 100
Total 94 98.9 100
1 1.1
95 100
50.5
60
50
~
QI 40-a.onlC 30
Q
1...1.I 20
QI
0. 10
0
not at all small extent large extent
Responses
FIGURE 6.21: FOLLOWING THE STRICT SYLLABUS
As indicated in Table 6.24 and Figure 6.21, about half of the teachers (50.5%) in the
rural secondary schools of Lesotho were of the opinion that the strict syllabus influenced
them to a large extent to teach to the learning styles. Again, 37.9% of the teachers
indicated that the influence was to a small extent, while other teachers (10.5%) said it
did not influence the way they taught with regard to learning styles.
179
QUESTION 3.4: PREPARING LEARNERS FOR STANDARDIZED EXTERNAL
EXAMINATIONS
TABLE 6.25: PREPARING FOR EXTERNAL EXAMS
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Not at all 18 18.9 19.1 19.1
Small extent 39 41.1 41.5 60.6
Large extent 37 38.9 39.4 100
Total 94 98.9 100
1 1.1
Total 95 100
50 41.1 ~
r-i 40cu
.C.I.D 30nl
c:
cu
u.. 20
cu
Cl. 10
0
notatall small extent large extent
Responses
FIGURE 6.22: PREPARING FOR EXTERNAL EXAMS
In relation to Table 6.25 and Figure 6.22, 41.1 % of the teachers in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho asserted that preparing learners for the standardized external exams
could affect the attempts of addressing the individual learning styles of their learners,
while 38.9% of teachers said this influence was true to a large extent. Some teachers
(18.9%) said that this aspect does not affect them.
180
QUESTION 3.5: USE AND AVAILABILITY OF VARIOUS TEACHING AIDS
TABLE 6.26: AVAILABILITY OF VARIOUS TEACHING AIDS.
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
I Not at all 10 10.5 10.6 10.6
Small extent 36 37.9 38.3 48.9
48 50.5 51.1 100
94 98.9 100
Missing 1 1.1
Total 95 100
60
50 ./
~
<11 40
.I.lO".c' 30 /.
<.11u.. 20 /
<11
c.. 10 .-/:
0
not at all small extent large extent
Responses
FIGURE 6.23: AVAILABILITY OF VARIOUS TEACHING AIDS
Most teachers (50.5%) asserted that the use and availability of teaching aids influenced
teaching learners with regard to their learning styles. Again, 37.9% of the teachers
indicated that this influence was true to a small extent. On the other hand, 10.5% of the
teachers differed in that they said the use and availability of teaching aids did not affect
them in addressing individual learning styles.
181
QUESTION 3.6: KNOWLEDGE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
TABLE 6.27: KNOWLEDGE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
Not at all 16 16.8 17.2 17.2
Small extent 37 38.9 39.8 57
Large extent 40 42.1 43 100
Total 93 97.9 100
Missing 2 2.2
Total 95 100
50
* 40QI
.a
' 30
IV
c..
.o.
Q.u.I. 20
QI
e, 10
0
not at all small extent large extent
Responses
FIGURE 6.24: KNOWLEDGE OF THE LEARNING PROCESS
Table 6.27 and Figure 6.24 indicate that some of the teachers (42.1 %) in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho were of the opinion that knowledge of the learning
process influenced their attempts to teach to their learners' individual learning styles. At
the same time, some teachers (38.9%) asserted that this influence was only to a small
extent, while a few teachers (16.8%) said that knowledge of the learning process did not
influence their attempts to teach to individual learning styles.
From the tables and figures above, data has been presented with regard to the factors
that influence the attempts of addressing learning styles in the rural secondary schools
of Lesotho. This data is summarized in Table 6.28.
182
TABLE 6.28: SUMMARY ON THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE LEARNING
STYLES IN THE RURAL SCHOOLS OF LESOTHO.
Factors Not at all Small extent Large extent
% % %
Overcrowded classes 9.5 16.8 72.6
Too much subject content and 3.2 26.3 69.5
time pressure
Following the strict syllabus 10.5 37.9 50.5
Preparing learners for 18.9 41.1 38.9
standardized external exams
Use of various teaching aids 10.5 37.9 50.5
Knowledge of the learning 16.8 38.9 42.1
process
From Table 6.28 above, the majority (72.6%) of the teachers asserted that overcrowded
classes largely influenced their attempts to teach to their learners' learning styles. At the
same time, 69.5% of the teachers pointed out that too much subject content and time
pressure also largely affected measures of addressing learning styles. Additionally,
50.5% of the teachers were of the opinion that the large extent of the influence was
caused by following the strict syllabus and the limited teaching aids. According to some
teachers (42.1 %), knowledge of the learning process also influenced the way teachers
might address individual learning styles, and lastly 38.9% of the teachers also indicated
that preparing learners for standardized external exams could restrain the support of
individual learning styles in class.
183
6.3.3 Other problems that affect addressing learners' individual learning styles
QUESTION 4: IF YOU EXPERIENCE OTHER PROBLEMS IN ADDRESSING
lEARNERS' INDIVIDUAL lEARNING STYLES, SPECIFY THEM
Question 4 in section B of the teacher questionnaire was asked in order to identify
problems, other than those presented above, that affected teachers' attempts to
address their learners' individual learning styles. Respondents indicated the following
problems:
• lack of knowledge on learning styles. (e.g. Teacher 36 said" I still have a lot
to learn about learning styles").
• Use of English as a language of instruction. (e.g. Teacher 12 said "
communicating in English is a problem for most learners").
• lack of learners' motivation to participate in the learning process. (e.g.
Teacher 41 said" lack of participation by pupils in class activities is a problem.
Almost all pupils have little motivation to learn").
QUESTION 5: DO YOUR TEACHING STYLES ADDRESS A VARIETY OF lEARNING
STYLES IN YOUR CLASS? GIVE COMMENTS
Question 5 was asked to determine whether teachers used teaching styles that
accommodated a variety of learning styles. Respondents indicated that their teaching
styles did not accommodate a variety of learning styles due to the following factors:
• lack of knowledge and need for training on learning styles. (e.g. Teacher 95
said " I have not been trained enough on learning styles and it is not easy to
cater for all learners").
184
• No instruments in schools to determine learning styles. (e.g. Teacher 5 said
" I am not able to identify different learning styles in my class. Teachers need
instruments that measure styles").
e Difficulty in addressing learning styles and achieving the curriculum
objectives. (e.g. Teacher 74 said" it is difficult to achieve the objectives in the
syllabus when I use teaching methods that address individual styles of my
learners. The curriculum and subject syllabus should address learning styles").
• Too much subject content and time pressure. (e.g. Teacher 50 said" there is
too much content to cover within a short period of time in my subject").
• lack of facilities and teaching materials. (e.g. Teacher 33 said" there is lack
of materials such as charts, models and scientific apparatus that would cater
individual students. There are few materials shared by the whole class").
• Overcrowding and large classes. (e.g. Teacher 67 said" large classes do not
permit due to overcrowding").
6.4 DOMINANT TEACHING AND lEARNING STYLES
The presentation of data in this section was with regard to identifying the predominant
learning styles of learners and dominant teaching styles of teachers in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho.
6.4.1 Predominant learning styles
Section B of the learner questionnaire consisted of the instrument that was used to
measure the predominant learning styles of learners.
185
6.4.1.1 Dominant style with respect to all learning styles
TABLE 6.29: DISTRIBUTION OF LEARNING STYLES
Dimensions Learning style Frequency Percentage (%)
1 Sensory 35 18.4
Intuitive 10 5.3
2 Visual 30 15.8
Verbal 18 9.5
3 Active 19 10
Reflective 4 2.1
4 Se_guential 4 2.1
Global 6 3.2
Combination of Sensory-visual 3 1.6
styles Sensory-sequential 4 2.1
Sensorv-elobal 5 2.6
Intuitive-verbal 6 3.2
Intuitive-active 2 1.0
Visual-active 9 4.7
Visual-sequential 3 1.6
Visual-global 7 3.7
Verbal-active 8 4.2
Active-sequential 5 2.6
Reflective-sequential 2 1.0
Balanced styles 10 5.3
Total (N) = 190 100
According to Table 6.29, most learners (18.4%) were using the sensory learning style.
The other 15.8% of the learners used the visual learning style, while 10 % of learners
used the active style. Additionally, 9.5% of the learners used the verbal learning style,
while 5.3% of the learners used intuitive and balanced styles, respectively. All other
styles were represented by a low percentage of learners (less than 5% per style). Again,
66.4% of all the dominant learning styles were single styles, while 33.6% of the
dominant styles were combinations of styles
186
6.4.1.2 Learning styles and age of learners
TABLE 6.30: LEARNING STYLE CROSS TABULATED AGAINST AGE OF
LEARNERS
Dimensions Learning style Male Female
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
1 Sensory 14 15.9 21 20.6
Intuitive 5 5.7 5 4.9
2 Visual 13 14.8 17 16.6
Verbal 4 4.6 14 13.7
3 Active 10 11.4 9 8.8
Reflective 1 1.1 3 2.9
4 Sequential 2 2.3 2 2.0
Global 4 4.5 2 2.0
Combination Sensory-visual .1 1.1 2 2.0
of styles Sensory-sequential 2 2.3 2 2.0
Sensory-global 3 3.4 2 2.0
Intuitive-verbal 4 4.6 2 2.0
Intu itive-active 1 1.1 1 0.9
Visual-active 6 6.8 3 2.9
Visual-sequential 1 1.1 2 2.0
Visual-global 5 5.7 2 2.0
Verbal-active 3 3.4 5 4.9
Active-seq uentia I 3 3.4 2 2.0
Reflective- 1 1.1 1 0.9
sequential
Balanced styles 5 5.7 5 4.9
Total (N) = 88 100 102 100
Table 6.30 indicates that 15.9 % of the learners with sensory learning styles were males
whilst 20.6% of sensory learners were females. In relation to visual learners, 14.8% of
visual learners were males and 16.6% of visual learners were females. Additionally,
only 4.6% of verbal learners were males while 13.7% of verbal learners were females.
Moreover, 11.4 % of active learners were males while 8.8% of active learners were
females. With regard to combined styles, 6.8% of visual-active learners were males
whilst only 2.9% of these learners were females.
187
6.4.1.3 Learning styles and age of learners
TABLE 6.31: LEARNING STYLE CROSS TABULATED AGAINST AGE OF
LEARNERS (in percentage)
Learning style Age of learners
14yr 15yr 16yr 17yr 18yr 19yr 20yr 21yr 22yr 23yr 24yr
Sensory 2 14.2 29 40 8.6 2.9 2.9 - - - -
Intuitive - 20 20 30 - 20 - - 10 - -
Visual - 13.3 16.7 16.7 13.3 23.3 3.3 6.6 3.3 3.3 -
Verbal - 16.7 11.1 11.1 11.1 22.2 27.8 - - - -
Active - 10.5 21.1 10.5 21.1 5.3 15.8 5.3 5.3 - 5.3
Reflective - - - - 25 25 25 - - - 25
Sequential - - 25 25 - 25 - - 25 - -
Global - - 33.3 33.3 - - 16.7 16.7 - - -
Sensory-visual - - 33.3 33.3 33.3 - - - - - -
Sensory- - - 25 50 - - 25 - - - -
sequential
Sensory-global - - 20 20 - 20 - 20 20 - -
Intuitive-verbal - - 33.3 16.7 16.7 - 16.7 - 16.7 - -
Intu itive-active - - 50 50 - - - - - - -
Visual-active - - 33.3 22.2 11.1 22.2 11.1 - - - -
Visual- - - - 33.3 33.3 33.3 - - - - -
sequential
Visual-global - - 14.3 42.9 28.6 14.3 - - - - -
Verbal-active - - 25 25 12.5 12.5 25 - - - -
Active- - - 20 40 20 20 - - - - -
sequential
Reflective- - - - - - - 50 - - - 50
sequential
Balanced styles - - - - 30 20 50 - - - -
According to Table 6.31, most sensory learners (40%) and intuitive learners (30%) were
17 years of age. With regard to intuitive-active learning styles, 50% of intuitive-active
learners were 16 years of age and another 50 % of intuitive-active learners were 16
years of age. Additionally, 33.3% of sensory-visual learners were 16, 17 and 18 years of
age, respectively. In the same way, 33.3% of Visual-sequential learners were 17, 18,
and 19 years of age respectively. Furthermore, 33.3% of global learners were 16 and 17
years of age. Moreover, 50% of the learners with balanced styles were 20 years of age.
188
6.4.2 Dominant teaching styles
Section C of the teacher questionnaire consisted of the instrument that was used to
measure the teaching styles of teachers.
6.4.2.1 Dominant teaching styles in the rural schools of Lesotho
TABLE 6.32: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING STYLES
Dimensions Teaching style Frequency Percentage
1 Concrete 4 4.2
Abstract 5 5.3
2 Visual 18 18.9
Verbal 26 27.3
3 Active 12 12.6
Passive 2 2.1
4 Se_guential 8 8.4
Global 4 4.2
Combination of Active-g lobal 2 2.1
styles Visual-active 7 7.4
Abstract-verbal 2 2.1
Active-sequential 1 1.1
Concrete-sequential 2 2.1
Active-verbal 1 1.1
Concrete-visual 1 1.1
Total (N) = 95 100
As depicted in Table 6.32, most teachers (27.3%) used the verbal teaching style and
18% of the teachers used the visual teaching style. Besides that, 12.6% of the teachers
used the active teaching style while 8.4% of the teachers used the sequential teaching
style. Additionally, 7.4% of the teachers used the active-visual teaching style, while
5.3% of the teachers used the abstract teaching style. At the same time, 4.2% of the
teachers used the concrete teaching style while the same number of teachers (4.2%)
used the global teaching style. The passive, active-global, abstract-verbal and concrete-
sequential teaching styles were used by 2.1% of the teachers respectively. Some
teachers (1.1%) used the concrete-visual, active-verbal and active-sequential styles
respectively.
189
6.4.2.2 Teaching styles and Gender
TABLE 6.33: TEACHING STYLE CROSS TABULATED AGAINST GENDER OF
TEACHERS
Dimensions Teaching style Male Female
Frequency Percentage Frequency Percentage
1 Concrete 1 2.4 3 5.7
Abstract 2 4.7 3 5.7
2 Visual 13 31 5 9.4
Verbal 5 11.9 21 39.6
3 Active 5 11.9 7 13.2
Passive 1 2.4 1 1.9
4 Sequential 3 7.1 5 9.4
Global 1 2.4 3 5.7
Combinations Active-global 0 0 2 3.7
of styles Visual-active 6 14.3 1 1.9
Abstract-verbal 1 2.4 1 1.9
Active-sequential 0 0 1 1.9
Concrete- 2 4.7 0 0
sequential
Active-verbal 1 2.4 0 0
Concrete-visual 1 2.4 0 0
Total (N) = 42 100 53 100
According to Table 6.33, most female teachers (39.6%) used the verbal teaching style,
while there were only 11.9% of male and verbal teachers. On the other hand, most male
teachers (31%) used the visual teaching style while only 9.4% of the female teachers
used the visual style. Furthermore, 11.9% of the male teachers used the active teaching
style, while 13.2% of the female teachers used the active style. Additionally, 7.1% of the
male teachers used the sequential teaching style, while 9.4% of the female teachers
used the sequential style. Moreover, 14.3% of the male teachers used the visual-active
teaching style, while only 1.9% of the female teachers used the visual-active style.
190
6.4.2.3 Teaching styles and Age
TABLE 6.34: TEACHING STYLE CROSS TABULATED AGAINST AGE OF
TEACHERS.
Teaching style Age
21-30 ears 31-40 years 41-50 years Above 50 years
% F % F % F % F
Concrete 25 1 25 1 25 1 25 1
Abstract 20 1 40 2 40 2 - -
Visual 38.9 7 38.9 7 22.2 4 - -
Verbal 34.6 9 38.5 10 19.2 5 7.7 2
Active 41.7 5 33.3 4 8.3 1 16.7 2
Passive - - - - 50 1 50 1
Sequential 25 2 37.5 3 25 2 12.5 1
Global 25 1 50 2 25 1 - -
Active-global 50 1 50 1 - - - -
Visual-active 28.6 2 42.8 3 28.6 2 - -
Abstract-verbal - - 100 2 - - - -
Active-sequential - - 100 1 - - - -
Concrete-sequential 50 1 50 1 - - - -
Active-verbal - - 100 1 - - - -
Concrete-visual 100 - - - - - - -
As depicted in Table 6.34, 25% of the concrete teaching style was used by teachers
between 21-30 years of age, 31-40 years of age, 41-50 years of age, and above 50
years of age. Again, 40% of the abstract style was used by teachers between 31 and 40
years of age, while 20% of the teachers who were between 21 and 30 years of age,
used this style. With regard to the sequential style, 37.5% of the teachers were in the
range of 31-40 years of age, whilst there were 25% of the teachers in the ranges of 21-
30 years and 41-50 years. In relation to the visual style, 38.9% of teachers are both in
the ranges 21-30 years of age and 31-40 years of age while 22.2% of the teachers were
between 41 and 50 years of age. With regard to the active style, 41.7% of the teachers
were in the range 21-30 years of age, whilst 33.3% and 8.3% of the teachers were in
the ranges of 31-40 and 41-50 years of age respectively.
191
6.5: MATCHING OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 1
TABLE 6.35: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 1
Teaching styles and learner marks in percentage
School 1 Learner Learning style teacher 1 Teacher 2 Teacher 3 Teacher 4 Teacher 5
Active-global Abstract Active Active Active
1 Sensory 54 52 44 48 38
2 Intuitive 46 66 23 44 47
3 Active 77 49 74 62 65
4 Sensory-global 65 54 29 48 61
5 Active-sequential 67 41 57 74 56
6 Visual 43 51 66 42 50
7 Active-intuitive 64 43 91 80 74
8 Visual-sequential 43 52 27 46 43
9 Verbal 27 39 64 62 68
10 Visual 52 46 47 35 28
TABLE 6.36: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 1
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
Matches Mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 5
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 3
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 1 15
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 2 7
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 6 5
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 4 0
Level 7(80-100% )-Outstanding achievement 2 0
Total 15 35
Tables 6.35 and 6.36 indicate that for learners on level 1 of achievement; there were 5
mismatching cases with regard to matching learning styles with teaching styles. On
level 2 of learner achievement, there were 3 mismatching cases. On level 3 of
192
achievement, learners experienced 1 matching case and 15 cases of mismatch in
teaching and learning styles. Again, on level 4 of achievement, there were 2 matching
cases and 7 mismatching cases in teaching and learning styles. On level 5 of
achievement, there were 6 cases that matched and 5 cases that did not match.
Additionally, on level 6 of achievement, there were 4 cases of matches between
learners' learning styles and teachers' teaching styles, and no mismatches of styles
occurred. Moreover, on level 7 of achievement, there were 2 cases where learners'
styles matched with the teachers' styles, and no mismatches of styles occurred.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 2
TABLE 6.37: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 2
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School2 learner learning style teacher 6 teacher 7 teacher 8 teacher 9 teacher 10
Verbal Verbal Visual Visual Global
11 Active-verbal 67 72 78 47 64
12 Active 53 67 72 45 66
13 Sequential 57 74 53 48 63
14 Active 52 64 37 43 24
15 Active 37 72 76 47 41
16 Global 47 66 72 42 59
17 Verbal 81 77 63 48 48
18 Global 58 77 54 44 67
19 Sensory 57 67 42 45 48
20 Visual 44 52 64 47 45
TABLE 6.38 MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 2
levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 1
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 2
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 1 16
Level 4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 1 8
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 3 8
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 2 7
Level 7(80-1 OO%)-Outstanding_achievement 1 0
Total 8 42
193
According to Tables 6.37 and 6.38, 1 case of a mismatch was found on level 1 of
achievement, whilst there were no cases of a match between the styles. On level 2 of
achievement, there were no cases of a match and 2 cases of a mismatch of teaching
and learning styles. Further, on level 3, there was 1 case of a match and 16 cases of
mismatches in the teaching and learning styles. Additionally, on level 4 of achievement,
there was 1 case of a match and 8 cases of mismatches in teaching and learning styles.
On level 5 of achievement, there were 3 cases of matches and 8 cases of mismatches
of teaching and learning styles. Moreover, in level 6 of achievement, there were 2 cases
of matches and 7 cases of mismatches in teaching and learning styles. Furthermore, on
level 7 of achievement, there was 1 case of a match and no cases of mismatches of
styles.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 3
TABLE 6.39: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 3
Teaching styles and Learners' exam marks in percentage
School Learner Learning teacherll teacher12 teacher13 teacher14 Teacher15
3 style
Active Visual Global Visual Visual
21 Active 77 55 62 58 67
22 Balanced 52 63 28 57 51
23 Balanced 57 72 43 48 75
24 Active- 66 46 29 47 53
verbal
25 Active 67 68 49 41 56
26 Active- 62 64 38 47 42
sequential
27 Visual- 67 64 25 41 43
active
28 Sensory 52 73 56 53 66
29 Sensory 59 61 47 42 51
30 Sensory 47 68 35 45 52
194
TABLE 6.40: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 3
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 1 2
Level 2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 2
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 2 12
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 4 10
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 6 7
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 3 1
Level 7(80-100% )-Outstanding achievement 0 0
Total 16 34
According to Tables 6.39 and 6.40, there were 2 cases of mismatches and 1 case of a
match in teaching and learning styles on level 1 of achievement. On level 2 of
achievement, there were no cases of matches and 2 cases of a mismatch in learning
and teaching styles. Again, on level 3 of achievement, there were 2 cases that matched
and 12 cases of mismatches in teaching and learning styles. Additionally, on level 4,
only 4 cases of a match occurred whilst there were 10 cases of mismatches. On level 5
of achievement, there were 6 cases that matched and 7 cases that mismatched in
teaching and learning styles. Moreover, on level 6 of achievement, 3 teaching and
learning styles matched while only 1 case of a mismatch occurred. Lastly on level 7 of
achievement, there were no cases of a match or a mismatch of teaching and learning
styles.
195
r
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 4
TABLE 6.41: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 4
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School4 learner learning style teacher16 teacher17 teacher18 teacher19 teacher20
Verbal Abstract Visual Visual Verbal
31 Verbal 42 63 47 42 59
32 Sensory 53 64 27 43 67
33 Sensory 45 52 53 57 42
34 Sensory 48 57 27 36 38
35 Sensory-global 46 53 22 34 59
36 Verbal 38 42 18 17 47
37 Sensory 37 62 27 29 38
38 Sensory 29 37 17 15 42
39 Visual-global 33 48 28 27 25
40 Visual 36 53 59 43 48
TABLE 6.42: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 4
levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 2 10
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 1 8
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 3 11
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 2 9
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 0 4
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 0 0
Level 7(80-100% )-OutstandinQ achievement 0 0
Total 8 42
As depicted in Tables 6.41 and 6.42, there were only 2 cases that matched and 10
cases of mismatches of teaching and learning styles on level 1 of achievement. On level
2 of achievement, there was only one match and 8 mismatches in teaching and learning
styles. On level 3 of achievement, there were 3 cases that matched and 11 cases of
mismatches of teaching and learning styles. Again, on level 4 (adequate achievement),
there were 2 cases that matched and 9 mismatched cases in teaching and learning
styles. In the case substantial achievement (level 5), there were 4 cases of mismatches
in teaching and learning styles.
196
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 5
TABLE 6.43: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 5
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
SchoolS Learner Learning style teacher21 Teacher2 teacher23 Teacher 24 teacher2S
2
Active Active Active Visual-active Sequential
41 Verbal 32 52 54 22 57
42 Balanced 56 76 89 73 47
43 Active 62 78 64 58 38
44 Verbal 53 61 46 54 42
45 Intuitive 51 47 52 58 38
46 Intuitive 53 72 54 56 28
47 Active-verbal 71 62 70 64 41
48 Active- 48 63 54 53 42
sequential
49 Active-verbal 41 63 42 67 33
50 Balanced 43 61 29 33 28
TABLE 6.44: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 5
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 2 2
Level 2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 1 4
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 5 5
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 4 11
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 8 1
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 5 1
Level 7(80-100%)-Outstanding achievement 1 0
Total 26 24
According to Tables 6.43 and 6.44, there were 2 cases of matches and 2 cases of
mismatches of teaching and learning styles on level 1 of achievement. On level 2 of
achievement, there was only 1 case that matched and 4 cases of mismatches in styles.
On level 3 of achievement, there were equal (5) cases that matched and a mismatched
in the case of these styles. On level 4 of achievement, there were 4 cases that matched
and 11 cases of mismatches of teaching and learning styles. On the other hand, on
level 5 of achievement, there were 8 cases that matched and 1 case of a mismatch.
197
Additionally, on level 6 of achievement, many cases (5) indicated a match of styles
whilst there was only 1 case of a mismatch. Lastly, on level 7 of achievement, there was
only one case of a match in teaching and learning styles.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 6
TABLE 6.45: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 6
Teaching styles and Learners' exam marks in percentages
School6 Learner Learning style teacher26 teacher27 teacher28 teacher29 teacher30
Verbal Verbal Passive Visual Verbal
51 Intuitive-verbal 63 71 61 54 72
52 Active 49 62 54 41 53
53 Intuitive 52 57 69 41 58
54 Active-intuitive 41 67 52 48 42
55 Verbal 72 65 58 46 44
56 Sensory 47 57 41 38 32
57 Active-sequential 44 52 38 29 35
58 Verbal 49 61 25 18 60
59 Verbal 52 63 26 38 42
60 Intu itive-verba I 44 65 28 29 78
TABLE 6.46: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 6
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 6
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 5
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 4 10
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 1 10
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 5 5
Level 6_(70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 4 0
Level 7(80-100% )-OutstandinQ achievement 0 0
Total 14 36
In accordance with Table 6.45 and table 6.46, level 1 of achievement in school 6 was
represented by 6 cases of mismatches in teaching and learning styles. On level 2 of
achievement, there were 5 cases of mismatches in these styles. Again, on level 3 of
achievement, there were 4 cases that matched and 10 cases of mismatches of teaching
198
and learning styles. At the same time, there was only 1 matching case and 10 cases
that did not match on level 4 of achievement. On level 5 of achievement, there were
equal cases (5) of matches and mismatches in teaching and learning styles.
Additionally, on level 6 of achievement, there were 4 cases that matched and none that
mismatched.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 7
TABLE 6.47: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 7
Teaching styles and Learners' exam marks in percentage
School7 Learner Learning teacher31 teacher32 teacher33 Teacher Teacher 35
style 34
Active Active Active Verbal Abstract-verbal
61 Intuitive - 57 62 51 56 44
verbal
62 Balanced 42 60 59 45 37
63 Balanced 47 63 39 67 59
64 Sensory 52 67 53 61 45
65 Sensory- 59 50 16 40 48
visual
66 Intuitive 46 62 28 49 36
67 Balanced 66 60 94 78 68
68 Sensory 52 54 44 58 37
69 Verbal 50 60 69 47 68
70 Reflective 57 64 67 53 45
TABLE 6.48: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 7
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 2
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 2 2
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 5 7
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 3 12
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 6 9
Level6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 1 0
LeveI7(80-100%)-Outstanding achievement 1 0
Total 18 32
199
In accordance with Tables 6.47 and 6.48, level 1 of achievement in school 7 was
represented by 2 cases of mismatches in teaching and learning styles. On level 2 of
achievement, there were equal (2) cases that matched and did not match in teaching
and learning styles. On level 3 of achievement, 5 cases of matches and 7 cases of
mismatches of styles were presented, whilst on level 4, there were 3 cases of matches
and 12 cases of mismatches. At the same time, on level 5 of achievement, there were 6
cases of matches and 9 cases of mismatches in teaching and learning styles. With
regard to level 7, only one matching case occurred.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 8
TABLE 6.49: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 8
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
SchoolS Learner Learning style teacher36 teacher37 teacher3S teacher39 teacher40
Verbal Verbal Visual Visual Verbal
71 Active 44 69 47 45 56
72 Reflective 54 73 51 47 56
73 Sensory-global 47 52 39 46 37
74 Reflective 44 61 41 58 47
75 Visual-sequential 42 56 49 28 44
76 Visual 29 42 79 47 34
77 Visual 46 32 68 54 37
78 Verbal 68 53 29 27 37
79 Visual-global 18 32 19 16 35
80 Sensory 29 55 48 37 41
TABLE 6.50: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 8
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1_(0-29%) - Not achieved 0 6
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 1 8
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 1 16
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 2 8
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 2 2
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 1 1
Level 7(80-100% )-Outstanding achievement 0 0
Total 9 41
200
As depicted in Tables 6.49 and 6.50, there were 6 mismatched cases with regard to
matching teaching and learning styles on level 1 of achievement in school 8. On level 2
of achievement, there was only 1 case that matched and 8 mismatched cases with
regard to teaching and learning styles. On level 3, there was also 1 matching case and
16 mismatched cases. Additionally, level 4 of achievement was represented by 2 cases
that matched and 8 cases that did not match whilst level 5 was represented by equal (2)
cases of matches and mismatches. Moreover, on level 6 of achievement, there were
equal (1) cases that matched and did not match.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 9
TABLE 6.51: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 9
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentages
School9 Learner Learning Teacher 41 Teacher 42 teacher43 Teacher 44 Teacher 45
style
Visual-active Verbal Active Abstract- Abstract
verbal
81 Visual 68 42 29 44 48
82 Global 23 52 34 31 43
83 Active 68 57 89 44 37
84 Visual 56 73 47 45 62
85 Visual 76 65 45 20 52
86 Sensory 42 65 29 44 38
87 Active 37 53 56 30 37
88 Visual- 94 43 47 47 73
sequential
89 Sensory 40 64 28 47 36
90 Visual 54 94 49 58 39
201
TABLE 6.52: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 9
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 5
Level 2130-39%)- Elementary achievement 1 8
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 0 16
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 3 5
Level 5_(60-69%)-Substantial achievement 2 4
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 1 2
Level 7(80-100%)-Outstanding achievement 2 1
Total 9 41
According to Tables 6.51 and 6.52, there were 5 mismatched cases with regard to
matching teaching and learning styles on level 1 of achievement. On level 2 of
achievement, only 1 matching case occurred, whilst there were 8 mismatched cases on
the same level. Additionally, level 3 of achievement was represented by 16 mismatched
cases, whilst level 4 was represented by 3 matched cases and 5 mismatched cases.
Again, level 5 of achievement was represented by 2 cases that matched and 4 cases
that did not match with regard to matching teaching and learning styles. At the same
time, level 6 of achievement was represented by 1 matching case and 2 mismatched
cases, while level 7 of achievement was represented by 2 cases that matched and 1
case that mismatched.
202
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 10
TABLE 6.53: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHINGI LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 10
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School Learner Learning teacher46 Teacher 47 Teacher 48 teacher49 Teacher 50
10 style
Sequential Sequential Visual- Visual Active-
active sequential
91 Visual-global 27 42 65 59 32
92 Sequential- 86 78 18 37 35
reflective
93 Visual-active 29 42 92 77 47
94 Verbal-active 32 29 36 44 42
95 Visual-global 29 27 60 48 39
96 Active-verbal 28 42 27 30 36
97 Sequential 50 47 29 42 54
98 Reflective- 72 66 27 23 81
sequential
99 Visual 36 57 39 17 38
100 Sensory 37 62 28 43 30
TABLE 6.54: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOLS 10
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 2 11
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 4 9
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 4 6
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 3 1
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 3 1
Level6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 3 0
Level 7180-100% )-Outstanding achievement 3 0
Total 22 28
As indicated in Tables 6.53 and 6.54, level 1 of achievement in school 10 was
represented by 2 matching cases and 11 mismatching cases with regard to matching
teaching styles of teachers and learning styles of their learners. Level 2 of achievement
was represented by 4 matching cases and 9 mismatching cases, whilst level 3 of
achievement was represented by 4 cases that matched and 6 cases that did not match
in teaching and learning styles. At the same time, level 4 of achievement was
represented by 3 cases that matched and 1 mismatched case, whilst level 6 of
203
achievement was represented by 3 cases that matched. Lastly, level 7 of achievement
was represented by 3 matching cases with regard to teaching and learning styles.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 11
TABLE 6.55: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHINGI LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 11
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
Schoolll learner learning style teacherSl teacherS2 teacherS3 teacherS4 teacher5S
Verbal Verbal Visual Visual Visual
101 Visual-active 62 60 78 77 92
102 Visual-active 58 63 47 59 51
103 Active 57 65 30 35 35
104 Sensory 45 66 35 42 38
105 Verbal 71 62 28 31 35
106 Intuitive 44 65 30 25 39
107 Sensory-reflective 29 54 37 30 39
108 Visual 37 50 64 49 60
109 Visual 38 54 59 40 48
110 Active 38 57 27 26 47
TABLE 6.56: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 11
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 5
Level 2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 15
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 4 4
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 3 6
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 3 6
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 3 0
Level 7(80-1 OO%)-OutstandinQ achievement 1 0
Total 14 36
From Tables 6.55 and 6.56, it is indicated that level 1 of achievement in school 11 was
represented by 5 mismatched cases in relation to matching teaching and learning
styles. Again, level 2 of achievement was represented by 15 cases that indicated
mismatches whilst level 3 of achievement was represented by equal (4) cases that
matched and did not match. Additionally, each of the levels 4 and 5 of achievement
204
were represented by 3 cases that matched and 6 cases that did not match. Lastly, level
6 of achievement was represented by 3 matching cases while level 7 of achievement
was represented by 1 matching case with regard to matching teaching and learning
styles.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 12
TABLE 6.57: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 12
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School 12 Learner Learning Teacher teachers7 Teacher 58 Teacher 59 Teacher60
style 56
Verbal Verbal Visual Concrete- Visual
sequential
111 Intuitive 42 46 30 43 39
112 Balanced 56 53 57 47 50
113 Reflective 44 57 45 45 52
114 Sensory 78 68 57 48 66
115 Sensory 47 52 38 47 55
116 Active 44 53 30 36 48
117 Balanced 41 57 65 53 67
118 Sensory 46 55 36 32 37
119 Active 32 59 30 36 39
120 sensory 34 37 30 32 37
TABLE 6.58: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 12
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 0
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 17
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 2 12
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 6 8
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 2 2
Level6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 0 1
Level 7(80-100%)-Outstanding achievement 0 0
Total 10 40
According to Tables 6.57 and 6.58, level 2 of achievement in school 12 was
represented by 17 cases that indicated mismatches in teaching and learning styles.
Again, level 3 of achievement was represented by 2 cases that indicated a match and
205
12 cases that indicated mismatches. Level 4 was represented by 6 cases that indicated
a match and 8 cases that indicated mismatches. Additionally, level 5 was represented
by equal (2) cases that indicated matches and mismatches whilst level 6 was
represented by 1 mismatching case with regard to matching teaching and learning
styles.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 13
TABLE 6.59: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 13
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School 13 Learner Learning style teacher61 teacher62 teacher63 teacher64 teacher65
Verbal Concrete Visual-active Visual Passive
121 Verbal 67 63 47 52 40
122 Global 42 60 47 41 44
123 Verbal 77 65 45 48 39
124 Intu itive-verba I 67 59 40 47 38
125 Sensory-visual 47 67 78 87 37
126 Sensory 40 85 29 41 30
127 Active 48 64 57 34 38
128 Balanced 42 63 20 48 30
129 Sensory 31 75 19 20 33
130 Visual 34 56 48 40 32
TABLE 6.60: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 13
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 2 2
Level 2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 1 10
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 4 14
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 1 3
Level 5_(60-69%)- Substantial achievement 3 5
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 3 0
Level 7(80-100% )-Outstanding achievement 2 0
Total 16 34
206
As depicted in Tables 6.59 and 6.60, level 1 of achievement in school 13 was
represented by equal (2) matched and mismatched cases with regard to matching
teaching and learning styles. Again, level 2 of achievement was represented by 1
matching case and 10 cases that indicated mismatches of teaching and learning styles,
while level 3 of achievement was represented by 4 cases that matched and 14 cases
that did not match in styles. Additionally, level 4 of achievement was represented by 1
matching case and 3 cases that did not match whilst level 5 of achievement was
represented by 3 cases that matched and 5 cases that did not match. Lastly, level 7 of
achievement in school 13 was represented by 2 cases that matched in teachers'
teaching styles and learners' learning styles.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 14
TABLE 6.61: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 14
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School14 Learner Learning style teacher66 teacher67 teacher68 teacher69 Teacher70
Verbal Verbal Abstract Global Verbal
131 Intuitive-verbal 54 61 41 47 60
132 Intuitive 59 45 73 37 52
133 Intuitive 41 67 89 43 59
134 Active-verba I 77 67 20 32 61
135 Sequential 55 52 27 38 52
136 Sensory- 43 61 19 28 44
sequential
137 Sensory- 57 65 29 26 37
sequential
138 Sensory 59 53 44 20 57
139 Sensory 45 65 20 25 36
140 Sensory 38 56 21 31 53
207
TABLE 6.62: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 14
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 10
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 7
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 0 9
Level 4150-59%)- Adequate achievement 1 12
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 4 4
Level6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 2 0
Level 7(80-100%)-Outstanding achievement 1 0
Total 8 42
In accordance with Tables 6.61 and 6.62, level 1 of achievement in school 14 was
represented by 10 mismatched cases with regard to matching teaching and learning
styles. Additionally, level 2 of achievement was represented by 7 cases that indicated
the mismatch of these styles whilst level 3 was represented by 9 cases that indicated
mismatches. In level 4, there was only 1 case that matched and 12 cases that did not
match in relation to teachers' teaching styles and learners' learning styles. Again, level 5
was represented by equal (4) cases that matched and did not match in teaching and
learning styles, while level 6 was represented by 2 cases that matched in these styles.
Lastly, level 7 of achievement was represented by 1 matching case in terms of teaching
and learning styles.
208
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 15
TABLE 6.63: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 15
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School15 Learner Learning style teacher71 teacher72 teacher73 teacher74 teacher75
Verbal Concrete Sequential Global Verbal
141 Visual-global 57 77 48 56 64
142 Visual-active 42 61 35 44 72
143 Visual-global 40 65 38 81 65
144 Sensory 48 83 47 51 44
145 Visual 42 66 26 53 57
146 Visual 44 61 20 44 53
147 Visual-active 45 63 21 32 48
148 Visual 27 52 28 19 36
149 Visual 38 54 39 47 35
150 Visual 46 67 26 48 32
TABLE 6.64: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 15
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 7
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 8
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 0 15
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 1 7
Level5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 0 8
Level6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 0 2
Level 7(80-100% )-Outstanding achievement 2 0
Total 3 47
From Tables 6.63 and 6.64, it is indicated that level 1 of achievement was represented
by 7 cases that indicated mismatches in learners' learning styles and teachers' teaching
styles in school 15. With regard to level 2, there were 8 cases that indicate the
mismatch of these styles, while level 3 is represented by 15 cases that indicated
mismatches. In addition, level 4 of achievement was represented by 1 case that
indicated a match and 7 cases that indicated mismatches, while level 5 of achievement
was represented by 8 cases of mismatches. Lastly, level 6 of achievement was
represented by 2 mismatching cases while level 7 of achievement was represented by 2
cases that indicated a match in these styles.
209
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 16
TABLE 6.65: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 16
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School16 Learner Learning style teacher76 teacher77 teacher78 teacher79 teacher80
Verbal Sequential Visual-active Concrete Verbal
151 Visual 55 63 58 42 59
152 Visual 42 58 67 45 46
153 Balanced 63 67 28 44 65
154 Visual-active 53 66 47 47 37
155 Visual 44 48 26 41 29
156 Sensory 43 56 20 81 52
157 Sensory global 33 37 25 70 44
158 Visual 41 27 17 26 42
159 Visual-active 37 39 19 28 41
160 Sensory 36 21 20 37 39
TABLE 6.66: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 16
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
LeveI110-29%) - Not achieved 1 11
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 1 7
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 1 15
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 0 6
Level5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 4 2
Level6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 1 0
Level 7(80-1 OO%)-Outstanding achievement 1 0
Total 9 41
As depicted in Tables 6.65 and 6.66, level 1 of achievement in school 16 was
represented by 1 case that indicated a match and 11 cases that indicated mismatches
in teacher' teaching styles and learners' learning styles. Level 2 of achievement was
represented by 1 case that indicated a match and 7 cases that indicated mismatches.
Level 3 was represented by 1 case that matched and 15 cases that did not match in
teaching and learning styles. Additionally, level 4 of achievement was represented by 6
mismatching cases while level 5 was represented by 4 cases that indicated a match and
2 cases that indicated mismatches of styles. At the same time, levels 6 and 7 were each
represented by 1 case of matching styles.
210
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 17
TABLE 6.67: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 17
Teachingstylesand learners'exam marks inpercentage
School 17 Learner Learning Teacher 81 teacher82 Teacher83 Teacher 84 Teacher 85
style
Abstract Verbal Active- Active- Visual-
global verbal active
161 Global 43 52 71 44 67
162 Global 53 78 32 47 63
163 Sensory 44 69 20 29 52
164 Active- 59 63 44 63 51
sequential
165 Visual 66 68 59 51 60
166 Sensory 52 67 44 53 46
167 Verbal- 28 51 20 27 32
active
168 Sensory 32 41 28 26 42
169 Visual 68 52 49 47 41
170 Active 33 59 66 66 71
TABLE 6.68: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 17
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 2 5
Level 2130-39%)- Elementary achievement 2 2
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 1 11
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 2 10
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 4 8
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 2 1
Level 7(80-100% )-Outstanding achievement 0 0
Total 13 37
From Tables 6.67 and 6.68, it is indicated that level 1 of achievement in school 17 was
represented by 2 cases that matched and 5 cases that did not match in teaching and
learning styles. In level 2 of achievement, there were equal (2) cases that matched and
mismatched in teaching and learning styles, while in level 3 there was only 1 case that
matched and 11 cases that indicated mismatches in these styles. Additionally, level 4
was represented by 2 cases that matched and 10 cases that did not match, while level 5
was represented by 4 cases that matched and 8 cases that did not match. Lastly, there
211
were 2 cases that matched and 1 case that indicated a mismatch in teaching and
learning styles on level 7.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 18
TABLE 6.69: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 18
Teaching styles and learners' exam marks in percentage
School 18 Learner Learning style teacher86 Teacher teacher88 teacher89 Teacher90
87
Verbal Concrete- Concrete- Sequential Verbal
sequential visual
171 Visual-active 57 93 95 78 76
172 Sensory-global 41 75 59 46 65
173 Sensory 48 59 48 46 67
174 Verbal 55 75 37 44 76
175 Visual 47 52 20 56 37
176 Active 49 73 37 46 59
177 Sensory- 38 56 40 53 44
sequential
178 Sensory 36 58 29 36 38
179 Active 28 53 30 37 36
180 Intuitive-verbal 41 56 37 30 43
TABLE 6.70: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 18
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 2 1
Level2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 0 12
Level 3140-49%)- Moderate achievement 4 9
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 6 6
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 0 2
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 2 4
Level 7(80-100%)-Outstanding achievement 1 1
Total 15 35
According to Tables 6.69 and 6.70, level 1 of achievement in school 18 was
represented by 2 cases that indicated a match and 1 case that indicated a mismatch in
teaching and learning styles. On level 2 of achievement, there were 12 cases of
212
mismatches of teaching and learning styles, while level 3 was represented by 4 cases of
matches and 9 cases of mismatches. Additionally, level 4 of achievement was
represented by equal (6) cases of matches and mismatches of these styles, while level
5 was only represented by 2 mismatches. Lastly, level 6 of achievement was
represented by 2 cases of matches and 4 cases of mismatches, while level 7 was
represented by equal (1) cases of a match and a mismatch.
• TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 19
TABLE 6.71: DISTRIBUTION OF TEACHING/LEARNING STYLES IN SCHOOL 19
Teaching styles and learners' marks in percentage
School19 Learner Learning style Teacher91 teacher92 teacher93 teacher94 teacher95
Sequential Sequential Active Visual-active Concrete
181 Verbal 57 66 42 53 78
182 Visual 44 69 29 63 42
183 Sensory-visual 56 66 43 75 62
184 Intuitive 43 72 37 36 33
185 Intu itive-verba I 36 71 31 36 38
186 Visual 28 64 42 72 58
187 Sequential 77 71 29 20 36
188 Sensory 38 62 44 29 61
189 Visual 47 37 47 45 41
190 Visual-global 44 42 46 63 48
213
TABLE 6.72: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACHIEVEMENT IN SCHOOL 19
Levels of achievement Frequency of Frequency of
matches mismatches
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 0 5
Level 2 (30-39%)- Elementary_ achievement 0 10
Level3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 1 14
Level4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 0 4
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 4 5
Level6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 3 4
Level 7(80-1 OO%)-Outstanding achievement 0 0
Total 8 42
In accordance with Tables 6.71 and 6.72, level 1 of achievement in school 19 was
represented by 5 mismatching cases in teaching and learning styles. Additionally, there
were 10 cases of mismatches of styles on level 2 of achievement, while level 3 of
achievement was represented by only 1 case that matched and 14 mismatching cases.
Moreover, level 4 of achievement was represented by 4 mismatching cases, while level
5 was represented by 4 cases that matched and 5 cases that did not match in teaching
and learning styles. At the same time, level 6 of achievement was represented by 3
cases that matched and 4 cases that did not match of teaching and learning styles.
214
• MATCHING OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES AND ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT IN ALL RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF LESOTHO
TABLE 6.73: MATCHING OF STYLES AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN ALL
SCHOOLS
Levels of achievement Matches Mismatches
f % F %
Level 1 (0-29%) - Not achieved 14 5.8 96 13.5
Level 2 (30-39%)- Elementary achievement 14 5.8 139 19.6
Level 3 (40-49%)- Moderate achievement 43 17.8 217 30.6
Level 4 (50-59%)- Adequate achievement 49 20.3 143 20.2
Level 5 (60-69%)- Substantial achievement 63 26.1 88 12.4
Level 6 (70-79%)- Meritorious achievement 38 15.8 24 3.4
Level 7(80-100% )-Outstanding achievement 18 7.5 2 0.3
Total 241 100 709 100
35
30
25
*.~" 20rac.. • Matches
.~.. 15
QJ
c, • Mismatches
10
5
o
Level1 Level 2 Level3 Level4 LevelS Level6 Level7
levels of achievement
FIGURE 6.25: MATCHING OF TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES IN ALL
SCHOOLS
According to Table 6.74 and Figure 6.26, level 1 of achievement (not achieved) was
represented by 5.8% matching cases and 13.5% mismatching cases of teaching and
learning styles in rural schools of Lesotho. On level 2 of achievement (elementary
achievement), there were 5.8% matching cases and 19.6% mismatching cases in
teaching and learning styles. On level 3 of achievement (moderate achievement), there
215
were 17.8% matching cases and 30.6% mismatching cases of teaching and learning
styles. On level 4 of achievement (adequate achievement), there were 20.3% of
matching cases and 20.2% of mismatching cases in teaching and learning styles.
Again, on level 5 (substantial achievement), there were 26.1% matching cases and
12.4% of mismatching cases with regard to matching teaching and learning styles.
Moreover, on level 6 of achievement (meritorious achievement), there were 15.8%
matching cases and 3.4% of mismatching cases while level 7 (outstanding
achievement) was represented by 7.5% of matching cases and 0.3% of mismatching
cases.
TABLE 6.74: SUMMARY OF ALL MATCHING AND MISMATCHING STYLES
Teaching and learning Frequency Percentage
styles
Match 241 25.4
Mismatch 709 74.6
Total 950 100
Percentage
• matches
• mismatches
FIGURE 6.26: DISTRIBUTION OF ALL MATCHING AND MISMATCHING STYLES
According to Table 6.73 and Figure 6.25, there were 74.6% mismatching cases and
25.4% matching cases of teaching and learning styles in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho.
216
6.6 STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE KNOWLEDGE AND ACCOMMODATION OF
LEARNING STYLES IN THE RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF LESOTHO
The data presentation in this section was in relation to the strategies that could be
employed to help teachers to acquire adequate knowledge on teaching to individual
learning styles. Questions 2.1 to 2.5 were asked to gather information with respect to
these strategies.
QUESTION 2.1: INFORMATION-SHARING SESSIONS
TABLE 6.75: INFORMATION-SHARING SESSIONS
Response Frequency Percent Valid percentage Cumulative percent
most Important strategy 47 49.5 52.8 52.8
least important strategy 33 34.7 37.1 89.9
Unimportant strategy 9 9.5 10.1 100
Total 89 93.7 100
Missing 6 6.3
Total 95 100
50
~ 40
QJ
trla.O.c...
30
.Q.J. 20u
QJ
c.. 10
0
most important least important unimportant
strategy strategy strategy
Responses
FIGURE 6.27: INFORMATION-SHARING SESSIONS
217
In accordance with Table 6.75 and Figure 6.27, 49.5% of the teacher respondents
indicated that information-sharing sessions form the most important strategy of
improving teachers' knowledge on learning styles in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho. Moreover, 34.7% of the teachers pointed out that this strategy was the least
important, whilst 9.5% of the teachers said it was unimportant to use information-
sharing sessions.
218
QUESTION 2.2: LEARNER-CENTERED CURRICULUM
TABLE 6.76: LEARNER-CENTERED CURRICULUM
Response Frequency Percentage Valid Cumulative
percentage percentage
most Important strategy 56 58.9 61.5 61.5
least important strategy 29 30.5 31.9 93.4
Onlmportant strategy 6 6.3 6.6 100
Total 91 95.8 100
Missing 4 4.2
Total 95 100
60
50
-*Q.I 40.Qt)n..l
C 30
Q.I
u... 20
Q.I
c..
10
0
most important least important unimportant
strategy strategy strategy
Responses
FIGURE 6.28: LEARNER-CENTERED CURRICULUM
The majority (58.9%) of the teachers asserted that learning styles knowledge and
individual learning styles could be accommodated mostly by the learner-centered
curriculum. Additionally, 30.5% of the teachers indicated that the learner-centered
curriculum was the least important strategy. On the other hand some teachers (6.3%)
considered this strategy to be unimportant.
219
QUESTION 2.3: PROVISION OF TEACHING MANUAL ON LEARNING STYLES
TABLE 6.77: PROVISION OF TEACHER MANUAL
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
most Important strategy 49 51.6 54.4 54.4
least important strategy 33 34.7 36.7 91.1
unimportant strategy 8 8.4 8.9 100
Total 90 94.7 100
5 5.3
Total 95 100
60
50
*-<II 40Qt)
.nc..
l
:.: 30
<II
u~ 20
<II
0. 10
0
most important least important unimportant
strategy strategy strategy
Responses
FIGURE 6.29: PROVISION OF TEACHER MANUAL
Both Figure 6.29 and Table 6.77 indicate that most teachers (51.6%) pointed out the
provision of a teacher's manual as the most important strategy in providing teachers
with knowledge on accommodating learners' individual learning styles. At the same
time, 34.4% of the teachers asserted that providing teachers with manuals was the least
important strategy, while 8.4% of the teachers were of the opinion that this strategy was
unimportant.
220
QUESTION 2.4: FURTHER STUDIES
TABLE 6.78: FURTHER STUDIES
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
most Important strategy 47 49.5 54 54
least important strategy 34 35.8 39.1 93.1
unimportant strategy 6 6.3 6.9 100
Total 87 91.6 100
Missing 8 8.4
Total 95 100
50
~ 40
-C1IQ.Ora 30c
C..1Iu. 20
C1I
0.. 10
0
most Important least important unimportant
strategy strategy strategy
Responses
FIGURE 6.30: FURTHER STUDIES
The responses in Figure 6.30 and Table 6.78 indicate that 49.5% of the teachers were
of the opinion that furthering their studies could improve knowledge on learning styles
and that, in turn, could enable them to accommodate individual learning styles in their
classes. In addition, 35.8% of the teachers said further studies could help to improve
knowledge on learning styles, but this strategy was the least important. On the contrary,
6.3% of the teachers contended that this strategy was unimportant.
221
QUESTION 2.5: STAFF DEVELOPMENT SESSIONS
TABLE 6.79: STAFF DEVELOPMENT SESSIONS
Response Frequency Percentage Valid percentage Cumulative percentage
most Important strategy 40 42.1 45.5 45.5
least important strategy 33 34.7 37.5 83
unimportant strategy 15 15.8 17 100
Total 88 92.6 100
Missing 7 7.4
Total 95 100
45
40
*- 35(Ij 30.Q.OtU 25c.:.
(..Ij
20
u. 15
(Ij
c.. 10
5
0
most important least important unimportant
strategy strategy strategy
Responses
FIGURE 6.31: STAFF DEVELOPMENT SESSIONS
Some teachers (42.1%), as indicated in Table 6.79 and Figure 6.31, asserted that staff
development sessions were most important in providing teachers in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho with adequate knowledge on learning styles. In addition, 34.7% of
the teachers said these sessions were the least important, whilst 15.8% indicated that
they were unimportant.
From the tables and figures in this section, data has presented on different strategies
that could be employed to improve teachers' knowledge on learning styles and to
effectively engage teachers in addressing individual learning styles in their classes.
222
Table 6.80 illustrates data on this information, clearly indicating differences in all
strategies.
TABLE 6.80: SUMMARY OF STRATEGIES OF IMPROVING LEARNING STYLE
KNOWLEDGE IN LESOTHO
Strategies Most important Least important Unimportant
% % %
Information-sharing sessions 49.5 34.7 9.5
Learner-centered curriculum 58.9 30.5 6.3
Teacher manual 51.6 34.7 8.4
Further studies 49.5 35.8 6.3
Staff development sessions 42.1 34.7 15.8
From Table 6.80 above, the majority (58.9%) of the teachers asserted that the learner-
centered curriculum could effectively increase teachers' knowledge and accommodation
of learning styles in class. Secondly, teachers (51.6%) contended that the provision of a
teacher's manual could be the most important strategy regarding this issue of
addressing individual learning styles. Thirdly, further studies were considered by some
teachers (49.5%) to be the most important strategy. With regard to information sharing
sessions and staff development sessions, teachers (49.5% and 42.1 %) respectively,
were of the opinion that these strategies were the most important in promoting teachers'
learning style knowledge.
223
6.7 CONCLUSION
The empirical findings indicated that many teachers (43.2%) in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho did not have adequate knowledge on teaching and learning styles.
As for those teachers (56.8%) who had adequate knowledge, the implementation of
learning style instruction was a problem as a result of certain factors. The findings also
included data on the dominant teaching styles and predominant learning styles in these
schools. Moreover, it was indicated in the findings that there were many cases in which
teachers' teaching styles did not match their learners' learning styles. Lastly, teachers
had suggested ways that could be employed to promote their knowledge on learning
styles and address their learners' learning styles. In the next chapter, these findings will
be discussed.
224
CHAPTER 7
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONLUSION
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The main aim of the study was to improve the academic achievement of learners in the
rural secondary schools of Lesotho, by matching teaching and learning styles. This
study was undertaken by means of a literature study and an empirical investigation,
from which certain findings and recommendations can be made based on the data that
was collected. The findings are discussed with regard to the research questions by
considering both the literature and the empirical results. In an attempt to improve the
academic achievement of learners in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho,
recommendations and conclusions are drawn from these findings.
7.2 FINDINGS
In this section, findings are discussed in accordance with the order and content required
to address the research questions of this study.
7.2.1 Do teachers have adequate knowledge about teaching and learning styles in
order to direct their teaching to learning styles of their learners?
7.2.1.1 Knowledge about teaching and learning styles.
From the empirical investigation, only 56.8% of the teachers indicated that they had
knowledge about learning styles (cf. Table 6.12 & Figure 6.9) while 62.9% of the
teachers said they had enough knowledge about teaching styles (cf. Table 6.14 &
Figure 6.11). Knowledge of learning styles would imply that the teacher also knew the
225
factors that could influence the development of learning styles (cf. 2.5). Only 53.7% of
the teacher respondents (cf. Table 6.19) indicated that they had knowledge of the
factors that could influence these styles. These empirical findings implied that about
half of the teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho had little or no
knowledge about the teaching and learning style literature. Despite the large number of
teachers who did not have enough knowledge on teaching and learning styles, 97.9% of
the teacher respondents (cf. Table 6.17) indicated that knowledge of learning styles was
very important for teachers. Knowledge about teaching and learning styles provides the
teacher with a basis for the selection of teaching/learning materials and methods,
procedures for grouping, and ways to individualize instruction (cf. 2.6, 3.5 & 3.6).
The percentages above indicated that there were many teachers in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho, who were going into the classrooms to teach while they had limited
or no knowledge about the different styles of teaching and learning. These teachers
could be lacking knowledge that could enable them to identify their own teaching styles
and their learners' learning styles, and also could enable them to provide appropriate
instruction that matched these styles to improve academic achievement (cf. 2.6.2, 3.6 &
4.3.3.3).
Most teachers (81.6%) in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho indicated that effective
teaching could be enhanced by matching teaching and learning styles (cf. Table 6.20 &
Figure 6.17). In accordance with the literature, effective teaching could be improved by
using teaching styles that addressed the learning styles of the learners (cf. 2.6.5, 3.3 &
3.4.3). These findings implied that teachers needed to direct their teaching to the
learning styles of their learners to promote teaching and learning.
7.2.1.2 Need for training
With regard to training, 53.6% of the teachers disagreed and 5.3% strongly disagreed
as to having sufficient training to teach learners with different learning styles (cf. Table
6.15, Figure 6.12 & 4.3.3.2). At the same time, the majority (81.1 % and 16.8%) of the
teachers were of the opinion that special training in learning styles was required for
226
teachers in order to address their learners' learning styles (cf. Table 6.21, Figure 6.18 &
6.3.4). This training might need to be done in light of the educational qualifications of
teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho.
• Academic qualification
Most teachers (34.7%) asserted that they had the first degree in the subjects
they taught. Furthermore, 33.7% of the teachers held a diploma, whilst 23.2%
had certificates. Moreover, 6.3% of the teachers were teaching with a high school
qualification (cf. Table 6.6 & Figure 6.4). These results indicate that only a few
teachers held a university degree. Some teachers had a diploma, which implied
that they might have enough knowledge of the content they taught. On the other
hand, teachers with certificates and high school qualification might be lacking
regarding knowledge of the subjects they teach and as such that they might find
it difficult to handle new material or address individual learning styles (cf. 3.4.1 &
4.3.3.2).
• Teaching experience
The majority (57.9%) of the teachers had teaching experience that ranged
between 1 and up to 10 years. Teachers that had teaching experience between
11 and 20 years were represented by 29.5%. The most experienced teachers
with 21 to 30 years and above 30 years in teaching, were represented by a lower
number of teachers (9.5% and 1.1%) respectively (cf. Table 6.7 & Figure 6.5).
The empirical results indicated that most teachers had little teaching experience.
In accordance with the literature, training in teaching and learning styles might
help these teachers to understand their learners better, to be able to direct their
teaching to the styles of learners with ease (cf. 2.5.1.4, 2.6 & 3.4.3).
• Professional qualification
Only a few teachers (3.2%) had post-graduate degrees in teaching. Some
teachers (27.4%) indicated that they had diplomas in teaching, whilst 21% had
degrees. Again, 24.2% of the teachers had teaching certificates while 24.2% of
the teachers did not have the teaching qualifications (cf. Table 6.8 & Figure 6.6).
227
The latter implies that these teachers did not have knowledge in teaching and
learning styles unless they were given special training (cf. 1.2 & 4.3.3.2).
Considering the number of teachers (cf. Table 6.15, Figure 6.12 & 7.2.1.2) who
indicated that they were insufficiently trained in learning styles, it seemed that
even those teachers who had teaching qualification did not have enough
knowledge on teaching and learning styles.
7.2.1.3 Factors or problems that inhibit the accommodation of learning styles in
the rural secondary schools of Lesotho
• Overcrowded classes
The vast majority (72.6%) of teachers were of the opinion that overcrowded
classes inhibited the use of instruction that could address the individual learning
styles of all learners in their classes. Some teachers (16.8%) indicated that
although overcrowding affected their teaching with regard to learning styles, this
influence was limited to a small extent. A small number of teachers (9.5%)
asserted that overcrowded classes had no influence in addressing learning styles
(cf. Table 6.22, Table 6.28 & Figure 6.19). These results indicated that
overcrowding was a serious problem for most of the teachers in the rural schools
of Lesotho, which in turn, could be the reason for low academic achievement of
learners (cf. 4.3.3.4).
• Too much subject content and time pressure
The vast majority (69.5%) of teachers indicated that too much subject content
and time pressure by a large extent, did not allow them to teach to their learners'
learning styles. At the same time, 26.3% of the teachers pointed out that it was
only to a small extent that the subject content and time pressure influenced their
teaching with regard to learning styles. Additionally, 3.2% of the teachers on the
other hand indicated that they were not affected by subject content or time
pressure (cf. Table 6.23, Table 6.28 & Figure 6.20). From these results, it
seemed that there was too much subject content in the curriculum of Lesotho, to
228
such an extent that teachers were pressured by time to complete the content. In
turn, this problem did not allow teachers to address the learning styles of their
learners (cf. Figure 6.15 & 2.5.1).
• Following the strict syllabus
With regard to the syllabus, 50.5% of the teachers in the rural secondary schools
of Lesotho were of the opinion that the strict syllabus to a large extent influenced
teaching to the learning styles. In addition, 37.9% of the teachers indicated that
the influence was to a small extent, while other teachers (10.5%) said it did not
influence the way they taught with regard to learning styles (cf. Table 6.24, Table
6.28 & Figure 6.21). The results indicated that almost half of the teachers felt that
the syllabus was too strict and did not leave room for the accommodation of
individual learning styles (cf. 2.3.5 & 4.3.3.7).
• Preparing learners for standardized external exams
With regard to external exams, 38.9% of the teachers in the rural secondary
schools of Lesotho asserted that preparing learners for the standardized external
exams could largely affect the attempts of addressing the individual learning
styles of their learners. In addition, 41.1 % of the teachers said this influence was
only so to a small extent while some teachers (18.9%) said it was not affecting
them at all (cf. Table 6.25, Table 6.28 & Figure 6.22). These results imply that to
some extent, the standardized external examinations also negatively influenced
the teachers' attempts to accommodate individual learning styles in their classes.
This could mean that these teachers spent most of the teaching time preparing
and drilling learners for the external examinations, while depriving learners of an
environment of meaningful learning and the development of critical-thinking skills
(cf. 2.3.5, 3.4.1 & 4.3.3.3).
• Use and availability of various teaching aids
Most teachers (50.5%) asserted that the use and availability of teaching aids
influenced teaching learners with regard to their learning styles. In addition,
229
37.9% of the teachers indicated that the influence was to a small extent. On the
other hand, 10.5% of the teachers differed in that they said that the use and
availability of teaching aids did not affect them in addressing individual learning
styles (cf. Table 6.26, Table 6.28 & Figure 6.23). Therefore, it seems that the
secondary schools in the rural areas of Lesotho did not have enough teaching
aids that would otherwise help teachers to address the learning styles and needs
of learners, and thus improve academic achievement (cf. 2.5.1.4 & 4.3.3.1).
• Knowledge of the learning process .
Some teachers (42.1 %) in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho were of the
opinion that knowledge of the learning process influenced their attempts to teach
to their learners' individual learning styles. At the same time, some teachers
(38.9%) asserted that this influence was only to a small extent, while a few
teachers (16.8%) said that this knowledge was not influential (cf. Table 6.27,
Table 6.28 & Figure 6.24). According to these results, knowledge of the learning
process was the least influential factor in addressing learning styles of learning in
the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. This implies that teachers might be
feeling they have enough knowledge of the learning process.
From the above findings, overcrowding (72.6%) seemed to be the biggest problem of
teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho with regard to attempts to
accommodate learners' individual learning styles. Secondly, too much subject content
and time pressure (69.5%) also largely affected measures of addressing learning styles.
Thirdly, the strict syllabus and availability of teaching aids (50.5%) had strong influences
on learning styles. Knowledge of the learning process (42.1 %) and preparing for the
external examinations (38.9%) also influenced the accommodation of learning styles. In
addition, teachers identified some problems that also impacted negatively on the
attempts to address individual learning styles. These problems were: lack of knowledge
on learning styles, the use of English as a language of instruction and lack of learners'
motivation to participate in the learning process (cf.2.4.2.1, 2.6.2, 4.3.1.2, 4.3.3.5 &
6.3.4).
230
7.2.2 What are the predominant learning styles of learners and dominant
teaching styles of teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho?
The literature and empirical findings in relation to the predominant learning styles and
the dominant teaching styles are discussed in this section.
7.2.2.1 Dominant learning styles
The empirical findings indicated that most (94.7%) of the learners in the rural secondary
schools had only one or two dominant learning styles. Within this 94.7% category of
learners, 66.4% of them had only one or single predominant learning styles (cf. Table
6.29). The literature findings coincide with regard to this idea in that people can have
combinations of learning styles, but only one or two styles are normally dominant (cf.
2.2.3 & 2.4.2.2). Again, in comparison with other learning styles, the sensory learning
style was used by most of the learners (18.4%). The visual learning style was the
second most dominant learning style as 15.8% of the learners made use of the visual
learning style. Thirdly, 10 % of the learners used the active style, which made it the third
dominant learning style. Fourthly, 9.5% of the learners used the verbal learning style,
while 5.3% of the learners used the intuitive learning style. This implies that there were
five mostly used learning styles in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. All other
styles were represented by a low percentage of learners (less than 5% per style).
Teachers should, however, use teaching styles that match all the learning styles in their
classes, regardless of how many learners have the same style. At the same knowledge
of the frequency of learning styles can help the teacher to group learners according to
their preferences when assigning assignments (2.4.2.4, 3.5.1 & 3.6).
7.2.2.2 Dominant learning styles and gender
The literature and empirical findings indicated that there were differences in the learning
styles of males and females (cf. 2.5.1.1 & Table 6.30). The empirical findings indicated
that 15.9 % of the sensory learners were males whilst 20.6% of the sensory learners
231
were females. Further, 14.8% of visual learners were males, whilst 16.6% of the visual
learners were females. Additionally, only 4.6% of the verbal learners were males, while
13.7% of the verbal learners were females. Moreover, 11.4 % of the active learners
were males, while 8.8% of the active learners were females (cf. Table 6.30). These
empirical findings imply that males were more inclined to the active learning style, while
the females were inclined to the verbal and sensory learning styles (2.5.1.1 & 2.5.1.5).
7.2.2.3 Dominant learning styles and age
From the empirical study, the findings indicated no significant differences in learning
styles of learners in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho (cf. Table 6.31). These
findings implied that there were no significant changes in learning styles in the range of
14 to 24 years of age. On the other hand, the literature findings indicated that the
abstract learning style dominated in the case of learners of 18 years of age and above
(cf. 2.5.1.2). This not may imply that there were other factors, such as parenting styles
in the rural areas of Lesotho, that influenced the development of learning styles of the
learners (cf. 2.5.1.3 & 2.5.2)
7.2.2.4 Dominant teaching styles
Empirical findings indicated that most teachers (27.3%) used the verbal teaching style
and this made it the most dominant teaching style in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho. The second dominant teaching style was the visual one, as 18% of the
teachers used the visual teaching style. In the third place was the active teaching style
because 12.6% of the teachers used the active teaching style. The fourth dominant
teaching style was sequential because 8.4% of the teachers used the sequential
teaching style. In the fifth place was the combination of the active and the visual
teaching styles, because the empirical findings indicated that 7.4% of the teachers used
the active-visual teaching style. Other mostly used teaching styles included the abstract,
concrete and global teaching styles (cf. Table 6.31).
232
7.2.2.5 Dominant teaching styles and gender
From the empirical findings, the only significant differences in the relationship of
dominant teaching styles and age were in the verbal and visual teaching styles. These
findings indicated that most female teachers (39.6%) used the verbal teaching style,
while there were only 11.9% of the male teachers who used the verbal style. On the
other hand, most male teachers (31%) used the visual teaching style, whilst only 9.4%
of the female teachers used the visual style (cf. Table 6.32). The implication of these
findings is that most male teachers in the rural secondary schools used the visual
teaching style while most female teachers used the verbal teaching style. There was
also a relationship of styles in the case of female teachers and learners in that most of
the female teachers used the verbal teaching style and most learners used the verbal
learning styles. Therefore it might be possible that these female teachers were using the
teaching style that corresponded with the learners' own learning styles (cf. 2.6.2 &
3.2.4).
7.2.2.6 Dominant teaching styles and age
From the empirical study, the most significant differences in teaching styles and age
were found in the most dominant styles (cf. Table 6.33 & Table 6.31). In these findings,
40% of the abstract style was used by teachers between the ages of 31and 40 years of
age, whilst 20% of the teachers who were between the ages of 21 and 30 years, used
this style. In this case, it can be concluded that the tendency to use the abstract
teaching style was in the range of 31-40 years. With regard to the sequential style,
37.5% of the teachers were in the range of 31-40 years of age, whilst there were 25% of
teachers in the ranges of 21-30 years and 41-50 years of age. This implies that middle-
aged teachers (31-40 years) tended to use the sequential teaching style than other
teachers and other teaching styles. In relation to the visual style, teachers in the range
of 21-40 years of age tended to use the visual teaching style more than teachers of
other ages. With regard to the active style, 41.7% of the teachers were in the range of
21-30 years of age, while 33.3% and 8.3% of the teachers were in the ranges of 31-40
and 41-50 years of age respectively. This implies that young teachers tended to use the
233
active teaching style more than older teachers. In other words, the cases of using the
active teaching style decreased with the increase in age of teachers.
7.2.3 To what extent does matching teaching and learning styles improve
learners' academic achievement?
From the empirical findings (cf. Table 6.73 & Figure 6.25), level 1 of achievement (not
achieved) in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho was represented by 5.8% matching
cases and 13.5% mismatching cases of teaching and learning styles. These figures
indicated a huge number of mismatches that inhibited the academic achievement of
learners. On level 2 of achievement (elementary achievement), there were 5.8%
matching cases and 19.6% mismatching cases in teaching and learning styles. These
findings showed that many learners in the elementary achievement level experienced
many mismatches in their teachers' teaching styles and their own learning styles, and
thus performed poorly.
On level 3 of achievement (moderate achievement), there were 17.8% matching cases
and 30.6% mismatching cases of teaching and learning styles. This level of
achievement was represented by many matching and mismatching cases in relation to
teaching and learning styles. There were, however, more mismatches than matches,
which implied that many learners experienced conflicts in the way they learned and the
way they were taught. This situation could be the cause of low academic achievement
(cf. 3.6 & 3.7)
On level 4 of achievement (adequate achievement), there were 20.3% of matching
cases and 20.2% of mismatching cases in teaching and learning styles. Again, on level
5 (substantial achievement), there were 26.1 % of matching cases and 12.4% of
mismatching cases with regard to matching teaching and learning styles. Moreover, on
level 6 of achievement (meritorious achievement), there were 15.8% of matching cases
and 3.4% of mismatching cases while level 7 (outstanding achievement) was
represented by 7.5% of matching cases and 0.3% of mismatching cases.
234
From level 4 to level 7 of achievement, which could be considered to be above the
margin of success, there were 69.7% of matching cases and 36.3% of mismatching
cases. From these figures, there were 33.4% more matching cases. In addition, from
levels 1 up to 3 of achievement (below 50%), there were 34.3% more mismatching
cases. This trend of differences indicated that matching teaching and learning styles
enhanced learners' academic achievement to a large extent (cf. 3.6, 3.7 & 4.3.3.3).
Lastly, the empirical findings of this study indicated that there were 74.6% of totally
mismatched cases and 25.4 % of totally matched cases of teaching and learning styles
in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. These figures implied that the majority of the
teachers in these schools did not match their teaching styles with the learning styles of
their learners.
7.2.4 What strategies can be deduced from these research findings to help in
addressing learning styles of learners in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho?
7.2.4.1 Information-sharing sessions
From the empirical findings, 49.5% of the teacher respondents indicated that
information-sharing sessions formed the most important strategy of improving teachers'
knowledge on learning styles in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. Additionally,
34.7% of the teachers pointed out that this strategy was the least important, while 9.5%
said it was unimportant to use information-sharing sessions (cf. Table 6.75 & Figure
6.27). These findings indicated that about half of the teacher respondents were of the
opinion that information-sharing sessions were very important. This implied that this
strategy could be of benefit to teachers in terms of providing knowledge on teaching and
learning styles.
235
7.2.4.2 Learner-centered curriculum
The majority (58.9%) of the teachers asserted that learning styles knowledge and
individual learning styles could be accommodated mostly by the learner-centered
curriculum. Again, 30.5% of the teachers indicated that the learner-centered curriculum
was the least important strategy. On the other hand some teachers (6.3%) considered
this strategy to be unimportant (cf. Table 6.76 & Figure 6.28). These empirical findings
correlated with the literature in that the learner-centered curriculum is essential for
guiding teachers to use teaching methods and styles that can develop creativity,
independence and also address individuals' learning styles (cf. 2.3.5, 3.4.2, 3.4.3, 3.5.2
& 4.3.3.7).
7.2.4.3 Provision of teacher manual on learning styles
Most teachers (51.6%) pointed out that the provision of a teacher manual as the most
important strategy in providing teachers with knowledge on accommodating learners'
individual learning styles. At the same time, 34.7% of the teachers asserted that
providing teachers with manuals was the least important strategy, while 8.4% of the
teachers were of the opinion that this strategy was unimportant (cf. Figure 6.29 & Table
6.77). These empirical findings indicated that many teachers (total of 86.3%) were of the
opinion that the provision of a teacher guide/manual in the rural schools of Lesotho
could be very important to teachers in acquiring knowledge on accommodating their
learners' learning styles, while 8.4% of the teachers did not agree with this notion.
7.2.4.4 Further studies
The empirical findings indicated that 49.5% of the teachers were of the opinion that
furthering their studies could improve knowledge on learning styles and that, in turn,
could enable them to accommodate individual learning styles in their classes. In
addition, 35.8% of the teachers said further studies could help to improve knowledge on
learning styles, but this strategy was the least important. On the contrary, 6.3% of the
teachers contended that this strategy was unimportant (cf. Table 6.78 & Figure 6.30).
236
These findings indicated that a good number of teachers asserted and realized the need
to further their studies in order to gain knowledge on learning styles (cf. 4.3.3.2).
7.2.4.5 Staff development sessions
From the empirical findings, 42.1 % of teachers asserted that staff development
sessions were most important in providing teachers in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho with adequate knowledge on learning styles. Again, 34.7% of the teachers said
these sessions were the least important, while 15.8% of the teachers indicated that they
were unimportant (cf. Table 6.79 & Figure 6.31). This strategy seemed to be the least
important when considering the number of teachers who thought they could benefit from
staff development with regard to other strategies.
In light of the above findings, it can be concluded that the learner-centered curriculum
might be the most effective strategy that could increase teachers' knowledge about
learning styles and help teachers to accommodate learners' learning styles in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho. Secondly, the provision of a teacher's manual was the
second most-important strategy in addressing individual learning styles. Thirdly, further
studies were ranked as the third most-important form of strategy in addressing these
styles. The information-sharing sessions and staff development sessions were
considered to be the least important in promoting teachers' learning style knowledge
and addressing learning styles (cf. Table 6.34).
The literature review and empirical findings discussed above indicate that the research
objectives of this study have been achieved. These objectives were: to determine
whether teachers have adequate knowledge with regard to teaching and learning styles
to direct their teaching to their learners' learning styles; to identify the predominant
characteristic learning styles of learners and teaching styles of teachers in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho; to find the extent to which matching teaching and
learning styles improve learners' academic achievement; and to provide a teacher's
guide/manual in assessing and accommodating different learning styles in one class.
237
7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Since the literature and empirical findings of this study have been outlined and
discussed, some recommendations can be made with regards to the research
questions.
7.3.1 Teaching and learning style knowledge
Most teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho seem to have limited
knowledge on teaching and learning styles, while for some teachers, who have enough
of this knowledge their attempts to address individual learning styles are affected by
some inhibiting factors. In this respect, it is recommended that:
• Student-teachers should be given intensive guidance and training in teaching
and learning styles at the universities and colleges. This is to ensure that
teachers already possess knowledge in learning styles when they are employed
at schools (cf. 2.6.2 & 4.3.3.2).
• Attempts to teach to learners' learning styles should be one of the main aspects
when assessing student-teachers that are in teaching practice (cf. 2.6.2 & 3.6).
This assessment should be done with regards to lesson planning, presentation
and learner assessment, which cater for individual learning styles of learners (cf.
Chapter 8).
• In-service training workshops in learning styles should be provided for unqualified
teachers. All graduate teachers should also enroll in these workshops within the
first year of their employment (cf. 2.6.2, 4.3.3.2 &7.2.1.2).
• The NCDC in Lesotho should review the subject syllabus and reduce the content
and incorporate activities and objectives that are relevant to learners with
different learning styles. The syllabus should provide opportunity for a variety of
238
activities such as group-work, individual experiments, and guided projects, that
are learner-centered (cf. 3.4.2, 4.3.3.7 & 7.2.1.3)
• Lesotho Ministry of Education should provide schools with resources, such as
teaching aids, classrooms, libraries, and laboratories to ensure that teachers
have the necessary resources to teach their learners. This will ensure that there
are adequate teaching materials and space for addressing individual learning
styles in classes (cf. 2.5.2.2,4.3.3.1 & 7.2.1.3).
• Learners should be provided with a strong foundation in the English language,
because communication in English inhibits the effectiveness of instruction for
learners in the rural schools of Lesotho. At the same time, teachers who teach
subjects other than the English language should receive intensive training in
Basic English communication skills (cf. 4.3.3.5 & 7.2.1.3).
7.3.2 Predominant teaching and learning styles
Teachers can differ in the teaching styles they use, normally with a teacher using one or
two predominant teaching styles. In the same manner, learners can also possess one or
two dominant learning styles (cf. 2.2.3 & 2.4.2.2). In this respect, it is recommended
that:
• Teachers in the rural schools of Lesotho should be provided with the instruments
they can use for measuring their teaching styles and learning styles of their
learners (cf. 2.5.6, 3.6, 8.4.1 & 8.4.2).
• Teachers should help learners to identify their own learning styles so as to
understand their strengths and challenges (cf. 2.6.1 & 3.6).
• Teachers should measure their own teaching styles and their learners' learning
styles at the beginning of each school year and each time they teach a new class
(cf. 3.6 & 8.3). This implies that identification of the teachers' dominant teaching
239
styles and learners' predominant styles should be the basic exercise before the
teaching and learning process can take place.
7.3.3 Matching of teaching and learning styles
The findings of this research indicated that mismatches do exist in the teaching styles of
teachers and their learners' learning styles. It was also found that matching teaching
and learning styles enhances academic achievement. In this regard, it is recommended
that:
• Teachers should match their teaching styles with the learning styles of their
learners in most lessons to enhance their learners' academic achievement. This
implies that lesson planning, presentation and assessment should be directed to
matching teaching and learning styles (cf. 2.4.2.3, 2.4.2.4, 3.4.3, 3.5.1 & 3.6).
• Teachers should dedicate one lesson per week to deliberate mismatches of
teaching and learning styles. In this case, teachers should also establish and use
teaching techniques that could address learners' challenges (cf. 3.4.3, 3.6 & 3.7).
7.3.4 Strategies on addressing learning styles in Lesotho
From the findings on strategies that can be employed to promote teachers' knowledge
on learning styles and to ensure that learning styles are addressed, some
recommendations can be made. In this respect, it is recommended that:
• The NCDC in Lesotho should find ways of ensuring that the teaching and
learning process are entirely learner-centered, as required by the new
curriculum. The implementation of learning styles in schools can be a drive for
learner-centered learning environments in schools of Lesotho (cf. 4.3.3.7 & 6.6).
• Teachers in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho (qualified or unqualified)
should be provided with teacher guides on the techniques that can be employed
240
to identify and address the individual learning styles of their learners (cf. 6.6 &
Chapter 8).
• Lesotho Ministry of Education should encourage teachers to further their studies
in education. This encouragement should include an increase in salaries for
qualified specialist teachers. Again, to ensure that qualified teachers have
interest in working in the rural schools, the Ministry of Education should provide
reasonable incentives, such as mountain allowances and housing for these
teachers (cf. 4.3.3.2).
• In-service training workshops that incorporate learning styles should be provided
for teachers in the rural areas of Lesotho in order to promote knowledge of
teaching and learning styles. Again, these workshops should be localized so that
teachers in the rural schools are able to attend them.
In summation, the literature review and empirical findings indicate that consideration of
teaching and learning styles is important for effective teaching and learning. The
researcher contends from the constructivist perspective that the primary responsibility of
the teacher is to create and maintain a collaborative problem-solving environment,
where learners are allowed to construct their own knowledge and teachers serve as
facilitators (cf. 2.3.5). It seems important for teachers in the rural secondary schools of
Lesotho to understand how learners construct meaning in learning and how learning
styles can be addressed to promote academic achievement. It also seems important for
teachers to expose learners in the rural schools of Lesotho to the learner-centered
learning environment that can promote independent learning and critical thinking skills.
Again, it can be of importance that the Ministry of Education in Lesotho supports
teachers by providing them with resources and training that is required to improve the
knowledge of teachers and the implementation of learning style-directed teaching. To
ensure this support, the Ministry of Education of Lesotho, through its departments, such
as the National Curriculum Development Centre (NCDC), should develop and
implement the Learning Styles Programme (LSP) in the secondary schools of Lesotho.
Finally, teachers should use teaching styles that match their learners' learning styles in
order to enhance academic achievement in the rural secondary schools of Lesotho.
241
7.4 RECOMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The following aspects of research in teaching and learning styles are recommended for
further investigation:
• Similar research in the urban secondary schools of Lesotho should be conducted
in order to determine the differences of the findings between rural and urban
areas.
• Research should be conducted to determine the trend of learning styles with age.
• Further research is required to determine the relationship between learning styles
and the pass rate across different school subjects.
• More research is required on the influence of matching teaching and learning
styles on academic achievement.
• Research should be conducted on the aspects of developing and implementing
learning styles programs in the primary, secondary and high schools of Lesotho.
7.5 CONCLUSION
This study is meant to enhance the academic achievement of learners in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho by matching teaching and learning styles. Findings from
the literature and empirical investigation indicate that it is possible to enhance academic
achievement by matching these styles. Therefore it is hoped that these findings can be
used to improve the teaching and learning process and ultimately the level of success
that learners can experience in school. As teachers, however, pay attention to matching
teaching and learning styles, they should not deprive learners of some opportunities of
improving weak learning styles. Again, teachers should be aware that there are other
factors besides the use of appropriate instruction, which should be addressed in schools
to promote the academic achievement of their learners. All in all, knowledge of teaching
and learning styles can be a remedy for low academic achievement in the rural
242
secondary schools of Lesotho. The next chapter consists of guidelines that teachers
can use in their respective classes to address the learning styles of their learners.
243
CHAPTER 8
..
TEACHER GUIDE ON TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES FOR RURAL
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
8.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter comprises of the document that serves as a guide for teachers in the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho. Teachers can use information outlined in this document
to address the learning styles of learners in their schools. The contents of this chapter
was gathered from the literature study (Chapter 2, 3 & 4), the empirical investigation
(Chapter 5 & 6), and the personal experience of the researcher as a secondary school
teacher in Lesotho.
8.2 DEFINITIONS
8.2.1 Teaching styles
A teaching style refers to the way various teaching approaches are combined to
produce an optimal outcome in learning. Teaching approaches, strategies and methods
are the elements of teaching styles and are used differently across teaching styles (Hoyt
and Lee, 2002:3).
8.2.2 Learning styles
A learning style is the consistent pattern of behaviour and performance by which an
individual approaches learning (Ellis, 2001: 149).
244
8.3 PRINCIPLES FOR USING TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES (CF. 3.6)
1) Know yourself and your teaching style tendencies
• Identify your dominant learning styles in order to know which learning
preferences you have (cf. 2.6.2 & 3.6).
• Identify your dominant teaching styles in order to determine your teaching
strengths (cf. 2.6.2, 3.2.4 & 3.6).
• Identify your weak teaching styles in order to determine your teaching challenges
(cf. 2.6.2, 3.2.4 & 3.6).
2) Gain an understanding of each of your learners' learning styles and needs.
• Know the predominant learning styles of your individual learners in order to
understand how to individualize instruction (cf. 2.6.2, 2.6.6 & 3.6).
• Know the dominant learning styles of your whole class in order to be able to
determine which teaching styles to use, and to understand how each class differs
from other classes (cf. 2.6.2).
• Promote learning style awareness to learners so that they understand their
learning strengths and challenges (cf. 2.6.1).
• Provide clear directions on tasks and develop a culture of listening among
learners (cf. 3.6)
3) Use teaching styles that promote the maximum degree of success for learners
of all styles.
• Provide and communicate clear outcomes, objectives and assessment criteria to
learners (cf. 3.6 & 3.5.1).
• Use teaching styles that match the learning styles of learners that you have
identified in your class (cf. 3.4.3. & 3.6).
• Identify and use teaching methods and aids that are effective across many
learning styles in your class (cf. 3.4.3 & 3.5.1).
245
4) Be mindful and respectful of the needs of learners in all learning style
dimensions.
• Be aware not to use teaching styles that favour your own learning styles. Use
teaching styles that favour the learning needs of your learners (cf. 3.2.4).
• Be aware not to use your own dominant teaching style during lessons. Use
different styles that correspond to the learning styles of your learners (cf. 3.2.4).
6) Provide opportunities for learners to work in their strengths areas and
weak areas.
• Match teaching styles with the individual learning styles of your learners by
individualizing instruction whenever it is possible. This is to create opportunities
for each learner to work according to his/her particular strengths (cf. 3.6).
• Dedicate most of your lessons to matching teaching and learning styles. Plan
objectives and use activities that match the learning styles of learners to improve
their academic achievement (cf. 3.7).
• Identify and establish teaching styles and techniques that are outside the
spectrum of learning styles you have identified in your class. This could address
learners' challenges in learning (cf. 3.7).
• Once a week or in two weeks, use teaching styles that do not match the learning
styles of learners that you have identified. Plan objectives and use activities and
techniques that do not match your learners' learning styles (cf. 3.4.3).
These guidelines can assist teachers in the selection of teaching styles, lesson planning
and presentation and in the assessment of their learners. Therefore, teaching
objectives, activities and methods should be chosen with consideration of the learning
styles they are meant to address.
246
8.4 TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLE INSTRUMENTS
Teachers can use the learning style instrument in Table 8.1 to measure the
predominant learning styles and use the teaching style instrument in Table 8.2 to
measure their predominant teaching styles (cf. 2.5.6).
8.4.1 Learning style instrument (cf. 5.3.1.2 & appendix A)
Teachers should use the learning style instrument in Table 8.1 to measure their own
learning styles and the learning styles of their learners. Measurement of learners'
learning styles should be done every time the teacher is allocated a new class in order
to determine at first hand, the learning styles of his/her learners. Again, this instrument
should be used annually for the same learners because learning styles can change over
time.
Table 8.1: The Learning Style Instrument
LEARNING STYLE INSTRUMENT
SECTION A- Biographical information
Please fill in your details in the spaces provided below, and mark with an 'X' in the box next to your
gender.
1. Full name . 2. Surname .
Male
3. Age . 4. Gender
Female
5. Name of school .
SECTION B-Learning style questions
For each of questions 1 to 44, circle either "a" or "b" to indicate your best answer. Please answer all
questions and give only one answer for each question.
247
1. I understand something better after I
a) Try it out.
b) Think about it.
2. I would rather be considered to be able to
a) Present things as they are.
b) Start something new.
3. When I think about what I did yesterday, I am most likely to get
a) A picture
b) Words
4. I normally
a) Understand the small parts of a subject rather than the overall structure
b) Understand the overall structure of a subject rather than the details.
5. When I am learning something new, it helps me to
a) Talk about it
b) Think about it
6. If I were a teacher, I would rather teach a subject
a) That deals with things that are known to have happened or true
b) That deals with ideas and theories.
7. I prefer to get new information in
a) Pictures, diagrams, graphs, or maps
b) Writing or verbal information
8. Once I understand
a) All the parts, I understand the whole thing.
b) The whole thing, I see how the parts fit.
9. In a study group working on difficult material, I am more likely to
a) Jump in and contribute ideas.
b) Sit back and listen
10. I find it easier
a) To learn facts
248
b) To learn ideas and theories.
11. In a book with lots of pictures and charts, I am likely to
a) Look over the pictures and charts carefully.
b) Concentrate on the written text.
12. When I solve math problems
a) I usually solve a difficult problem in steps, one step at a time
b) I often just see the solution or the answer but I do not know the steps
13. In my previous classes
a) I have known many of my classmates
b) I did not know many of my classmates.
14. In reading, I prefer
a) Something that teaches me new things or how to do something
b) Something that gives me new ideas to think about.
15. I like teachers
a) Who put a lot of diagrams on the board
b) Who spend a lot of time explaining.
16. When studying a story
a) I think of things that happen and put them together to figure out the message.
b) I just know what the message is when I finish reading.
17. When I start a homework problem, I am more likely to
a) Start working on solving it immediately.
b) Try to fully understand the problem first.
18. When studying, I prefer the idea of
a) Feeling sure about things.
b) Set of opinions that explain something.
19. I remember best
a) What I see
b) What I hear
20. It is important to me that the teacher
249
a) Teaches in clear sequential steps
b) Gives me an overall picture and relates the subject to other subjects.
21. I like to study
a) In a group
b) Alone.
22. I can be considered
a) Careful about knowing my work.
b) Creative about how to do my work.
23. When I get directions to a new place, I prefer
a) A map.
b) Written instructions.
24.llearn
a) At a fairly regular pace. If I study hard, I'll understand better
b) In stops and starts. I'll be totally confused and then suddenly, I understand.
25. When doing things, I start by
a) Trying things out.
b) Thinking about how I am going to do it.
26. When I am reading for enjoyment, I like writers to
a) Cleary say what they mean.
b) Say things in a creative, interesting way.
27. When I see a diagram in class, I am most likely to remember
a) The picture
b) What the teacher said about it.
28. When I read information, I prefer to
a) Concentrate on little things and miss the whole message
b) Try to understand the whole message before getting into the details.
29. I more easily remember
a) Something I have done
250
b) Something I have thought a lot about.
30. When I have to do something, I prefer to
a) Master one way of doing it
b) Come up with new ways of doing it.
31. When someone is showing me information, I prefer
a) Charts or graphs
b) Written text.
32. When writing a composition, I am more likely to
a) Think about or write the beginning of the composition and progress forward
b) Think about or write different parts of the composition and arrange them.
33. When I have to work on a group assignment, I first want to
a) Have a group discussion where everyone contributes ideas
b) Think alone and then come together as a group to compare ideas.
34. I praise somebody well when I say he/she is
a) Intelligent
b) Creative
35. When I meet people, I easily remember
a) What they looked like
b) What they said about themselves.
36. When I am learning a new subject, I prefer to
a) Focus on that subject, learning as much about it as I can
b) Try to make connections between that subject and other related subjects.
37. People can consider me to be
a) Friendly and sociable.
b) Cool and shy.
38. I like subjects that include more
a) Facts
b) Theories.
39. For entertainment, I like to
251
a) Watch games in my village or television
b) Read a book.
40. Some teachers start their lessons by stating what they will teach. This is
a) A little helpful to me.
b) Very helpful to me.
41. When doing homework in groups, giving same marks for everyone in the group
a) Is good to me.
b) Is not good to me.
42. When I am doing long calculations, I tend to
a) Repeat all my steps and check my work carefully.
b) Force myself to check my steps.
43. I am able to picture places I have been to
a) Easily
b) With difficulty.
44. When solving problems in a group, I can
a) Think of the steps to solve the problem
b) Think of the possible ways of solving the problem
252
8.4.2 Teaching style instrument (cf. 5.3.1.3 & appendix B)
In order to measure their strong/dominant and weak teaching styles, teachers should
use the teaching style instrument in Table 8.2 below. It is recommended that these
styles should be measured annually because they might change over time.
Table 8.2: The teaching style instrument
SECTION C- TEACHING STYLES INSTRUMENT
Please answer all questions and circle either 'a' or 'b' for questions 1 to 44. If both 'a' and 'b' applies
to you, select the most frequent.
1. In my class, it is important that learners acquire
a) facts
b) concepts
2.To reinforce learners' understanding, I prefer to
a) Demonstrate procedures using examples.
b) Provide extra resources through use of textual reading materials and diagrams.
3. I plan my lessons in a way that
a) Provides real-life learning tasks and activities.
b) Incorporates enough flexibility in learning activities and assignments to allow creativity.
4. To emphasize a concept, I provide
a) Concrete and real-world examples.
b) Material such as diagrams and summaries, which reinforce fundamental understanding
5. In my class, I motivate learners to learn by
a) Encouraging and applauding answers that relate to real-life situations.
b) Encouraging and applauding creative solutions, even incorrect ones.
6. In solving a problem or performing a task,
a) I provide very clear guidelines with examples of how it can be done.
253
b) I often show how various principles and concepts can be used.
7. I prefer to teach a subject that
a) Provides illustrations of empirical experimentation and observation of surroundings.
b) Provides illustrations of generalization, logical reasoning, and pattern recognition.
8. When solving a problem, I encourage learners to
a) Master one way of doing it.
b) Come up with new ways of doing it.
9. I expect learners to write assignments
a) In a clear, simple way.
b) In creative, interesting ways.
10. Activities in my class encourage learners to
a) Pay attention to detail and remembering content.
b) Develop their own ideas about content.
11. My teaching methods and activities
a) Do not allow for individual and group work
b) Allow for individual and group work.
12. I mostly prefer to describe a concept through
a) A picture
b) Words.
13. To teach difficult material, I prefer to use
a) Pictures, diagrams, graphs, or maps.
b) Written or verbal information.
14. In group work, I ask learners to
a) Draw diagrams and make models that illustrate a concept.
b) Exchange ideas verbally and write a report.
15. I frequently give learners assignment that engage them in
254
a) Collecting material, drawing charts or making models.
b) Writing or verbal presentations.
16. When I teach my class, I would be most likely to
a) Use visuals to reinforce understanding.
b) Spend more time talking and writing notes.
17. When using a textbook, I normally ask learners to
a) Pay more attention to pictures and diagrams.
b) Concentrate more on the written content and discuss it.
18. In my class, I normally
a) Provide notes in a form of charts, maps and images.
b) Provide elaborated written or auditory notes and explanations.
19. When setting tests, I usually include questions that require
a) Use of diagrams and graphs to describe a concept.
b) Use of explanations and verbal information.
20. My teaching methods mainly include
a) Demonstrations, experiments and visuals.
b) Writing notes and verbal explanations.
21. At the end of a lesson, I usually
a) Draw a chart or diagram that summarizes the content.
b) Relate a list of the items in the content verbally.
22. I feel comfortable to teach in
a) Demonstrations, experiments, and visuals.
b) Lecturing and group discussions.
23. When solving a problem, I usually encourage learners to
a) Try it out in the least possible time.
b) Take time to think it through first.
255
24. In my class,
a) I provide activities that encourage learners to be actively involved in learning.
b) Lecturing is a significant part of how I teach.
25. I present my lessons such that
a) Small group activities are given priority to help learners to develop critical thinking.
b) There is little activity because there is more content to be covered in the subject.
26. In class I mostly engage myself in
a) Providing individual and group activities.
b) Writing notes and giving explanations.
27. During the lessons, I provide time intervals for learners to
a) Form small group to discuss the material.
b) Think about what they have been taught.
28. On homework assignments, I usually encourage learners to
a) Co-operate and help one another.
b) Do the work individually.
29. When I assign group work, I expect learners to
a) Have a group discussion where everyone contributes ideas.
b) Think alone and then come together to compare ideas.
30. When I am teaching, I would
a) Ask and invite questions at certain time intervals to ensure learners' participation.
b) Expect learners to listen attentively and memorize facts.
31. In class, I provide
a) Team self-assessment to promote collaboration.
b) Self-assessment to self-evaluate own understanding.
32. I usually give learners
a) A certain time-frame to complete projects/assignments.
256
b) Opportunities to set their own pace to complete their work.
33. It is wise to
a) Allow learners to make decisions on how and when to do their projects.
b) Decide on everything that has to do with learning.
34. I always aim to
a) Provide learners with a detailed and step-by-step procedure for completing each task.
b) Provide learners with conceptual sequence for completing tasks.
35. When I teach my class, I would be most likely to
a) Give learners a specific way of solving a problem.
b) Allow learners to develop their own problem-solving process.
36. I teach my subject such that I
a) Focus on that subject alone.
b) Relate the subject to other similar subjects.
37. I begin my lessons by
a) Specifying the order in which the content will be presented.
b) Providing an overview of the content to be taught.
38. When writing tests, I encourage learners to
a) Answer the first question and progress forward.
b) Answer questions in any order they prefer.
39. I teach difficult concepts by
a) First describing its parts, and then showing how the parts form the concept.
b) Showing the connections between the concepts and other concepts.
40. When studying with diagrams, I normally ask learners to
a) Pay attention to the small details of what make up the whole diagram.
b) Pay attention to the whole diagram and the details later.
41. When solving problems, I would normally encourage learners to
257
a) Think of the steps to solve the problem.
b) Think of possible ways that can be used to solve the problem.
42. I teach to ensure that learners
a) Develop skills of combining parts to form a whole (analyzing).
b) Develop skills of breaking the whole into smaller parts (synthesizing).
43. In my class, I
a) Emphasize the need to master one way of solving a problem.
b) Encourage learners to apply different approaches to solving a problem.
44. After marking assignments, I
a) Provide specific feedback for each step of the assignment.
b) Provide overall feedback for the assignment.
8.4.3 Analysis of the instruments (cf. 5.4.1.2 & 5.4.1.3)
When analyzing the teaching and learning style instruments to identify the strong or
dominant styles and the weak styles, teachers can use the guidelines below to guide
them.
• There are 8 learning styles in the learning style instrument.
• There are 8 teaching styles in the teaching style instrument.
• Respondents can have one dominant style or a combination of two or more
styles.
• There are 11 questions for measuring each of the learning/teaching styles. For
example active and reflective styles are measured by the same questions, but (a)
answers represent active style and (b) answers are for the reflective style. If the
respondent chooses more (a) answers than (b) answers, this means his/her
dominant style is active.
258
• The learning/teaching style which has the biggest number of responses when
compared to all other learning/teaching styles, is considered to be dominant for
each respondent.
• The learning/teaching style with the biggest number of responses when
compared to all other learning/teaching styles is considered to be the weak style.
• Respondents can have a combination of styles when more than one of their
learning/teaching styles has the biggest number of responses.
• Use Tables 8.3 and 8.4 to allocate the teaching/learning styles to the questions.
Table 8.3 Questions in the Learning Style instrument (cf. Table 5.1)
Style ILS questions (answer a) Style ILS questions (answer b)
1. Sensory 2,6,10,14,18,22,26,30,34,38,42 2. Intuitive 2,6,10,14,18,22,26,30,34,38,42
3. Visual 3,7,11,15,19,23,27,31,35,39,43 4. Verbal 3,7,11,15,19,23,27,31,35,39,43
5. Active 1,5,9,13,17,21,25,29,33,37,41 6.Reflective 1,5,9,13,17,21,25,29,33,37,41
7.Sequential 4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,36,40,44 8. Global 4,8,12,16,20,24,28,32,36,40,44
Table 8.4 Questions in the teaching style instrument (cf. Table 5.3)
Style Questions (answer a) Style Questions (answer b)
1. Concrete 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 2. Abstract 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11
3. Visual 12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21, 4. Verbal 12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,
22 22
5. Active 23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32, 6. Passive 23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,
33 33
7. Sequential 34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43, 8. Global 34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,
44 44
259
8.5 TEACHING TO LEARNING STYLES
In order to ensure that the teaching and learning process is directed to the learning
styles of learners, teachers need to incorporate and consider learning styles in their
lesson plans, lesson presentations and in learner assessment. This implies that the
lesson objective and activities should be directed to the type of learning styles of the
class. In this case, teachers are supposed to use the following steps:
Step 1: Choose classroom activities
In this case, the first step is to identify which teaching and learning styles match, and
then what activities can be used to accommodate each of the learning styles. Table 8.5
provides information on the type of learning styles and table 8.6 provides information on
the classroom activities and styles that correspond.
Table 8.5 Description of learning style categories (cf. 3.5.1)
Questions Student Learning Type of flexibility & Instructional styles
adaptivity and strategies
1.What type of Sensing learners- -Flexible and -Provide concrete and
information does the concrete, practical, adaptive content real world examples for
student preferentially oriented toward facts new concepts and
perceive? and procedures principles presented in
the unit.
-Flexible and -Demonstrate
adaptive curriculum procedures by using
sequence examples.
-provide real-world
learning tasks that
allow learners to have
concrete learning
experiences.
260
Intuitive learners- -incorporate enough
conceptual, flexibility in
innovative, oriented assignments and tasks
toward theories and to allow creativity for
meanings the concepts learned.
-provide extra
resources through the
use of textual reading
materials, summaries
and diagrams.
2.Through what Visual learners-prefer -Flexible and -Provide content in a
sensory modality is visual representations adaptive form of charts, images,
of material. presentation maps
sensory information
most effectively Verbal learners-prefer -Flexible and -Provide elaborated
written and spoken adaptive selection written and lor auditory
perceived?
explanations notes with explanations
with examples.
-provide presentations
and discussions
3.How does the Active learners-learn -flexible and -provide problem
learner prefer to by working things out adaptive meta- solving and real-life
and working with cognitive approach tasks.
process information? others and problem solving
support -provide guidelines for
effective teamwork.
Provide opportunity for
large group discussion.
Reflective learners- -provide individual
learn by thinking tasks and assignments
things through, to allow each learner to
working alone work alone.
-provide self-
assessment tools for
learners to evaluate
themselves
261
4.How does the Sequential learners- -Flexible and -provide a detailed and
learner progress linear, orderly and adaptive meta- step by step procedure
learn in small cognitive approach for completing each
towards incremental steps and problem solving task, both in text and
understanding? support visual form.
-provide specific
feedback for each step
of a task.
Global learners- -provide a conceptual
holistic, system sequence for lessons
thinkers and learn in and completion of
large leaps tasks.
-provide an overview of
the material and
assignment in each
unit.
-provide holistic
feedback for each step
of the task
Table 8.6: Classroom activities across teaching and learning styles
Learning style Corresponding examples of activities in classrooms
teaching style
Sensing Concrete -Introduce the lesson by indicating how the content will be
presented.
-provide hands-on activities and use repetition more often
-when carrying out a procedure or assignment, show all the
steps in a logical order.
-use lots of examples to reinforce understanding.
-use examples that relate to daily experiences.
-avoid long lecturing of theory.
-when studying diagrams or pictures, give details.
262
Intuitive Abstract -provide opportunities for creativity by giving challenging
tasks or questions. e.g puzzles.
-encourage and applaud creative solutions, even incorrect
ones.
-use little illustration and examples on a concept.
-encourage learners to make projects of their own choice.
Visual Visual -use pictures, diagrams, graphs, charts, and videos as
teaching aids.
-use demonstrations and dramatizations to teach concepts.
-use colour to capture learners' attention.
Verbal Verbal -lecture method with lots of verbal explanations and writing
of notes.
-use class and group discussions
-use debates in class and among classes.
-use more open-ended questions in class.
Active Active -assign learners to do some projects.
-use many hands-on activities such as drawing, making
models, etc. and experiments.
-have learners work in groups.
-use role-play to reinforce understanding.
-include lots of action and avoid long theoretical lessons.
Reflective Passive -provide individual tasks
-provide intervals during the lessons and in-between
lessons for learners to think about what they have been
taught.
-when questioning, use wait time so that learners have
enough time to think.
-at the end of the lesson, ask learners to write a brief
summary or formulate questions about the material just
learned.
263
Sequential Sequential -indicate the order of content at the beginning of the lesson.
-explain and show every step involved in a task or
assignment.
-steps should be followed in a linear way so that learners
follow.
-break up long problems/tasks into steps that learners can
remember.
-in a long problem, you can use codes of letters that
represent every step.
-encourage learners to answer the first question and
progress forward in assignments or tests.
Global Global -show how new concepts relate to the previous knowledge
and experience.
-allow learners to use their own ways of solving problems.
-relate your subject to other subjects.
-allow learners to answer questions in any order they
prefer.
-reinforce creativity; applaud creative solutions, even
incorrect ones.
Step 2: Make a lesson plan in consideration of learning styles
Teachers should consider learning styles of their learners when they plan the lesson
objectives, activities and assignments. Table 8.7 gives an example of a lesson plan in
a science class that incorporates learning styles. Figure 8.1 illustrates the learning
activity that can be used in this lesson to reinforce understanding. Figure 8.2 illustrates
the assignment the teacher can assign to learners to do at the end of the lesson to
determine and assess the knowledge acquired.
264
Table 8.7: Lesson planning using learning styles
Teacher: Mr. A. Unknown School: Mountain site H. School
Class : Form A
Subject: Science Date: 28/03/1994
Topic Exploring matter Time: 80 minutes
KEY CONCEPTS:
States of matter, properties of matter, changes in state of matter.
KEY CONTENT:
Solid, liquid, gas, and their physical properties. Particle theory to describe the three states of
matter. Describe and distinguish between evaporation, melting, condensation, solidification or
freezing and sublimation. Melting and boiling points.
Teacher's actions: Learner Activities: Learning styles: Resources:
1. Introduce the 1. Listen. • Verbal, 1.Textbooks
lesson by sequential, and
indicating how the sensing. 2. Stones
content will be 3. Beakers
presented.
4. Water
5. Balloons
2. Give a short 2. Listen and ask • Reflective and 6. Tripod stands
verbal questions. verbal.
introduction on 7. Gauzes
the three states of 8. Bunsen burners
matter. Give
examples from 9. Crushed ice
the surroundings
10. Charts
3. Give learners an 3. Form groups and study • Active,
activity of the physical properties reflective, and 11. Thermometers
studying the of stone, water in a sensing.
physical container and air in a
properties of balloon. Allow learners
265
maner. wno eo not want to
form groups to work
alone or in pairs.
4. Facilitate the 4. Learners present their • Verbal
presentations of findings
learners.
5. Use charts that 5. Study the charts and • Visual, sensing
illustrate the listen to the teacher's
arrangement of elaboration.
particles in the
three states of
matter and relate
that arrangement
to their physical
properties.
6. Give notes on the 6. Write notes on the • Verbal,
states of matter states of matter and reflective
and particle particle theory.
theory.
7. Briefly explain the 7. Set up an apparatus • Intuitive
aim of the using Bunsen burner,
experiment and tripod stand, gauze,
allow them to set beaker, crushed ice,
up the apparatus. and the thermometer,
which are provided. If
there is a shortage of
tools, learners can work
in small group.
266
~. i-acnrtate me tl. ooserve cnanges ana • Active, visual
experiment. record temperatures
when the ice starts
melting and when the
water boils.
9. Engage learners 9. Learners present and
in a whole-class discuss their findings. • Verbal, global
discussion to Relate changes
present their observed to the change
observations. in states of matter, and
particle arrangement.
Relate melting and
boiling temperatures to
the melting and boiling
points respectively.
10. Give short notes 10. Write notes. • Verbal
on the processes
involved in the
changes of state
of matter.
11. At the end of the 11. Learners ask and • Reflective,
lesson, invite answer questions from sequential
questions and the teacher.
summarize the
content in the
order presented.
267
Figure 8.1: Class activity- boiling and melting points
Boiling and melting points
Experiment
Boiling point of water
AIm: To find the boiling point of water.
You need: beaker, tripod, gauze, thermometer, ice, Bunsen burner, pestle, mortar,
timer or clock.
• Crush the ice in the pestle and mortar.
• Pour the ice into the beaker.
• Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram below .
• Light the Bunsen burner and note the time.
• Stir continuously and measure the temperature of water every minute until the
water boils.
Observation
1 Copy the table below and put your results in it.
Time (min) o 1 234 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Temperature (0 Cl
Conclusions
2 What can you say about the temperature of the ice and water at the beginning of
the experiment and towards the end of the experiment?
3 At what temperature did the ice melt?
4 At what temperature did the water boil?
Exploring matter 31
Source: Mpeta, Khoarai, Khalieli, Ntoi, Mabejane & Makamane (2004:31)
268
Figure: 8.2: Class assignment- changes in state of matter
Can matter change its state?
r ", i.~\ ) ;
'/ ./f'.~-------
These pictures show changes of state. Can you work out what is happening
in each one?
Activity
Discuss what is happening in each of the diagrams above.
Copy and complete the following table using the diagrams.
Changes in state of matter
Substance State of matter Changes into
Ice
Candle
Water
Water vapour in the air gas liquid
Source: Mpeta et al. (2004:30)
269
8.6 CONCLUSION
To implement instruction that addresses learning styles of their learners, teachers can
use this guide as a tool of guidance. Therefore, it is recommended that the rural
secondary schools of Lesotho should use this document in their schools as a guiding
tool for addressing learning styles. This document has, however, been designed for
research purposes and can be adjusted according to personal conditions of a school.
270
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AHMED, S. 2002. Middle school students' reaction to extrinsic motivation using a
Classroom Reward System. New York: Michigan State University.
ALEXANDER, G. 2004. The design and evaluation of a staff development programme
for amalgamated schools in the Northern Cape. Unpublished Ph.D thesis. University of
the Free State.
ANTHERTON, J. S. 2005a. Learning and teaching: Piaget's developmental theory.
Retrieved May 7, 2008 at http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/piaget.htm.
ANTHERTON, J. S. 2005b. Learning and teaching: Constructivism in Learning.
Retrieved May 10, 2008 at
http://www.learningandteaching.info/learning/constructivism.htm.
AUSUBEL, D. P. 1963a. Cognitive structure and the facilitation of meaningful verbal
learning. Journal of Teacher Education, 14: 217-222.
AUSUBEL, D. P. 1963b. The psychology of meaning verbal learning. New York: Grune
& Stratton.
BABBlE, P. & MOUTON, J. 2001. Practice of social research. South Africa: Oxford
University Press.
BALLINGER, R. J. & BALLINGER, V. 1982. Student learning styles and brain behavior.
Reston, VA. National Association of Secondary School Principals, 33-37.
BARBE, W. B., & MILONE, M. N., Jr. 1980. Modality. Instructor, 39 (6): 45-47.
BARNES, C. 2002. What do Teachers teach? A survey of America's fourth and eighth
grade teachers. The Civic Report, 28. The Center of Survey Research & Analysis.
BENZlE, D. 1998. Teaching styles. Retrieved february 18, 2008 at
http://www.stfm.org/teacher/1998/feb/feb.html.
271
BIELBY, D. D. V. & DOHERTY, S. E. 1990. Sex characteristics and roles. In R.M.
Thomas (Ed.), The encyclopedia of human development and education: Theory,
research, and studies. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
BIGGS, J. B., KEMBER, D. & LEUNG, D. Y. P. 2001. The revised two-factor study
process questionnaire. The British Journal of Education Psychology, 71: 133-149.
BIGGS, J. B.1993. What do Inventories of students' learning processes really measure?
A theoretical review and clarification. British journal of Educational Psychology, 46: 68-
80.
BLAND, J. 2001. About gender: Learning styles and gender. Retrieved January 21,
2009 at http://www.gender.org.uk/about/prefc.htm.
BODI, S. 1990. Teaching Effectiveness and bibliographic instruction: The relevance of
learning styles. College and Research libraries, 51(2): 85-126.
BOJEVA, M. E. 1998. Parenting styles and adolescents' learning strategies in the urban
community. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 26: 110-119.
BORICH, G. D. 1996. Effective teaching methods. Englewood Ciffs. Prentice-Hall Inc.
BOYENS, A. 1990. Baie swart matrikulante gaan druip. Finansies en Tegniek, Oktober:
43.
BREAKWELL, G. M., HAMMOND, S., & GIFE-SCHAW, C. 2002. Research methods in
Psychology. London: SAGE Publications.
BRIMMER, M. A. & PAULI, L. 1971. Wastage in education: A world problem. Paris:
Unesco.
BROOKFIELD, S. D. 1995. Becoming a critically reflective teacher. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publication.
272
BROWN, B. L. 2003. Teaching style vs learning style. Myths and realities, 26.
Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC).
BROWN, E., CRISTEA, A., STEWART, C., & BRAILSFORD, T. 2005. Patterns in
authoring of Adaptive Educational Hypermedia: A Taxonomy of Learning Styles.
Educational Technology & Society, 8 (3): 77-90.
BURNS, R. B. 2000. Introduction to research methods. London: sage publications.
BURRIS, S., KITCHEL, T., MOLlNA, Q., VINCENT, S., & WARNER, W. 2008. The
language of learning styles. Retrieved March 12, 2008 at http://www.acteonline.org.html
CALlTZ, Y. 2001. Characteristics of learners and parents as predictors of high school
pass rates. Unpublished M.Ed dissertation. Bloemfontein: University of the Free State.
CAMPBELL, J.P. 1990. Modeling the performance prediction problem in industrial and
organizational psychology. In M.D.Dunnette & L.M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of
industrial and organizational psychology, 2 (1): 687-732. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting
Psychologists Press.
CAPRARA, G. V., BARBARANELLI, C., PASTORELLI, C., BANDURA, A., &
ZIMBARDO, G. P. 2000. Prosocial foundations of children's academic achievement.
American Psychological Society, 11 (4): 302-306.
CATANIA, A. C. 1999. Thorndike's Legacy: Learning, selection and the law of effect.
Journal of Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 72 (3): 425-428.
CHAPMAN, A. 1995. Kolb learning styles. Retrieved April 11, 2008 at
http://www.businessballs.com/kolblearningstyles.htm.
CHARKINS, R. J., O'TOOLE, M. D., & WETZEL, J. N. 1985. Linking teaching and
student learning styles with student achievement and attitudes. Journal of Economic
Education 16(spring):111-120.
273
CHRISTOFILIS, T. & KOUSATHANA, M. 2005. Models in Science Teaching. University
of Athens. Athens
CILLIERS, C. D. & STERNBERG, R. J. 2001. Thinking styles: implications for
optimizing learning and teaching in university education. SJHE/SATHO, 15 (1)
CLARKE-STEWARD, A. & KOCH, J. B. 1983. Children-development through
adolescence. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
COFFIELD, F., ECCLESTONE, K., HALL, E., & MOSELEY, D. 2004. Should we be
using learning styles? What research has to say to practice? Learning and skills
research centre. Retrieved July 23, 2008 at www.LSRC.ac.uk
COLLIVER, J. A. 2002. Constructivism: The view of knowledge that ended philosophy
or a theory of learning and instruction? Teaching and Learning in Medicine, 14(1): 49-
51.
CONTI G. J. & WELBORN R. B. 1986. Teaching-Learning styles and the adult learner.
Lifelong Learning, 9 (8): 20-24.
CRAIG, G. J. 1996. Human development. Upper Saddler River: Prentice-Hall.
CRESWELL, J. 2003. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approach. (2nd ed). International Educational and Professional Publisher. London: New
Delhi.
CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT POLICY. 2008. Education for individual and social
development. The ministry of Education and Training: Lesotho.
CURRY, L. 1990. Learning styles in secondary schools: A review of instruments and
implications for their use. Paper prepared for the National Center on Effective
Secondary Schools, University of Wisconsin.
DAS, J. P., KIRBY, J. R. & JARMAN, R. F. 1979. Simultaneous and successive
cognitive processes. New York: Academic Press.
274
DASARI, P. 2006. The influence of matching teaching and learning styles on the
achievement in science of grade six learners. Unpublished M.Ed dissertation.
Bloemfontein: University of South Africa.
DE VILLIERS, A. B. 1996. Disadvantaged students: Analyzing the zone of proximal
development. South African Journal of Higher Education, 10(1): 135-139.
DE VOS, A. S., STRYDOM, H., FOUCHE, C. B., & DELPORT, C. S. L. 2005. Research
at grass roots: For the social sciences and human service professions. (3rd ed.).
Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
DELAHOUSSAYE, M. 2002. The Perfect Learner: An Expert debate on learning styles.
Training 39(5):28-36.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION DIRECTORATE. 2002. Implementation of inclusive
education ( 2nd draft). Pretoria: Department of Education.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 2002. Draft guidelines for the implementation of
inclusive education. Draft. Unpublished manuscript.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 2004. Poverty reduction strategy draft. Government
of Lesotho: Maseru.
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION. 2005. National Curriculum Statement Grades 10-12
(General). Pretoria: Department of Education.
DIAZ, D. P. & CARTNAL, R. B. 1999. Students' learning styles in two classes: On line
distance learning and equivalent On-campus. College Teaching, 47(40: 130-135).
DIXON, N. M. 1985. The implementation of learning style information. Lifelong learning,
9(3): 16-27.
DIXON, T. & WOOLHOUSE, M. 1996. The relationship between teachers and learners'
individual teaching/learning styles. The Journal of further and Higher Education,
20(3):15-22.
275
DOMINO, G. 1979. 'Interactive effects of achievement orientation and teaching style on
academic achievement', ACT Research Report 39: 1-9.
DORSEY, O. L. & PIERSON, M. J. 1984. A descriptive study of adult learning styles in a
non-traditional education program. Lifelong Learning, 7: 8-11.
DOYLE, W. & RUTHERFORD, B. 2003. Classroom research on matching learning and
teaching styles. Theory into Practice, 23 (1). EBSCO publishing.
DREYER, C. 1999. The importance of learning styles and language learning strategies
for higher education: a case study of the North West Province of South Africa. Journal
for Language Teaching, 34 (3): 247-265.
DUCKWORTH, A. L. & SELlGMAN, E. P. 2005. Self-Discipline outdoes IQ in predicting
academic performance of adolescents. American Psychological Society, 16 (12): 939-
944.
DUNN, R. 2003. Learning style: state of the Science. Theory into Practice, 23: 11-33.
EBSCO Publishing.
DUNN, R. S., & DUNN, K. J. 1979. 'Learning styles/ Teaching styles: Should they ... can
they ... be matched?'. Educational Leadership 36: 238-244.
DUNN, R., & GRIGGS, S. A. 1988. Learning styles: Quiet revolution in American
secondary schools. National Association of Secondary School Principals. Virginia:
Reston.
DZAKIRIA, H., & RAZAK, A. A. 2004. Improving distance courses: Understanding
teacher trainees and their learning styles. Journal of Distance Education, 5: 1-5.
ELLIS, A. K. 2001. Research on educational innovations. (3rd ed). New York. Eye on
Education, Inc.
ENDRES, J. B. 1997. Ethics and the critical theory of education. Columbia University.
Retrieved November 25, 2008 at http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/EPS/PES-
yearbook/97 docs/endres.html.
276
ENTWISTLE, N. J. 1981. Styles of learning and teaching. New York: John Wiley &
Sons.
ENTWISTLE, N. J., & RAMSDEN, P. 1983. Understanding student learning. London:
Croom Helm.
ENTWISTLE, N. J., & WILSON, J. D. 1977. Degrees of excellence: The academic
achievement game. London: Hodder and Stoughton.
FARRINGTON, C. A. & SMALL, H. M. 2006. Removing structural barriers to academic
achievement in high schools: An innovative model. American Education research
Association Annual Meeting. Carlifornia.
FELDER, R. & SPURLlN, J. 2005. Applications, reliability and validity of the index of
learning styles. International Journal of Engineering Education, 21 (1): 103-112.
FELDER, R. 1993. Reaching the second tier: Learning and teaching styles in college
science education. J. College Science Teaching, 23(5): 286-290.
FELDER, R. M. & SILVERMAN, K. L. 1988. Learning and teaching styles in engineering
education. Journal of Engineering Education, 78 (7): 674-681.
FELDER, R. M. & SOLOMON, B. A. Inventory of learning styles. Retrieved April 20,
2008 at http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSpage.html
FORD, N. & CHEN, S. Y. 2001. Matching/ Mismatching revisited: An empirical study of
learning and teaching styles. British Journal of Technology, 32(1): 5-22.
FRIEDMAN, P. & ALLEY, R. 1984. Learning/Teaching Styles: Applying the Principles.
Theory into Practice, 23(1): 77-81.
GILES, T. W. 1995. A Piagetian View of Learning Styles. Pennsylvania. Educational
Resources Information Centre.
GRAF, S., VIOLA, R. S., LEO, T. & KINSHUK. 2007. In-depth Analysis of the Felder-
Silverman learning style Dimensions. Journal of Research on Technology in Education,
40(1): 79-93.
277
GRASHA, A. F. 1996. Teaching with Style. Pittsburgh PA: Alliance Publishers
GREGG, M. 1997. Seven Journeys to Map symbols: Multiple Intelligence Applied to
Map learning. Journal of Geography, 96 (3): 146-152.
GROSSER, M. & DE WAAL, E. Year X. Enhancing pedagogical needs and fundamental
rights at school by accommodating diverse learning styles. North-West University: Vaal
Triangle Campus.
GROSSER, M. 2007. Effective teaching: linking teaching to learning functions. South
African Journal of Education, 27(1): 37-52.
GUNTER, M., ESTES, T. & SCHWAB, J. 2003. Instruction: A models approach.
Retrieved July 24, 2008 at http://www.sonoma.edu.
HAl, P. K. 2005. Learning styles of ITE Students. ITE Teachers' Conference: Singapore
HANNAN, G. 2007. Male and female brains. Retrieved January 19, 2009 at
http://www.brainbox.co.uk/A3Aspects/pages/LSgender.htm.
HEIMLlCH, J. E. & NORLAND, E. 2002. Teaching style: Where are we now? New
Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 3(spring):17-25
HENNING, E., VAN RENSBURG, WW. & SMIT, B. 2004. Finding your way in qualitative
research. U.S.A: Upper Saddle River.
HIGGS, P. 1995. Metatheories in Philosophy of Education: Introductory Overview. In:
Metatheories in Philosophy of Education edited by P. Higgs. Johannesburg: Heinemann
HITCHCOCK, G. & HUGHES, D. 1994. Research and the teacher. London: Routledge
HOYT, D. P. & LEE, E. J. 2002. Teaching styles and learning outcomes. IDEA
Research report # 4. Retrieved February 20, 2008 at
http://www.idea.ksu.edu/reports/research4.pdf.
HUITT, W. 2001. Humanism and open Education. Educational Psychology Interactive.
Valdosta.
278
HUITT, W. 2004. Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Educational Psychology Interactive.
Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved May 15, 2008 at
http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitUcol/regsys/maslow. htm I
ISEMONGER, I. & SHEPPARD, C. 2003. Learning styles. RELe Journal, 34(2): 195-
222.
JACOBS, M., VAKALISA, N. & GAWE, N. 2004. Teaching-Learning dynamics: A
participative approach for OBE. (3rd ed). Heinemann publishers (Pty) Ltd.
JAMES, W. B. & GALBRAITH, M. W. 1995. Perceptual learning styles: Implications and
techniques for the practitioner. Lifelong Learning, 8(4): 20-23.
JONES, S.1998. Learning styles and learning strategies: Towards Learner
Independence. Forum for Modern Language Studies, 32 (1): 111-129.
JOY, S., & KOLB, D. A. 2007. Are there differences in learning style? Unpublished
article. Case Western Reserve University
JUBBER, K. 1988. The home and family environment and its impact on school
achievement. South African Journal of Education, 8(4): 287-297.
JUNIOR CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION RESULTS. 2008. The Lesotho Monitor, 2 (7).
JUNIOR CERTIFICATE EXAMINATION RESULTS. 2008. Examinations Council of
Lesotho. Retrieved February 10, 2009 at www.education.gov.ls/index2.php.
KANIKI, A. MM. 2006. Doing an information search. In: Terre Blanche, M., Durkheim, K.
& Painter, D. (eds) Research in practice. Cape Town: UCT Press: 19-32.
KHATI, T. G. 1993. Error Analysis revisited. A synopsis of Phonological-Orthographical
errors of Basotho primary school pupils. Boleswa Educational Research Journal, 10: 54-
64.
KOLB, A., & KOLB, D. A. 1999. Bibliography of research on experiential learning theory
and the learning style inventory. Unpublished manuscript, Case Western Reserve
University, Weatherhead school of management, Cleveland, OH.
279
KOLB, D. A. 1984. Experiential learning. Experience as the Source of Learning and
Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
KOTZE, C. J. 1992. Die rol van die skoolvoorligter in die problematiek van
wanaanpassing en wangerdrag by leerlinge in sekondere skole in die Oranje- Vrystaat-
'n psigopedagogiese ondersoek. Ph.D.-proefskrif. Bloemfontein: Universiteit van die
Vrystaat.
KOVACIC, J. Z. 2003. A comparison of learning and teaching styles: Self- perception of
IT students. Wellington: New Zealand.
KOVACIC, J. Z., GREEN, J. S. & EVES, C. G. 2004. Learning styles of computer
concepts students in a distance tertiary institution. NZARE National Conference.
Wellington: New Zealand.
KREITLER, S., ZIEGLER, E., KAGAN, S., OLSEN, D., WEISSLER, K., & KREITLER, H.
1995. Cognitive and motivational determinant of academic achievement and behavior in
third and fourth grade disadvantaged children. British Journal of educational
Psychology, 65: 297-316.
KRUGER, D. J. 2003. Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in Community
Research. The Community Psychologist. Retrieved February 6, 2009 from
http://www.roboneill.co.uk/pages/research met.
KUMAR, R. 2005. Research methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners. London:
SAGE Publications.
KUNCEL, N. R., & CREDE, M. 2008. Study habits Meta-analysis. Perspectives on
Psychological Science. In Press.
KUNCEL, N.R., & HEZLETT, S.A. 2007. Standardized tests predict graduate students'
success. Science, 315, 1080-1081.
280
KUNCEL, N.R., HEZLETT, S.A., & ONES, D.S. 2001. A comprehensive meta-analysis
of the predictive validity of the Graduate Record Examinations: Implications for graduate
student selection and performance. Psychological Bulletin, 127: 162-181.
KUNCEL, N.R., HEZLETT, S.A., & ONES, D.S. 2004. Academic performance, career
potential, creativity, and job performance: Can one construct predict them all? [Special
section]. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86: 148-161.
LADD, P. D. & RUBY, R. 1999. Learning style and adjustment issues of international
students. Journal of Education for Business, 74: 363-367.
LAVE, J., & WENGER, E. 1990. Situated Learning: Legitimate Periperal Participation.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
LEARNING THEORIES. 2008. Cognitivism at Learning- Theories.com. Retrieved March
15th, 2008 at http://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html
LECROY, C. W. & KRYSIK, J. 2008. Predictors of academic achievement and school
attachment among Hispanic adolescents. National Association of Social Workers.
Children and Schools, 30 (4): 197-209.
LEEDY, P. D. & ORMOND, J. E. 2001. Practical research. Planning and design (th ed.)
Upper Saddle River. Prentice Hall.
LEMMER, E. & SQUELCH, J. 1993. Multicultural education: A teacher's manual.
Halfway House: southern Book Publishers.
LENNON, O. 1988. Cultural Variations, Cognitive styles and Education in Latin America.
Prospects, 18(3): 413-420.
LESOTHO GOVERNMENT GAZETTE. 1994. An Educational manifesto. Maseru.
Lesotho.
LESOTHO MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING. 2005. Education sector
strategic plan 2005-2015. Government of Lesotho.
281
LESOTHO MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING. 2008. The Development of
Education. National Report. Government of Lesotho.
LlIKALA, J. 2007. Theories of Learning: A Case for Reciprocity between theory and
practice. A Peer Review Journal, 10 (7).
MAlER, F. S., PETERSON, C. & SCHWARTZ, B. 2000. From Helplessness to Hope:
The Seminal Career of Martin Seligman. Unpublished manuscript. New York: University
of Colorado.
MASITSA, M.G. 2006. Student Motivation: The study approaches of grade 12 learners
in townships. South African Journal of Higher Education, 20 (3): 1-35.
MASLOW, A. H. 1943. A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50: 370-
396.
MASSEY, V. H. 1995. Nursing Research. United States of America: Springhouse
Corporation.
MATHIBELI, N. 1996. Influence of home-environment variables and selected school-
related factors on high school student's academic performance in Mafeteng District.
Unpublished M.Ed dissertation. The National University of Lesotho.
MATIWANE, J. B. 2001. Different ways of motivation and its influence on learners'
performance. Unpublished M. Ed dissertation. University of the Free State:
Bloemfontein.
MATSOSO, M. G. 1995. English as a contextual medium of learning across the
curriculum: Content area teacher-trainee and educator conceptualizations. Unpublished
Masters thesis. Vista University: Bloemfontein.
MATTHEWS, B. 1991. The effects of learning style on grades of first year college
students. Research in Higher Education, 32: 253-267.
282
MCCASLlN, M. & HICKEY, D. T. 2001. Educational Psychology, Social Constructivism
and Educational Practice: A case of emergency identity. Educational Psychologist, 36:
133-141.
MCFARLANE, C. 2006. Advanced Introduction to Critical Social Theory. Critical Social
Theory Comprehensive Examination. Retrieved November 25, 2008 at
http://www.theoria.ca/research/files/cs+comp.pdf.
MCKEACHE, W. J. 1996. Learning styles can become learning strategies. The national
Teaching and Learning Forum, 4(6): 1-4.
MEKGWE, E. M. 1998. The influence of parenting Styles on the academic performance
of Black High School Students. Unpublished M.Ed dissertation. Bloemfontein: University
of the Free State.
MERRIAM, S., & CAFFARELLA. 1991. Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
MOALLEM, M. 2007. Accommodating Individual Differences in the Online learning
Environments: A comparative study. Journal of Research on Technology in Education,
40(2): 217-245.
MOKOENA, M. B. 1997. The influence of learning approaches, orientations and styles
on academic achievement. Unpublished M.Ed Dissertation. Bloemfontein: University of
the Free State.
MOLLER, V. 1995. Home environment and educational achievement among high-
school pupils living in three-generation urban households. South African Journal of
Sociology, 26 (3): 87-97.
MORRISON, M., SWEENEY, A., & HEFFERNAN, T. 2003. Learning styles of On-
campus and Off-campus marketing students: The Challenge for Marketing Educators.
Journal of Marketing Education, 25(3): 208-217.
MORRISON, M., SWEENEY, A., & HEFFERNAN, T. 2006. Karns's Learning styles and
learning effectiveness: A rejoinder. Journal of Marketing Education, 28 (1): 64-68.
283
MOSSTON, M, & ASHWORTH, S. 1990. The Spectrum of teaching styles: From
command to discovery. London: Langman Publishers.
MOTAH, M. 2007. Learning, types of Learning, traditional learning styles and the impact
of E-Learning on the performance of secondary school students: The Perception of
Teachers. Mauritius: Informing Science Institute.
MOTSAU, T. P. 1990. A comparative Educational Perspective on factors which
contribute to poor academic achievement of learners in the secondary schools of
QwaQwa. Unpublished M. Ed Script. Bloemfontein: University of the Free State.
MOUTON, J. 2001. How to succeed in your master's and doctoral studies: a South
African guide and resource book. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
MPETA, M., KHOARAI, M., KHALIELI, T., NTOI, L., MABEJANE, M. & MAKAMANE, B.
2004. Lesotho junior secondary science. Lesotho: Heinemann International Southern
Africa
MQHATAZANE, I., MOKHETHl, T. & ANDERSON, J. 1979. A general survey of the
educational situation in Lesotho. Washington: University Press of America.
MTSHALl, T. 2006. Concern at Decline in overall standard. Pretoria News, 29
December 2006.
MUIJS, D. & REYNOLDS, D. 2005. Effective teaching: Evidence and practice. London:
Sage Publications. 2nd edition.
MULKEEN, A. 2005. Teachers for rural schools: A challenge for Africa. African Region
World Bank. Working Document, September, 2005.
MURRAY-HARVEY, R. 1994. Learning styles and approaches to learning:
Distinguishing between concepts and instruments. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 64: 373-388.
NEUMAN, W. L. 2006. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and quantitative
approaches. United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc.
284
NGXABAZI, N. 1997. Mother-Daughter interactions concerning sexuality among blacks
in Umtata. Unpublished M.Ed mini-dissertation. Bloemfontein: University of the Free
State.
NIEMANN, R. 2000. Empirical relying on observation and experiment, not on theory.
South African Journal of Education, 20 (4): 284- 306.
NQADALA, N. S. 1994. The learning styles of bridging students, as determined by the
Kolb learning style Inventory. Unpublished M.Ed dissertation. Bloemfontein: University
of the Free State.
OAKLAND, T. & JOYCE, D. 2004. Temperament-based Learning Styles and SchooI-
based Applications. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 19 (1/2): 59-74.
ODGERS, B. M. Teacher's beliefs about the nature of science and science education in
relation to recently introduced constructivist syllabuses in secondary schools in
Queensland, Australia. Teacher's Report. Retrieved November 25, 2008 at
http://www.hiceducatio.org/edu-proceeding/Barbara.Odgers.pdf.
OPDENAKKER, M. & VAN DAMME, J. 2006. Teacher characteristics and teaching
styles as effectiveness enhancing factors of classroom practice. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 22: 1-21.
ORMOND, J. E. 1999. Human Learning. 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
OWEN, K. & TAALJARD, J. J. 1989. Handbook for the use of psychological and
scholastic tests of IPER and NIPR. Pretoria: HSRC
PATSULA, J. P. 1999. Applying learning theories to online instructional design. Seoul:
Sookmyung Women's University.
PAVLOV, I. P. 1927. Conditioned Reflexes: An Investigation of the Physical Activity of
the Cerebral Cortex. London: Oxford University Press.
285
PlAGET, J. & INHELDER, B. 1969. The psychology of the child. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
PRATT, D. D. 2002. Good teaching: One size fits all? New Directions for Adult and
Continuing Education, 93: 5-15.
PRATT, D. D., ARSENEAU, R. & COLLINS, J. B. 2001. Theoretical foundations:
Reconsidering good teaching across the continuum of Medical Education. Journal of
Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 21(2): 1-14.
QUIRK. M. E. 1994. How to learn and teach in Medical School: A learner-centered
approach. New York: Charles C. Thomas Publishers.
RAWAF, S. & RASSOOL, G. H. 2007. Learning Style Preferences of Undergraduate
nursing students. Nursing Standards, 21 (32): 35-41.
RICHMOND, A. S. 2007. Varying theoretical perspectives of the information processing
disordered student: How do we explain Simeon's Auditory Processing Deficiency?
Metropolitan State College of Denver.
ROBOTHAM, D. 1999. The application of learning style theory in higher education
teaching. GDN discussion papers. Retrieved April 2, 2008 at
http://www.chelt.ac.uk/gdn/discuss/index.htm .
ROGERS, A. 2003. What is the difference? A new critique of adult learning and
teaching. Leicester: NIAFE.
ROSA, C. M. 2004. The modes of thinking and learning of educationally disadvantaged
learners. Unpublished Ph.D Thesis. University of South Africa.
ROSENSHINE, B. & FURST, N. 1971. Research in teacher performance criteria. In B.
Smith Ed., Research in teacher education, 370-391. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall.
RUSS, W. 2004. Diversity and the Socratic method. Retrieved June 06, 2008 at
http://facweb.bcc.ttc.edu/wpayne/diversityandthesocraticmetho.htm
286
RYAN, R. M. & DECI, L. 2000. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions
and New Directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25: 54-67
SARACHO, O. N. 1997. Some Implications of Cognitive Styles on Young Children's
play. Early Child Development and Care, 131: 19-30.
SCHAEFER, B. A. 1996. Relationship between learning behaviors and academic
achievement among school-aged American children and adolescents. Ph.D.
dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, United States of America - Pennsylvania.
SCHALLER, T. D., BORUN, M., ALLlSON-BUNNELL, S. & CHAMBERS, M. 2007. One
size does not fit all: learning style, play and online interactive. San Francisco: California.
SCHONWETTER, D. J., CLIFTON, R. A., & PERRY, R. P. 2002. Content Familiarity:
Differential impact of effective teaching on student achievement outcomes. Research in
Higher Education, 43 (6): 625-655.
SCHRAW, G. & OLAFSON, L. 2003. Teachers' Epistemological World views and
Educational Practices. Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 3(1): 178-223,
May.
SEKARAN, U. 2000. Research methods for Business. A skill-Building Approach. New
York. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
SHAFFER, D. R. 1999. Developmental Psychology: Childhood and Adolescence.
Brooks/Cole Publishing Co.: Johannesburg.
SHINDLER, J. 2006. Teaching for the Success of all Learning Styles: Five Principles for
Promoting Greater teacher Effectiveness and Higher Student achievement for all
Students. Los Angeles. California State University.
SILVER, H., STRONG, R. & PERINI, M. 1997. Integrating Learning Styles and Multiple
Intelligence. Educational Leadership, 55(1): 22-27.
287
SIZEMORE, M. H. & SCHULTZ, P. N. 2005. Ethnicity and Gender Influences on
learning styles in nursing students from an Hispanic-serving Institution. Journal of
Hispanic Higher Education, 4(4): 343-353.
SKINNER, B.F. 1971. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. New York: Knopt.
SLATER, J. A., LUJAN, H. L. & DI CARLO, E. S. 2007. Does Gender influence learning
style preferences of first -year medical students? Advance in Physiology Education, 31:
336-342.
SLAVIN, R. E. 1987. A theory of school and classroom organization. Educational
Psychology, 22 (2): 89-108.
SMITH, J. P. 2001. Technology student learning preferences and the design of flexible
learning programs. Instructional science, 29:237-254.
SPRINGER, K. A. 2008. What motivates Adolescents especially Eighth Graders to
learn? Journal of Classroom Teaching and Learning, May 26,2008. New York.
SQUELCH, J. M. 2000. Discipline. Centre for Education Law and Education Policy
(CELP), Pretoria.
STANLEY, I.O. 1998. Ausubel's Learning Theory: An Approach to Teaching Higher
Order Thinking Skills. High School Journal, 82: 1.
STOTT, M. B. 1950. What is occupational success? Occupational Psychology, 24: 105-
112.
STRUWIG, F. W. & STEAD, G. B. 2001. Planning, designing and reporting research.
Cape Town: Masker Miller Longman (Pty) Ltd.
The American Heritage. 200. Dictionary of the English language (4th ed.). Houghton
Mifflin Company. Retrieved August 5, 2009 at
www.education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/discipline.
288
THE CONSTITUTION OF lESOTHO. 1993. Maseru. lesotho.
TillER, A. E., GARRISON, M. E., BLOCK, E. B. CRAMER, K. & TillER, V. 2005. The
influence of parenting styles on children's cognitive development.
TINAJERO, C., & P'ARAMO, M. F. 1997. Field dependence-independence and
academic achievement: A re-examination of their relationship. British Journal of
Educational Psychology, 71: 199-212.
TSEPA, T. J. 2008. Factors contributing to poor matric performance in the rural Qacha's
Nek area in Lesotho. Unpublished mini-dissertation. Bloemfontein: University of the
Free State.
VAN DEN BERG, A. R. 1989. Meting en evaluering in die sielkunde en opvoedkunde.
Pretoria: Gutenberg Boekdrukkers. Bpk.
WHEELER, J. V., & MClEOD, L. 2002. Expanding our Teaching Effectiveness:
Understanding our responses to "In_the-moment" classroom Events. Journal of
Management Education, 26: 693-714.
WillS, A. J. 2005. New Directions in Human Associative Learning. Mahwah, NJ.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
WINEBRENNER, S. 1996. Teaching Kids with learning difficulties in the regular
classroom. Minnesota: Free spirit Publishing Inc.
WINNICK, J. P. 1990. Adapted Physical Education and Sport. Illinois. Human Kinetics
Books
WRATCHER, M. A., MORRISON, E. E., RllEY, V. L. & SCHEIRTON, L. S. 1997.
Curriculum and program planning: A study guide for the core seminar. Fort lauderdale,
Fl: Nova University, Programs for Higher Education.
ZANE, T. 1987. Research in Special Education. In Reynolds, C. R. and Mann, L. (eds)
Encyclopedia of Special Education, New York: Wiley.
289
ZIGARELLI, M. A. 1996. An empirical test of conclusions from effective schools
research. The Journal of Educational Research, November/December 1999.
Washington: Heldref.
290
LIST OF APPENDIX
291
APPEDNDIX A
FELDER-SOLOMAN INDEX OF LEARNING STYLE
This questionnaire was used to conduct a survey on the learning styles of learners in
the rural secondary schools of Lesotho. Only Form C learners were free to complete the
questionnaire.
SECTION A- Biographical information
Please fill in your details on the spaces provided below, and mark with an 'X' in the box
next to your gender.
2. Full name . 2. Surname .
Male
3. Age . 4. Gender
Female
5. Name of school. .
SECTION B-Learning style questions
For each of question 1 to 44, circle either "a" or "b" to indicate your best answer. Please
answer all questions and give only one answer for each question.
23.1 understand something better after I
c) try it out.
d) think about it.
24.1 would rather be considered to be able to
c) present things as they are.
d) start something new.
25.When I think about what I did yesterday, I am most likely to get
c) a picture
292
d) words
26.1 normally
c) Understand the small parts of a subject than the overall structure
d) Understand the overall structure of a subject than the details.
27. When I am learning something new, it helps me to
c) Talk about it
d) Think about it
28.lf I were a teacher, I would rather teach a subject
c) That deals with things that are known to have happened or true
d) That deals with ideas and theories.
29.1 prefer to get new information in
c) Pictures, diagrams, graphs, or maps
d) Writing or verbal information
30. Once I understand
c) All the parts, I understand the whole thing.
d) The whole thing, I see how the parts fit.
31.ln a study group working on difficult material, I am more likely to
c) Jump in and contribute ideas.
d) Sit back and listen
32.1 find it easier
c) To learn facts
d) To learn ideas and theories.
33.ln a book with lots of picture and charts, I am likely to
c) Look over the pictures and charts carefully.
d) Concentrate on the written text.
34. When I solve maths problems
c) I usually solve a difficult problem in steps, one step at a time
d) I often just see the solution or the answer but I do not know the steps
35.ln my previous classes
c) I have known many of my classmates
d) I did not know many of my classmates.
36.ln reading, I prefer
c) Something that teaches me new things or how to do something
d) Something that gives me new ideas to think about.
37.1 like teachers
c) Who put a lot of diagrams on the board
d) Who spend a lot of time explaining
38.When studying a story
c) I think of things that happen and put them together to figure out the message.
d) I just know what the message is when I finish reading.
293
39.When I start a homework problem, I am more likely to
c) Start working on solving it immediately.
d) Try to fully understand the problem first.
40. When studying, I prefer the idea of
c) Feeling sure about things.
d) Set of opinions that explain something.
41. I remember best
c) What I see
d) What I hear
42.lt is important to me that the teacher
c) Teaches in clear sequential steps
d) Gives me an overall picture and relate the subject to other subjects.
43.1 like to study
c) In a group
d) Alone.
44.1 can be considered
c) Careful about knowing my work.
d) Creative about how to do my work.
23. When I get directions to a new place, I prefer
a) a map.
b) written instructions.
24. I learn
c) at a fairly regular pace. If I study hard, I'll understand better
d) in stops and starts. I'll be totally confused and then suddenly, I understand.
25. When doing things, I start by
c) Trying things out.
d) Thinking about how I am going to do it.
26. When I am reading for enjoyment, I like writers to
c) Cleary say what they mean.
d) Say things in creative, interesting way.
27. When I see a diagram in class, I am most likely to remember
c) The picture
d) What the teacher said about it.
28. When I read information, I prefer to
c) Concentrate on little things and miss the whole message
d) Try to understand the whole message before getting into the details.
29. I more easily remember
c) Something I have done
d) Something I have thought a lot about.
30. When I have to do something, I prefer to
294
c) Master one way of doing it
d) Come up with new ways of doing it.
31. When someone is showing me information, I prefer
c) Charts or graphs
d) Written text.
32. When writing a composition, I am more likely to
c) Think about or write the beginning of the composition and progress forward
d) Think about or write different parts of the composition and arrange them.
33. When I have to work on a group assignment, I first want to
c) Have a group discussion where everyone contributes ideas
d) Think alone and then come together as a group to compare ideas.
34. I praise somebody well when I say he/she is
c) Intelligent
d) Creative
35. When I meet people, I easily remember
c) What they looked like
d) What they said about themselves.
36. When I am learning a new subject, I prefer to
c) Focus on that subject, learning as much about it as I can
d) Try to make connections between that subject and other related subjects.
37. People can consider me to be
c) Friendly and sociable.
d) Cool and shy.
38. I like subjects that includes more
c) Facts
d) Theories.
39. For entertainment, I like to
c) Watch games in my village or television
d) Read a book.
40. Some teachers start their lessons by stating what they will teach. This is
c) A little helpful to me.
d) Very helpful to me.
41. When doing homework in groups, giving same marks for everyone in the group
c) Is good to me.
d) Is not good to me.
42. When I am doing long calculations, I tend to
c) Repeat all my steps and check my work carefully.
d) Force myself to check my steps.
43. I am able to picture places I have been to
c) Easily
295
d) With difficulty.
44. When solving problems in a group, I can
c) Think of the steps to solve the problem
d) Think of the possible ways of solving the problem
296
APPENDIX B
TEACHING STYLES QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire was used for the research on assessment of the teaching styles of
teachers in the rural schools of Lesotho in order to find ways of matching them with
learners' learning styles. Only Form C teachers could fill it in. Please answer all
questions.
SECTION A- BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
Please provide your details on the spaces and indicate your answer with an 'X' in the
boxes provided. All information will be kept confidential.
1. Name of school: .
2. Name of district: .
3. Subject(s) that you are currently teaching: .
4. Your highest academic qualification in the subject(s) you
teach: . 1-10
5. Number of teaching years: 11-20
21-30
31+
6. Your highest professional qualification in education:
None
STC/ACE
Dip. Ed/ Dip. Science Ed.! Dip. Agric. Ed
PGCE
B.Ed/BSc.Ed/BA.Ed
B.Ed(Hons)
M.Ed
PhD
7. Number of learners in your class ..
297
8. Your Gender I Male I Female
9. Age
<20 21-30 31-40 41-50 501 1 1 1 1 +
SECTION B- TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLE KNOWLEDGE
1. Please indicate the best answer with an 'X' in the corresponding box of each question
Question Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly
agree disagree
1.1. I have enough knowledge about learning
styles
1.2. I am aware of the learning styles of
learners in my class
1.3. I have enough knowledge about teaching
styles
1.4. I am sufficiently trained to teach learners
with different learning styles
1.5. I teach to address individual learning styles
of my learners
1.6. Knowing learners' learning styles IS
important for teachers
1.7. I have enough time to use teaching styles
that address individual learning styles in
my class
1.8. I know the factors that can influence each
learner's learning styles
1.9. Effective teaching can be enhanced by
matching teaching and learning styles
1.10. Teachers need special training in learning
styles in order to fulfill learners' learning
styles
298
2.Which strategies can be employed to give teachers knowledge about learning styles and ways of
accommodating individual learners in instruction? Rank your answer by allocating a number of
1 to the most important strategy, 2 to the least important strategy and 3 to the unimportant
strategy.
2.1. Information sharing sessions
2.2. Learner-centered Curriculum
2.3. Provision of teacher manual on learning styles
2.4. Further studies
2.5. Staff development sessions
2.6. Other strategies (specify) .
3. To what extent can/do these factors influence you in addressing individual learning styles in
your class?
Factor Not Small Large
at all extent extent
3.1. Overcrowded classes
3.2. Too much subject content and time pressure
3.3. Following the strict syllabus
3.4. Preparing learners for standardized external exams
3.5. Use of various teaching aids
3.6. Knowledge of the learning process
4. If you experience other problems in addressing learners' individual learning styles, specify
here .
299
5. Do your teaching styles address a variety of learning styles in your class? .
Give comments on your answer .
SECTION C- TEACHING STYLES INSTRUMENT
Please answer all questions and circle either 'a' or 'b' for questions 1 to 44. If both 'a' and 'b'
applies to you, select the most frequent.
2. In my class, it is important that learners acquire
a) facts
b) concepts
2.To reinforce learners' understanding, I prefer to
c) Demonstrate procedures using examples.
d) Provide extra resources through use of textual reading materials and diagrams.
3. I plan my lessons in a way that
c) Provides real-life learning tasks and activities.
d) Incorporates enough flexibility in learning activities and assignments to allow creativity.
4. To emphasize a concept, I provide
c) Concrete and real-world examples.
d) Material such as diagrams and summaries, which reinforce fundamental understanding
45. In my class, I motivate learners to learn by
c) Encouraging and applauding answers that relate to real-life situations.
d) Encouraging and applauding creative solutions, even incorrect ones.
46. In solving a problem or performing a task,
c) I provide very clear guidelines with examples of how it can be done.
d) I often show how various principles and concepts can be used.
47. I prefer to teach a subject that
c) Provides illustrations of empirical experimentation and observation of surrounding.
d) Provides illustrations of generalization, logical reasoning, and pattern recognition.
48. When solving a problem, I encourage learners to
c) Master one way of doing it.
d) Come up with new ways of doing it.
49. I expect learners to write assignments
c) In a clear, simple way.
d) In creative, interesting ways.
50. Activities in my class encourage learners to
c) Pay attention to detail and remembering content.
d) develop their own ideas about content.
300
51. My teaching methods and activities
c) Do not allow for individual and group work
d) Allow for individual and group work.
52. I mostly prefer to describe a concept through
c) A picture
d) Words.
53. To teach difficult material, I prefer to use
c) Pictures, diagrams, graphs, or maps.
d) Written or verbal information.
54. In group work, I ask learners to
c) Draw diagrams and make models that illustrate a concept.
d) Exchange ideas verbally and write a report.
55. I frequently give learners assignment that engage them in
c) Collecting material, drawing charts or making models.
d) Writing or verbal presentations.
56. When I teach my class, I would be most likely to
c) Use visuals to reinforce understanding.
d) Spend more time talking and writing notes.
57. When using a textbook, I normally ask learners to
c) Pay more attention to pictures and diagrams.
d) Concentrate more on the written content and discuss it.
58. In my class, I normally
c) Provide notes in a form of charts, maps and images.
d) Provide elaborated written or auditory notes and explanations.
59. When setting tests, I usually include questions that require
c) Use of diagrams and graphs to describe a concept.
d) Use of explanations and verbal information.
60. My teaching methods mainly include
c) Demonstrations, experiments and visuals.
d) Writing notes and verbal explanations.
61. At the end of a lesson, I usually
c) Draw a chart or diagram that summarizes the content.
d) Relate a list of the items in the content verbally.
62. I feel comfortable to teach in
c) Demonstrations, experiments, and visuals.
d) Lecturing and group discussions.
63. When solving a problem, I usually encourage learners to
c) Try it out in a less possible time.
d) Take time to think it through first.
64. In my class,
301
c) I provide activities that encourage learners to be actively involved in learning.
d) Lecturing is a significant part of how I teach.
65. I present my lessons such that
c) Small group activities are given priority to help learners to develop critical thinking.
d) There is little activity because there is more content to be covered in the subject.
66. In class I mostly engage myself in
c) Providing individual and group activities.
d) Writing notes and giving explanations.
67. During the lessons, I provide time intervals for learners to
c) Form small group discuss the material.
d) Think about what they have been taught.
68. On homework assignments, I usually encourage learners to
c) Cooperate and help one another.
d) Do the work individually.
69. When I assign group work, I expect learners to
c) Have a group discussion where everyone contributes ideas.
d) Think alone and then come together to compare ideas.
70. When I am teaching, I would
c) Ask and invite questions at certain time intervals to ensure learners' participation.
d) Expect learners to listen attentively and memorize facts.
71. In class, I provide
c) Team self-assessment to promote collaboration.
d) Self-assessment to self-evaluate own understanding.
72. I usually give learners
c) A certain time-frame to complete projects/assignments.
d) Opportunities to set their own pace for complete their work.
73. It is wise to
c) Allow learners to make decisions on how and when to do their projects.
d) Decide on everything that has to do with learning.
74. I always aim to
c) Provide learners with a detailed and step-by-step procedure for complete each task.
d) Provide learners with conceptual sequence for completing tasks.
75. When I teach my class, I would be most likely to
c) Give learners a specific way of solving a problem.
d) Allow learners to develop their own problem-solving process.
76. I teach my subject such that I
c) Focus on that subject alone.
d) Relate the subject to other similar subjects.
77. I begin my lessons by
c) Specifying the order in which the content will be presented.
302
d) Providing an overview of the content to be taught.
78. When writing tests, I encourage learners to
c) answer the first question and progress forward.
d) answer questions in any order they prefer.
79. I teach difficult concept by
c) First describing its parts, and then showing how the parts form the concept.
d) Showing the connections between the concepts and other concepts.
80. When studying with diagrams, I normally ask learners to
c) Pay attention to the small details of that make up the whole diagram.
d) Pay attention to the whole diagram and the details later.
81. When solving problems, I would normally encourage learners to
c) Think of the steps to solve the problem.
d) Think of possible ways that can be used to solve the problem.
82. I teach to ensure that learners
c) Develop skills of combining parts to form a whole (analyzing).
d) Develop skills of breaking the whole to smaller parts (synthesizing).
83. In my class, I
c) Emphasize the need to master one way of solving a problem.
d) Encourage learners to apply different approaches to solving a problem.
84. After marking assignments, I
c) Provide specific feedback for each step of the assignment.
d) Provide overall feedback for the assignment.
303
APPENDIX C
UNIVERSITEIT VAN DIE VRYSTAAT
UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE
YUNIVESITHI YA FREISTATA
Fakult.eit Geesteswetenskappe I Faculty of the Humanities
Skool vir Opvoedkunde I Sc/wo/ of Education
Departement Psigo-Opvoedkunde / Department Psychology of Education
Dr. G. Alexander
Department Psychology of Education
03 September 2008
051-4019490
The Director
Teuehing Service Department
Private Bag A94
Maseru
Lesotho
Dear Sir/Madam
RE : PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN LESOTHO
I, Dr.CJ.Alexander hereby confirm that Mr. MJ. Leteie (student no. 200606 I390) is a
full-time registered Master degree student under my supervision. As his promoter allel
study leader, I request permission from your directorate for ML Letcle to conduct
his research. His dissertation is entitled: " Enhancing learners' academic achievemcn t
in rural schools of Lesotho: Matching teaching and learning styles"
I am of the opinion that this area of research can make an unique contribution to the
Ministry of Educat.ion's efforts in supporting educators in rural schools.
Thanking you in anticipation.
Yours in Higher education
Dr. CJ. Alexaride-
ili."l 339, Bloemfontein 9300, 'B (051) 4013898, ,4;,; (051) 448 0363, Hepubliak van Suio-Alril\ó!. Republic Of Soutn Alrica
304
APPENDIX D
Mr. MJ. Leleie
Bishop De Mazenod high School
P.O. Box 356
Mazenod 160
3 September 2008
The Director
Teaching Service Department
Private Bag A94
Maseru 100
Lesotho
Dear Sir/ Madam
RE: PERMISS10N TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN RURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF
LESOTHO
I am a teacher al Bishop De Mazenod high school and a student at the University of the Free
Stale. I am currently doing il Masters degree in the department Psychology of Education. My
dissertation topic is "Enhancing kamers' academic achievement in rural schools of Lesotho:
Matching teachi ng and learning styles."
I therefore ask for the permission to contact and visit principals, Form C teachers and learners, in
rural schools in tbc country for completion of questionnaires. The findings of this study are aimed
at making recommendations that may be of importance to the Ministry of Education and
secondary schools in Lesotho.
Thank you in advance
Yours in education
M.r. J. Letele (+27786196311)
jRJR-THFOF·FICE OF THE D1RbCTOlr"OFTE"ACRl'NG-SER"V1CES
PERMISSION TO VISITIDO RESEARCH INRURAL SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF LESOTHO.
Permission granted by Signature .
Date/stamp .
305
APPENDIX E
University of the Free State
P.O. Box 339
Bloemfontein 9300 South Africa
06 September 2008
The Principal Secretary
Ministry of Education and Training
Maseru
Dear Sir
RE: PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN YOUR SCHOOL
I am a teacher at Bishop De Mazenod high school and a student at the University of the
Free Sate. I am currently doing a Masters degree in the Department Psychology of
Education. My research is entitled "Enhancing learners' academic achievement in rural
schools of Lesotho: Matching teaching and learning styles"
I therefore ask for permission to conduct research at your school. The findings of this
study are aimed at making recommendations that may be of importance to the Ministry
of Education's efforts in supporting rural schools.
Thanking you in advance.
Yours in Education
Moeketsi J. Leteie
Cell: 58858333/+27786196311
306
APPENDIX F
University of the Free State
P.O. Box 339
Bloemfontein 9300 South Africa
06 September 2008
Dear Principal
RE: PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH IN YOUR SCHOOL
I am a teacher at Bishop De Mazenod high school and a student at the University of the
Free Sate. I am currently doing a Masters degree in the Department Psychology of
Education. My research is entitled "Enhancing learners' academic achievement in rural
schools of Lesotho: Matching teaching and learning styles"
I therefore ask for permission to conduct research at your school. The findings of this
study are aimed at making recommendations that may be of importance to the Ministry
of Education's efforts in supporting rural schools.
Enclosed with this letter, are teacher and learner questionnaires that are to be filled in
and sent back to the address provided on the return envelope. The questionnaires must
be filled in by 5 Form C teachers and 10 of their learners. All information will be treated
confidentially.
Thanking you in advance.
Yours in Education
Moeketsi J. Leteie
Cell: 58858333/+27786196311
307
APPPENDIX G
Striata NW 11
Private Bag X20702
Universitas
Bloemfontein
9321
2009.05.23
TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN
I hereby certify that Mr. Moeketsi Letele's dissertation was language edited by
Mrs. B.A. Janse van Rensburg, former lecturer in the Department of Didactics,
Faculty of Education at the University of the Free State
./fon: -7.~ ~b;::r .
B.A.Janse van Rensburg
Any enquiries may be directed to me at (051) 5220879 or to the above address.
308