HIERDIE EKSÉÏw.'PiAAiR MAG ONDER University Free State
GlEIEN OMSTANDK<GHEDE urr mE 1111111 11111 fill' 1111111111 1111111111 11111 1111111111111111111111111111111111111134300000177596
Universiteit Vrystaat
THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF ETHICS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN
RESOURCES IN THE SOUTH AFRICAN PUBLIC SECTOR
by Abakholwa Moses Sindane
Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
MAGISTER ADMINISTRATIONIS
in the
Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences
( Department of Public Management)
at
The University of the Orange Free State
Bloemfontein
Supervisor: Prof. J C 0 Bekker
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my deepest appreciation to the following persons and institutions:
• Professor J.C.O Bekker, Head of the Department: Public Management, who acted as
my supervisor. His professional guidance has been invaluable.
• My wife, Maggie, for her emotional support, encouragement and understanding.
• My two children, Jabu and Thandi, for their constant reminder on ethics.
• Mé Purity Samela, for her tireless patience in typing this dissertation.
• The University of the Orange Free State library staff members, for their professional
assistance with research material.
• The Technikon Free State for granting the much needed study leave by way of
encouragement.
• The Centre for Science Development for its financial aid by way of encouragement.
Last but not least, all the praise to our Heavenly Father for wisdom, without whom this
dissertation would not have been possible.
AM Sindane.
CNTENTS
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Contents Page
1 Introduction
1
1.1 Statement of the problem 2
1.2 Frame of reference
4
1.2.1 Time dimension 5
1.3 Research method used 5
1.4 Reference method
6
1.5 Definition and explanations of terms
6
1.5.1 Public sector 6
1.5.2 Human resource management 7
1.5.3 Ethics 7
1.5.3.1Teleological theory of ethics 8
1.5.3.2Deontological theory of ethics 9
1.5.3.3Theory of ethics 10
1.6 Summary and sequence of chapters 10
ii
/
CHAPTER2
NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Page
Contents
14
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Ethics: Theoretical and philosophical perspectives
15
15
2.2.1 Ethics as a science
2.2.2 Ethical philosophy of life
19
2.2.3 Principles, norms, and values
20
23
2.2.4 Shared values
24
2.2.5 Bounded ethics
26
2.2.6 Practical value of ethics
27
2.2.7 Ethical ideals
2.3 Scope of ethics in the management of human resources in the
28
public sector
28
2.3.1 Public human resource management
28
2.3.1.1 Staffing
30
2.3.1.2 Training and development
32
2.3.1.3 Motivation
33
2.3.1.4 Maintenance
2.4 Aspects that may cause ethical dilemmas in the management of
human resources in the public sector 34
34
2.4.1 Historical overview of the Public Service
35
2.4.2 Transformation of the Public Service
iii
2.4.3 Rationalisation of the Public Service 36
2.4.4 Restructuring the Public Service 37
2.4.5 Representativeness in the Public Service 38
2.4.6 Affirmative action 39
2.4.7.1 Affirmative action and equity 40
2.4.8 .2 Affirmative action as reverse discrimination 40
2.4.9.3 Ethical sensitivity in the implementation of affirmative action 41
2.4.7 Leadership style 43
2.4.8 Ethics of management 44
2.4.8.1 Background 45
2.4.8.2 Ethics of management of human resources 46
2.5 Summary 47
CHAPTER 3
ASPECTS OF PUBLIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Contents Page
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 What is Management of Human Resources 50
3.3 Historical overview of Management of Human Resources 52
3.4 Who performs the Management of Human Resource functions 55
3.4.1 Rela1ionship between human resource management and
line management 56
iv
3.4.2 Purpose of the management of human resources 60
3.5 Functional Activities of HRM 61
3.5.1 Human Resource Provisioning 61
3.5.1.1 job analysis 62
3.5.1.2 Human resource planning 63
3.5.1.3 Personnel recruitment 63
3.5.1.4 Selection 64
3.5.2 Training and development 67
3.5.2.1 Induction training 68
3.5.2.2 Technical training 70
3.5.2.3 Development 72
3.5.3 Human Resource Motivation 74
3.5.3.1 Pay plans 76
3.5.3.2 Incentives 77
3.5.3.3 Benefits 78
3.5.3.4 Commitment and loyalty 79
3.5.4 Human Resource Maintenance 80
3.6.5 Human Resource and the legal environment 81
3.7 Ethical dilemmas in Human Resource Management 83
3.8 Summary 85
v
CHAPTER4
VALUES AND GUIDELINES WHICH UNDERPIN ETHICS IN THE
MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Contents Page
4.1 Introduction 86
4.2 Definition of values 87
4.3 Ethics and religious values 90
4.3.1 Ethics of Hinduism 91
4.3.2 Ethics of Buddhism 91
4.3.3 Ethics of Confucianism 92
4.3.4 Ethics of Islam 92
4.3.5 Ethics of Judaism 93
4.3.6 Christian ethics 94
4.4 Responsibility as a value 97
4.4.1 Responsibility as agency 98
4.4.2 Responsibility as accountability 100
4.4.3 Responsibility as obligation 101
4.5 Fairness and reasonableness 102
4.6 Justice as an ethical guideline 103
4.7 Honesty as an ethical guideline 104
4.7.1 Honesty and lying 105
4.7.2 Honesty and professional ethics 106
vi
4.7.3 Honesty and corruption 108
4.7.3.1 Poor remuneration 110
4.7.3.2Greed 111
4.7.3.3Nepotism 111
4.7.3.4Patronage 112
4.8 Individual rights as a value 113
4.9 Administrative efficiency as a value 117
4.10 Responsiveness as a value 119
4.11 Social equity as a value 123
4.12 Merit system: A Systems approach to promoting ethics 124
4.13 Summary 128
CHAPTER 5
PROMOTING AND MAINTAINING ETHICS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Contents Page
5.1 Introduction 131
5.2 Impact of the constitution and legal frameworks on ethics 132
5.3 Internal factors 141
5.4 Administrative process 144
5.4.1 Policy for promoting ethics 145
5.4.2 Organizing for the promotion of ethics 147
5.4.2.1 The Scientific management approach 147
vii
5.4.2.2 The bureaucratic approach 148
5.4.2.3 The systems approach 149
5.4.3 Financial planning and programming for promotion of ethics 151
5.4.4 Design of work procedures and methods for the promotion
of ethics 153
5.4.5 Promoting ethics through control 155
5.5 Codes of conduct and ethical behaviour 156
5.5.1 Relationship with legislature and the executive 157
5.5.2 Relationship with the public 157
5.5.3 ... Relationship among employees 158
5.5.4 Performance of duties 159
5.5.3 Advantages of codes of conduct 160
5.5.6 Disadvantages of codes of conduct 161
5.6 Promoting ethics through leadership 162
5.6.1 Autocratic leadership 164
5.6.2 Laissez faire leadership 165
5.6.3 Democratic leadership 165
5.7 Promoting ethics through good human relations and
communication 167
5.8 Promoting ethics through training 168
5.9 Just administrative action 170
5.10 Promoting ethics by upholding democratic values 173
viii
5.11 Causes of unethical behaviour 175
5.12 Summary 177
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND PROPOSALS
Contents Page
6 Introduction 179
6.1 Testing the hypothesis 179
6.1.1 Theories of ethics 180
6.1.2 Human resource management 181
6.1.3 Values 182
6.1 .4 Promotion of ethics 184
6.2 Suggestion for the promotion of ethics in the public sector 185
6.3 Proposals 188
6.4 Possible research projects 190
6.5 Summary 191
ix
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
In democratic states, government consists of a group of people elected into office to
manage the affairs of the state on behalf of the citizens. In turn, governments create
institutions and appoint public officials to manage and serve the public on their behalf.
The activities undertaken in these institutions are under the watchful eye of the public
and under the direct control and direction of the government. For this reason, bad or
good conduct by appointed officials and their subordinates affect not only the images of
governments, but the public trust as well.
In this Chapter, the reasons for undertaking this study are provided. The method of
research employed is also explained. In order to avoid misinterpretation, this Chapter
also provides a clarification' of terminology. The reference technique used in this
dissertation is briefly explained.
First, however, it is necessary to identify the pertinent problem addressed in this.
dissertation. This problem also serves the purpose to enhance the reasons for
undertaking this study.
2
1.1 Statement of the problem
The significance of ethics in the public sector has been widely proclaimed in the past
decade ( e.g.Denhardt 1988: 99-157 ). Pertinent questions regarding ethics in the
public sector are addressed. Although no scientifically exact answers are provided to
ethical questions ( ethics does not form part of the exact sciences ) such questions
form the basis for ethical debate at both the academic as well as practitioners' level.
A survey, among the United States of America's public, indicated that the public was
well aware of ethics, that they associated ethics with aspects such as standards, rules
of conduct, right and wrong, values, and honesty (Hill 1980: 293). Although this survey
may not be relevant to the South African situation, it may be assumed that the South
African public is aware of ethics, associating it with aspects such as corruption,
nepotism, honesty, and maladministration in the public sector. This assumption is
based on the on-going media reports on corruption in this sector (Horn 1995:1,
Dhlamini 1995:1). Many letters to newspapers by individual members of the public also
serve to indicate the level of awareness on ethics by the South African society (Mori
1995: 14).
In South Africa, although all the past and present Constitutions always had some
ethical undertones in the preambles, ethics per se in the history of the South African
public sector has been sparsely accentuated. The emphasis has always been on
3
certain normative guidelines operative in this sector. These guidelines included aspects
such as political supremacy, efficiency, aspects for societal values, accountability,
social equity, and religious doctrines (Hanekom and Thornhill 1983: 121-145). Books
dealing exclusively with ethics in the public sector such as the one by
Gildenhuys(1991) are scarce. Even the most recent publications in the "Discipline" do
not deal exclusively with ethics ( e.g. Bayat and Meyer 1994:216-290 ).
This state of affairs emphasises the need for research in the field of ethics, particularly
with regard to ethics in the South African context. This research project is a theoretical
contribution in the field of ethics and is intended to stimulate emperical research in this
field.
Numerous questions may be asked concerning the perceptions and attitudes of those
engaged in the public service in the light of what has been written above. For the
purpose of this dissertation, however, the endeavour is to investigate and describe
underlying principles of ethics and how they should be applied in the management of
human resources in the public sector. To summerise, this research is worth undertaking
for the following reasons:
First, the majority of literature on ethics in the public sector in South Africa only touches
on ethical dilemmas encountered by public officials, unethical behaviour and their
causes, and measures to prevent them ( Van der Waldt and Helmbold 1995:157-174).
4
These sources are not works on ethics per se, but on selected aspects of public
management which also include some facts about ethics.
Second, very little research has been undertaken in which theories and principles
underlying ethics in the management of human resources in the South African public
sector are described. This dearth in the corpus of ethical knowledge predisposes
practitioners to uncertainties. In a state of uncertainty, situations dictate the courses of
action, and there can be no guarantees that such actions will be in accordance with
principles of conduct that are considered correct with. This dissertation is a
contribution made to fill this gap. It is contended that knowledge of ethics and a
commitment to upholding ethical norms and standards in the management of human
resources in the public sector can contribute towards promoting ethical behaviour in the
public sector. This contentment forms the basis of this research project.
1.2 Frame of reference
The focus of this study is human resource management in the public sector. The
activities undertaken in this sector are open to public scrutiny, hence the need for such
activities to be ethically justifiable. From a Business Economics point of view, the
means of production of goods and services are described as availability of land,
availability of capital, and availability and utilisation of human labour. Of these means
of production, only human resources are capable of observable behaviour, because the
other production factors are inanimate. In the light of this statement, it is clear that only
5
human resources are capable of ethical or unethical behaviour. For this reason, the
management of human resources is selected as the object of study and analysed from
an ethical point of view.
1.2.1 Time dimension
The advent of the democratic dispensation on 27 April 1994 in South Africa heralded
expectations and changes to all South Africans. The Constitution of the Republic of
South Africa, 1993( Act 200 of 1993 ) was in place until 1996. The Constitution of the
Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) was adopted on 8 May 1996. In terms
of Section 195 (Act 108 of 1996 ) emphasis has been put on human resource
management in the South African public sector. The time frame April 1994 to December
1998 will be used as a point of departure in this dissertation.
1.3 Research method used
A detailed literature study on ethics in the public sector is undertaken. Although the
literature study is mainly descriptive, an attempt is made to deductively adapt theories
and descriptions to the management of human resources in the South African public
sector context.
6
1.4 Referencemethod
The Harvard reference method is used in this dissertation. The complete
bibliographical particulars of the appropriate sources are supplied in the bibliography.
The sources are listed alphabetically according to authors. These are further divided
according to books, journals, newspapers and statutes.
1.5 Definitions and explanations of terms
Although most concepts used in this dissertation are explained and defined as they
appear in the different chapters, it is necessary to define some of them in this chapter.
These are regarded as key concepts in this dissertation.
1.5.1 Public Sector
According to Fox and Meyer (1995: 107) public sector refer to "...that portion of an
economy whose activities (economic and non-economic) are under the control and
direction of the state". The public sector is characterised by its service motive and
activities in this sector take place in a political milieu. It includes governmental
institutions as well as functionaries employed in these institutions at all levels of
government.
7
1.5.2 Human resource management
In line with the vision and mission of the White Paper on Human Resource
Management in the Public Sector (RSA 1997 ), the term human resource management
is used in this dissertation ahead of public personnel administration. The term captures
human beings in the public sector as a resource to be managed. It is the subject of
many role players in an institution, such as top management, human resource
specialists and line managers. A full explanation of these role players is presented in
Chapter three of this dissertation. For the purpose of this dissertation human resource
management may be referred to as all decisions and actions by all levels of
management that affects and influences the nature of the relationship between the
organisation and its human asset (Beer et al. in Goss 1994: 13).
1.5.3 Ethics
Ethics is defined and explained by many authors in various fields of study. Most of the
authors emphasise "right" and "wrong", "good" or "bad" and judgement on human
behaviour (Lewis 1991: 3). For the purpose of this dissertation a more acceptable
definition of ethics is that by Jennings. He states that "...ethical judgement is the
exercise of a capacity to discriminate among available courses of action on the basis
of interpretation of shared values embedded in an ongoing institutional practice and in
a broader form of communal life" (quoted in Bowman 1991: 80). This definition
8
embraces situational, teleological and deontological theories of ethics. Attention will be
given to the explanations of these latter concepts in the paragraphs below.
1.5.3.1 Teleological theory of ethics
Teleology is concerned not with the actions of people per se, but rather with their
consequences. It is frequently referred to as 'ends-based ethics' or as
'consequential ism'. In teleological ethics, it is held that the ethical quality of an action
must be determined in terms of its consequenses. An action that maximises the
possible good (e.g. affirmative action as a means to promote representivity ) for the
largest number will be considered morally superior to other courses of action.
Conversely, an action that minimises harm to the majority of people will be morally
better than options that have worse consequenses.
A perusal of the many White Papers in the South African public sector since 1994
contain teleological content. They are meant to benefit the majority that was deprived of
opportunities prior to the 1994 dispensation. From the above explanation, it can be
stated that the underlying tenets of teleological ethics closely reflect those of a free-
market ethos; namely, leveling the playing field to the benefit of the majority and
constantly adjudicating alternative outcomes.
In practice two teleological sub-types can be discerned, namely, directive utilitarianism
and situational utilitarianism. According to directive utilitarianism, it is held that clearly
9
defined ethical directives can be developed as guides for ethical behaviour in an
institution. In an institutional context, these directives are synonymous with codes of
conduct. Through the adoption of codes of conduct, it is assumed ( true to teleology)
that maximumbenefit will accrue to the majority.
In situational utilitarianism, different perceptions are held. The view is that maximum
benefit to the greatest number will accrue only if the decision maker selects an
appropriate course relevant to the particular situation. The realities of the problem at
the time and place determine the course of action.
1.5.3.2 Deontological theory of ethics
Deontology refers to a sense of duty or obligation(Beauchamp and Bowie 1983:23). It
refers to ethics based on the act itself. Values such as honesty, fairness, justice,
accountability, reasonableness, responsibility and equity reflect deontological ethics.
These values form important principles as basis for action(RSA 1996:83). In public
management, values such the ones mentioned above are given (Van der Waldt and Du
Toit 1997:39). Accepting public employment necessarily means that one should be
prepared to uphold these values. This applies particularly to managers of human
resources in the public sector.
10
1.5.3.3 Theory of ethics
Theory is helpful in predicting and explaining phenomena (McCormick and !lIgen
1981:229). It refers to a systematised set of ideas on reality(Cloete 1995:75). Theories
of ethics are generalisations on reality preferences. They are based on specific a priori
standards of evaluation. The standards explain what the ideal objectives should be
whereby reality should be judged or changed.
Some practitioners are aversed to theories. At times one hears of expressions such as
" that is all right in theory, but it won't work in practice". What such practitioners do not
realise, is that they cannot work without theory and that knowledge of the theories form
the bases of their practice.
1.6 Summary and sequence of chapters
This dissertation is divided into six chapters which form a sequential whole. Chapter
one serves as an introduction to the study. In this Chapter the research problem of the
dissertation is identified and research method is explained. It is recognised that there is
a dearth of adequate knowledge in the field of ethics particularly in the South African
public sector context where it is needed the most. The on-going media reports on
corruption, fraud, and theft in the public sector accentuates the need for research,
11
education and training in the field of ethics. As a point of departure, the time dimension
of this research project is restricted to the period 1994 to 1998. This period is
considered in South Africa as the transition period from the apartheid era to a
democratic dispensation. It is asserted, in political circles, that the public sector has a
vital role to play in this transitional period.
Both the teleological and the deontological theories of ethics are explained. Managers
of human resources combine these theories in day-to-day practice, although most are
not aware of the mental processes they use.
In Chapter two, the nature and scope of ethics is described. Ethics is by nature
judgemental on human behaviour. As a result, such conduct excludes that of children
who still lack the life experiences concerning right and wrong, proper and improper,
good and bad. Principles, norms and values are fundamental to ethics, and are fully
explained in this Chapter. It is argued, for example, that managers of human resources
should strife for common values in their management style in order to be
accommodative of the values of a diversified personnel corps.
Aspects that can cause unethical behaviour in the public sector during the period of
transition are also discussed in Chapter two. Transition causes uncertainties and can
have a destabilising effect on personnel. Such uncertainties can manifest in loss of
morale and subsequent unethical behaviour such as inefficiency.
12
Chapter three deals with aspects of human resource management. It is argued, for
example, that these aspects are the same in both the private and public sector, but that
there are marked differences in the manner in which they are dealt with in practice.
The differences are brought about by different environments-both internal and external-
within which the two sectors operate. Ethics becomes paramount in the management of
human resources in the public sector in view of the high public profile this sector enjoys
in the community. Also, because of the fact that management of human resources in
the public sector takes place in a political environment, it is directly influenced by
politics.
Values are essential parts of ethics, and are discussed in Chapter four. The list is not
exhaustive, but those values that are considered important in the management of
human resources in the public sector are dealt with. Religious values are considered
important constituents of ethics in the South African public sector context. Although
evidence shows that an overwhelming majority of South Africans are Christians, other
religions have a Constitutional right to exist side-by-side with Christianity. For this
reason, managers of human resources should consider the values espoused by other
religions among the personnel corps. In this Chapter, the values contained in Section
195 of The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 ( Act 108 of 1996 ) are
emphasised.
l3
A concerted effort need to be devoted to promoting ethics in the management of human
resources in the public sector. This aspect receives attention in Chapter five. The
objective in South Africa is to transform the Public Service into an efficient and effective
unit that will serve all the citizens impartially, regardless of colour, sex or creed. This is
a mammoth task, considering the history of the South African Public Service that was
politicised, partisan and bias in dealing with its clients. Training and retraining of public
servants is paramount for the achievement of the above objective.
In this Chapter various means of promoting ethics in the management of human
resources in the public sector are discussed. Promoting and maintaining ethics can
serve as one of the means to achieving the ideals of a transformed Public Service.
Leadership, communication and training are singled out as crucial aspects in this
respect.
This dissertation concludes with Chapter six, in which proposals based on the previous
chapters are made. It is evident from the conclusions and proposals in Chapter six, that
not only those in the Public Service need to be trained and educated in ethics, but the
general public as well need to be educated in ethics. It can be expected that an
informed public will register its protest in the event of unethical behaviour in the public
sector.
14
CHAPTER2
NATURE AND SCOPE OF ETHICS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN
RESOURCES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Ethics is by nature reflective and judgemental on human conduct. It is concerned with
human conduct that is approved of or disapproved of in terms of right and wrong or
good and bad. The term ethics and ethical are often used synonymous with morals and
morality. The ethics or morality of a person or group consist in what a person or group
think is fitting or not fitting, right or wrong, obligatory or not obligatory to do.
The scope of human conduct that can be judged, covers the whole range of adult
experience. In the context of public administration, and more specifically human
resource management, the range of adult experience covered, exclude the activities of
children whose conducts are not based on prior experience. Ethics deal with what
constitutes the primary criteria by which actions are to be evaluated as morally right or
wrong.
The issue that will receive particular attention in this Chapter is ethics in public human
resource management. It is an issue of particular importance in the South African
public sector. The latter statement is based on the fact that, since the inception in 1994
of the new political dispensation in South Africa, the Public Service has been
earmarked for major changes. The changes envisaged for the public service include
the transformation of the Public Service, the restructuring of the Public Service, as well
as the application of affirmative action. In view of the above-mentioned envisaged
15
changes, the role and impact of ethics is assessed in the context of public human
resource management.
2.2 Ethics: Theoretical and philosophical perspectives
Theory of ethics is important for the understanding of human resource management. A
theoretical perspective is helpful both for the explanation and prediction of what
happens or may happen, as well as a description of relationships observed in
association with what happens, why and how it happens. It is also worthwhile to apply
a philosophical perspective to human resource management in the public sector. A
philosophical perspective is helpful in an attempt to wisely and calmly fathom the
intentions of a person's actions. Ethics is a branch of philosophy called moral
philosophy (Sykes 1976: 829). Moral or morality is concerned with goodness, or with
the distinction between right and wrong of human conduct. Accordingly, Cooper (1994:
379) argues that moral philosophy is helpful in dealing with values and ethical issues if
and when they arise. Ethics as the science of ethical values is described in the
subsection below.
2.2.1 Ethics as a science
The question whether or not ethics is a science is controversial in the sense that the
term "science" is difficult to define. In its simplest definition science refers to a
"... systematically formulated body of knowledge" (Sykes 1976: 1014). Isaak (1985:
28) agrees with this definition, but further states that science is concerned with the
"method of obtaining knowledge".. As a body of knowledge, science includes laws,
facts, of physics, biology, economics, and refers to the world of experience, based on
observation and experiment (Isaak 1985: 28). As a method of obtaining knowledge
16
science refers to a particular set of principles on how to obtain the facts, and are based
on theory.
Ethical propositions state value judgements. They are neither true nor false but
accentuates preferences, and are prescriptive by nature (Meehan 1996: 29). A
scientific method of obtaining knowledge (i.e. Method based on a set of principles)
about ethics may lead to the identification of the causes of various kinds of human
behaviour or choices as well as showing which actions are approved of in terms of
prevailing values (Meehan 1996: 28). The latter statement shows that it is possible to
study ethics scientifically if certain assumptions are made and certain principles are
followed (Isaak 1985: 28). The adjective "scientific" can be applied to both the
principle (scientific method) and the facts obtained (scientific knowledge) (see also
Isaak 1985: 28).
In the light of the above, it could be stated that ethics is a science. This argument is
supported by the Colliers Encyclopaedia (1992:33), which states that "Ethics is the
integrated science of valuation. Ethics as a science investigates the value of human
life in a coherent, systematic and scientific manner. As a science, ethics is related to
the biological and humanistic sciences for reliable knowledge of the facts of human
nature and behaviour. Ethics is therefore an interdisciplinary science". It is a science in
which actual human behaviour is analysed and judged according to prescribed norms
and rules (Rae 1995: 15). Normative ethics therefore prescribes moral behaviour (Rae
1995: 15).
The study of normative ethics consists of two main divisions. First the deontological
approach, in which the basic concepts are "right", referring to justice, fairness and
reasonableness, "ought", referring to how things should be as opposed to how they are,
17
"duty", which means deriving pride in a job well done, and "obligation" signifying that
one is morally bound to behave in a specific way.
Second, the teleological approach in which the basic concepts are "goodness" and
"value", signifying the end purpose (New Encyclopaedia, 1982:977). These two
approaches will be looked at closely in the following paragraphs.
o Deontological approach
The deontological approach to the study of ethics emphasises the ethics of duty,
uprightness and obligation. According to Cooper (1994:149)"...a deontological
principle is a general law or rule that guides action..." This action implies the
necessary conduct or state of being that is required for the "fuifiIIment of a value"
(Cooper1994:149). In the day to day performance of their duties public human
resource managers are guided by policies, rules and regulations , such as codes of
conduct that have to be observed and adhered to. It can therefore be inferred that
government policies , rules, regulations, and codes of conduct relate to the
deontological category of normative ethics.
LJ Teleological approach
As opposed to the guiding role of the deontological concept, the teleological approach
to the study of normative ethics concentrates on the moral worth of human behaviour.
Teleologically, the emphasis is on the appraisal of the consequences of human action
as measured against set norms. The teleological approach emphasises working
towards a good purpose which is set as an ideal. In the context of public
administration, the achievement of goals and the satisfaction of citizen preferences
would serve as examples of this approach (Cooper 1994: 157-165).
18
With respect to the transformation of the public sector in South Africa, human resource
management will be confronted by ethical problems of both deontological and
teleological nature. In the restructuring of the public service the ethics of duty,
uprightness and obligation on the public servants should be emphasised, while the
moral worth of the decisions and actions of the public human resource manager will be
judged on the consequences these will have on the South African society as a whole,
measured against an ideal to be achieved in the future.
It can be stated that legal prescriptions such as laws, rules and regulations, could be
helpful as deontological tools, and serve as measurements of values, standards, or
ethical norms.Cooper (1994: 155) supports this statement, and state that legal
prescriptions help in dealing " ...personally, courageously, responsibly, and creatively
with the moral ambiguity that is the stuff of administrative life". In the changing South
Africa, public human resources managers will be required to apply deontological
principles on a daily basis and to exhibit sensitivities to results in both the
transformation process of the public service as well as the delivery of services. This
calls for vision, integrity, and innovativeness. In the transformation process, the South
African government's ideal is to strive for a society in which violence will be eliminated,
in which there will be no discrimination in whatever form and in which gender equality
will be achieved and a host of other noteworthy goals. The above mentioned ideals
should be paramount in the minds of visionary human resources managers in the public
sector. It is suggested in the paragraphs below that such human resource
functionaries should adopt an ethical philosophy of life.
19
2.2.2 Ethical philosophy of life
It is difficult to give a clear-cut definition of the concept philosophy, because there are
various conceptions of what philosophy means. Throughout its varied and long history,
philosophy has meant different things to different people. Some of the concerns of
philosophical studies has been a search for the wisdom of life, an attempt to
understand the universe as a whole,·a generation and vigorous examination of moral
responsibilities and social obligations (New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1982: 248). An
ethical philosophy of life is in line with the conceptions of philosophy as "... an
examination of moral responsibilities and social obligations". Ethical philosophy of life
can also be understood in terms of normative ethics. "The philosophy of a period
arises as a response to social need" (New Enclycopaedia Britannica, 1982: 261), and
in the changing South Africa the need should be for public human resource managers
of integrity and sensitivity to ethics. Sensitivity to and positive attitudes towards ethics
in human resource management in the public sector may serve to enhance the ethical
conduct in the management of human resources.
In response to the need to make the public service representative of the South African
community, it is being transformed through restructuring and rationalisation. The
argument is that in the restructuring of the public service, aspects such as
representativeness (RSA, 1994:40); affirmative action (RSA, 1994: 42); and merit, are
issues confronting public human resource management functionaries. Section 195(1)
(i) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act108/96) states that
"...public administration must be broadly representative of the South African people,
with employment and personnel management practices based on ability, objectivity,
fairness, and the need to redress the imbalances of the past to achieve broad
20
representation". The spirit of representativeness is to legitimise the public service and
drive it towards equitable service delivery (White Paper on the Transformation of the
Public Service 1995: 52). Resentativeness is broadly defined to include black people
(including Indians and Coloureds), women of all races and persons with disabilities.
Affirmative action (defined as laws, programmes, or activities designed to redress past
imbalances) is adopted as a proactive approach to achieve representativeness (RSA
1995: 53).
Klingner and Nalbandian (1985: 10) describe personnel management practices based
on abilities, skills and knowledge as the merit system. Cloete (1994: 167) describes
merit as a personnel system that recognises suitable qualifications and experience as
basis for appointment, remuneration and promotion in the public service.
It will be expected from public human resource managers to address the above
aspects, and success or failure in this respect will be based on both deontological and
teleological evaluations of their decisions and actions on the short, medium and long
term as will be indicated in the following paragraphs. An ethical philosophy of life
adopted in public human resource management should be based on principles, norms
and values as guidelines for decisions and actions.
2.2.3 Principles, norms and values
To understand the nature and scope of ethics in the public sector, it is necessary to
differentiate between the concepts of principles, norms and values. In the everyday
language these three concepts are usually used as synonyms, thus necessitating a
clearer definition for purposes of research.
21
o Principles
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1987: 822) defines principle as "
...a truth or belief that is accepted as a base for reasoning or action". Principles
therefore serve as fundamental sources of reasoning and action. An individual's moral
principles, for example, would serve as a personal code of conduct.
As pointed out earlier in this chapter, principles are important elements of science. In
an attempt to create a science of public administration, early writers in the discipline,
among them Dahl (1947:23), Simon (1947: 34), Urwick (1957: 38) emphasised
efficiency and precision as guiding principles of administration. In the South African
public administration, efficiency is one of the normative guidelines to be observed by
public functionaries (Botes et al 1995: 175 - 176).
o Norms
A norm is a rule or standard of behaviour shared by members of a social group. Norms
may be internalised so that there is conformity even when there is no external reward
attached to it. A norm has both a physical and abstract meaning. In the abstract
sense a norm is value based and serve as a standard. A behavioural expectation held
by a group of individuals or society for evaluating behaviour, the violation of which a
person should pay a societal penalty may be regarded as a norm (Fox and Meyer,
1995: 86). In the abstract sense, norms cannot be separated from community values.
For example, in a community that values democracy, the upholding of democratic
principles such as openness, freedom of expression and movement would serve as
behavioural norms, the violation of which could lead to societal censorship. In its
22
physical meaning a norm is used synonymous with standard (Bates 1982: 9 -10). A
standard is a measure used to determine the degree of success in the accomplishment
of a predetermined objective or goal (Cloete 1995: 51). In this sense a norm can be
used as a control mechanism and where deviations are observed remedial steps can
be taken (Bates et.ê.L.1996:364).
o Values
Values are conceptions of what is fundamentally good or desirable that an individual or
group or community or society hold onto as guides through life (Fox and Meyer 1995:
134). Values may be explicit or implicit (Fox and Meyer 1995: 134). As an area of
deontology, values may be explicit, requiring details for every action in public human
resource management.
Teleologically values may be implicit. For example a strive for democratic values may
entail a belief that it is better to be governed by persuasion rather than by force.
Democratic values may also entail the love for truth, accountability and transparency,
also a belief that the knowledgeable and those in position of power should use the
power of their knowledge and position for the well-being of the society. Community
values are liable to change because they are affected by variable factors such as
technology, values of others and the educational level of a specific community. Values
are also influenced by time, place and culture (Bates et al 1982: 9). Community values
are also grounded on ethics, morals and religious convictions (Wiechers 1993: 250).
The values that a community strives for, do not necessarily justify the means to attain
them. It may happen that some of the means used may be regarded as unethical. For
example in South Africa, the way to democracy as a value, was littered with many
23
unethical incidences such as unlawfulness, necklacing, kangaroo courts, non-payment
of services and violence.
2.2.4 Shared Values
In the process of transforming and restructuring the public sector in South Africa the
question that arises, is what principles, norms and values should be pursued in order
to ensure a stable country. The establishment of a democratic society and
achievement of stability in the country should be supported by specific principles,
norms and values. Shared values in public institutions provide a basis for good
management. Principles and norms based on shared values, ensure obedience and
compliance by institutional members, without being coerced to do so (Wiechers, 1993:
28). Among others, Mercer (1992: 62) identifies the following shared values which can
make a difference in a public institution, namely, honesty, pride, integrity, responsibility,
dedication, loyalty, flexibility (open to change), team work, hard work, innovativeness,
and efficient use of time and resources. In reviewing the shared values of successful
organisations, Mercer (1992: 63) concluded, that shared values define the
fundamental character or culture of an institution. They define the attitude and
behaviour of personnel that distinguish the institution from all others. Shared values
create a special sense of identity for those in the institution, giving meaning to work as
something more than simply earning a living (Mercer 1992: 63).
Shared values define the relation of the institutions with the outside world-notably the
citizens in the community. Internal to the institution, shared values govern or determine
"... the way we do things around here" (Mercer 1992: 63). The question is whether the
advantages of shared values can be of benefit to the heterogeneous South African
Society. South Africa is a multicultural country with diverse value systems differing
24
from community to community. A shared value system can only mean capitalising on
commonalities between the various value systems. A common belief in value systems
is required, and should be striven for in the public sector. The public sector, which is
the domain of public human resource management can contribute immensely towards
the attainment of this objective. Public human resource management can contribute,
for example, by designing training programmes which encompass the various
community norms and values accurately, honestly and purposefully (Wiechers, 1993:
28, Vil-Nkomo 1994: 2 - 14). The design of training programmes which should
promote ethics within public institutions and thereby accommodate various norms and
values of the different communities, would require public human resource managers of
different cultural, educational and ethical backgrounds. This statement is important in
the South African context. Instead of undermining value systems and cultures of other
communities in public human resource management, these should be recognised and
respected as building blocks upon which strength in diversity is derived. In the past
South Africa was segregated along race and ethnic lines by legislation. In the
transformation and restructuring of the public service, public human resource
management ought to encompass the rich cultures of the different communities and
ethnic groups. Culture is a source of power (Mabe 1988:12) and a disregard thereof
can only be to the disadvantage of public human resource management. However, it
should also be kept in mind that in public human resource management activities are
carried out within certain constraints. There constraints are dealt with in the section
below.
2.2.5 Bounded Ethics
According to Hayes and Reeves (1984:60) public functionaries responsible for public
human resource management possess discretionary powers in the day to day
25
implementation of personnel policies. They contend that it is precisely the discretionary
powers public functionaries possess which give rise to ethical dilemmas. Ethical
dilemmas may arise in public human resource management because of the
complexities of personnel policies, defective procedures and manuals and defective
control (van der Waldt and Helmblod 1995: 161 - 162). Such deficiencies as outlined
above may give rise to various interpretations by public functionaries which may result
in unethical decisions and behaviour.
The ethical dimension of the situation could include, for example, standards, values
and principles such as honesty, fairness, justice, integrity, social equity, competence,
efficiency and responsiveness (Cooper 1994: 351; Hayes and Reeves, 1984: 361).
Ethical situations have to be practised and understood within the limits of enabling
legislation and financial constraints (Frederickson 1993: 249). The work of a public
human resource manager is embedded in rules, regulations, guidelines, reports, which
serve as guidelines to enhance ethics. It can therefore be said that public human
resource managers generally practice ethics within specific limits (Frederickson 1993:
251 ).
Public human resource management takes place in an environment in which
government policy rules (Frederickson 1993: 249). This statement is important in view
of the transformation of the public sector in South Africa. For the decisions of public
human resource managers to be regarded as deontologically correct, they should at all
times be legally correct. However, the success of public human resource management
will be teleologically judged, that is, the decisions will be judged by the consequences,
depending on the results to be maximised. For example, whereas competency and
efficiency should be striven for in the public service, in public human resource
management transformation and restructuring of the public service and affirmative
26
action are important aspects to consider (see for example the White Paper on
Transformation of the Public Service 1995). The ethical situation in which public
human resource managers in a changing South Africa finds themselves can lead to
questions of whether ethics is of practical value. This aspect receives attention in the
paragraphs below.
2.2.6 Practical value of ethics
Public functionaries occupy strategic positions in the public sector. On the one hand
they have to implement government policy to satisfy the respective political office-
bearers. This requires that their actions should, at all times, be intra vires (Hanekom,
et ai, 1987: 151). On the other hand, public functionaries carry the responsibility of
advancing the public good, and their actions in carrying out their responsibilities should
be seen by the public as being "good", "right" and "positive" (Hanekom et al., 1987:
151). The important position of public human resource functionaries in particular,
exposes them to ethical dilemmas. In order to assist public human resource
functionaries, ethical codes of conduct (defined in Chapter 4) should be drawn to serve
as guidelines for official conduct. The practical value of ethics especially in the form of
ethical codes of conduct can, according to Hanekom et al. (1987: 163), be interpreted
as serving at least four objectives, namely:
First, to advance and continue the responsible conduct of public
functionaries;
Second, to advance public confidence In the trustworthiness of public
functionaries;
Third, to serve as guidelines to public functionaries in their relationship with
fellow officials, elected public office-bearers and the public; and
27
Fourth, to serve as guidelines in the exercise of discretionary powers by
public functionaries.
It can be inferred from the four objectives mentioned above that ethics is of
practical value in public human resource management and public
institutions. Through observance of and determination to practice ethics it
can be ensured that the conduct of public human resource functionaries are
both fair and just.
2.2.7 Ethical ideals
The ethical ideals which can be identified and which form an integral part of public
human resource management are, according to Thomas (1978:146 - 189), a higher
form of security; service to society; and satisfaction of the worker, to name but a few.
The ideals respectively imply that the public should, through the medium of public
management, be made to feel satisfied. The actions of public human resource
functionaries should at all times be seen to promote the general welfare and the public
interest indiscriminately. Public human resource policies should guide human resource
functionaries against unlawful and unethical behaviour. The success of the service
rendered by the public sector depends to a large extend on the ethical norms, values
and principles of the public functionaries. The legislature, both at the national and
provincial spheres of government, should set an example for the public functionaries.
For example, political office-bearers can set the example by adopting and implementing
parliamentary practices that maximises accountability and transparency (discussed in
Chapter 4). It can therefore be stated that should the legislator falter in its ethical
actions it can be expected that public functionaries would as a result of that be found
lacking in the maintenance of high ethical standards.
28
2.3 SCOPE OF ETHICS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE
PUBLIC SECTOR
The nature of ethics and the ethical ideals described in the sections above apply to
public management in general. The domain of public management is the public sector
comprising of a variety of institutions. In this section, the scope of ethics in public
human resource management is described, however this is dealt with in more detail in
the next chapter.
2.3.1 Public Human Resource Management
Public Human Resources Management is the part of the public institution that is
concerned with the "people" dimension in the institution (De Cenzo and Robbins 1996:
8, Schwella et.ê.L 1996:32). It is a staff, or suppport, function in the institution, and its
role is to provide assistance in matters related to personnel to those involved in the
provision of services. Every public institution is comprised of people. Achieving
institutional goals depends on acquiring, developing, motivating and maintaining a
committed personnel corps. De Cenzo and Robbins (1996: 8) suggest that to look at
public human resource management specifically, it is worthwhile to devide it into four
functions, namely; staffing, training and development, motivation, and maintenance.
These aspects are discussed in the sections below.
2.3.1.1 Staffing
Starling (1986: 448) describes the concept staffing as " ... the process of recruiting,
selecting and advancing employees on the basis of their relative ability, knowledge and
skill". Recruitment is defined by Megginson in Andrews (1988: 94) as "... the term
29
applied to the phase of personnel management that involves reaching out and
attracting a supply of people from which to select qualified candidates for job
vacancies". The selection process involves identifying the applicants who are best
suited for appointment in specific posts (Cloete 1994: 178).
Cloete (1994: 165) points out that in the public sector, once legislation is passed,
organisational arrangements completed, and money made available, then the staffing
function can be undertaken. Employment in the public service is regulated by the
Public Service Labour Relation Act, 1994 and Chapter 10 Section 196 (4)(d) of the
Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996. With the above Acts and the
guidance and advices provided by the Public Service Commission on employment
practices, it could be expected that malpractices and unethical conduct in the staffing
activities would be eliminated. This is however not always the case.
Mphahlele (1995) investigating the appointment of officers in the management echelon
of the education department of the Free State Provincial Administration found that:-
• there were many purposeful deviations from standard procedures of
selection;
• many malafide mistakes, were committed;
• irregularities in the selection process;
• interferences in the process in various ways;
• unfair treatment and/or improper exclusion of and discrimination against
some application and applicants; and
• improper inclusion of some applications and applicants.
The magnititude of unethical conduct in the staffing process was found to be of such a
nature as to render the whole process and the subsequent appointments null and void.
30
Although the recommendations of the commission that the whole staffing process
should be carried out again were never carried out, unethical conduct in the staffing
process were revealed. This resulted in the Free State Department of Education being
taken to court and subsequent resignation of some top personnel from the department.
2.3.1.2 Training and development
Robbins (1982: 198) describes training as " ...a learning experience that seeks a
relatively permanent change in an individual that will improve his/her ability to perform·
on the job". Development on the other hand is described as "... the systematic process
of education, training and growing, by which a person learns and applies information,
knowledge, skills, attitudes and perceptions" (Megginson 1981: 205). In both training
and development similar methods are used to effect learning, but their time frames
differ. Training focuses on individuals' current jobs, enhancing specific skills and
abilities to immediately perform their jobs, while development focuses on future jobs in
the institution (De Cenzo & Robbins 1996: 237).
Training does not take place in a vacuum. Whenever it is undertaken certain
objectives have to be met, be they institutional, personnel, or operational (Fisher
1990:280). In the public service, training should be aimed at, among others,
enhancing ethical service delivery (Mbere 1996:5), preparing accountability centres to
ensure accountability for training done or left undone (Hilliard & Wissink 1996: 9; 12).
The promotion and maintenance of a high standard of professional ethics, and the
provision of fair, equitable, impartial, and unbias services (RSA 1996) imply that the
providers of such services be well trained in public service ethics. De Cenzo and
31
Robbins (1996: 120) point out that it is possible to train employees in ethics and
emphasises the point that the institution must ensure that it has:-
.a policy on ethics, in which it is described what the institution perceives as ethical
behaviour and what it expects employees to do;
.that the policy is communicated and understood by the employees;
-that employees are trained to make ethical decisions;
-reintorces that all those who make decisions have to make ethical choices, and
-that ethical decision makers should be rewarded for "appropriate choices"
Bayat and Meyer (1994: 39-40) also emphasises training in ethics for the public
adminstrators and point out that such training should include, among others,
instructions in;
-systerns of justice and equity in the context of especially different cultures as exist in
South Africa;
-standards of objectivity, effectiveness, impartiality, intergrity and probity In the
conduct of public affairs (cif ethical service delivery);
-standards of conduct that embody respect, fairness, and justice;
-standards of conduct that prohibit the abuse of public office for the holder's own
interest; and
-rnodes of behaviour by public functionaries that reflect the need for responsiveness
and loyalty.
From the above paragraphs it can be said that the training function in public human
resource management can ensure that those who are involved in the provision of
services receive training in ethics. Only when direct service providers are trained in
ethics, can it be expected of them to provide ethical service delivery.
3:
2.3.1.3 Motivation
One of the chief reasons people work is to fuifiII needs. Instrinsic or extrinsic aside,
one of the major need of employees is compensation and benefits. However, good
compensation and benefits are relative, subject to the expectation of the individual
worker. Accordingly, Victor Vroom ( in De Cenzo & Robbins 1996: 299) proposes that
motivation is a function of the value of the effort an individual put in the performance of
a task and the resultant rewards. Another useful theory of motivation is the equity
theory of Stacey Adams ( in De Cenzo & Robbins 1996: 299). Equity refers to the
quality of being just or fair (French 1994: 109). Determining what is fair or unfair
treatment is an ongoing challenge in public human resource management.
The public human resource management function of motivation does not concern itself
with motivation theories only, but includes, according to De Cenzo and Robbins (1996:
12) job and organisational design. Hosmer (1991: 180-185) argues that organisational
redesign may pose ethical dilemmas in that it may result in:-
-chanqes in corporate strategy, whereby the organisation embarks on restructuring
(discussed later in this chapter) to reduce expenses. Restructuring may result in early
retirement both voluntary and enforced;
-chanqes in the organisation structure, whereby a flattened structure is created with
fewer layers between senior managers and operating personnel at the functional level.
This may have the effect of reduced supervision in which scope for unethical conduct is
created;
-chanqes in the managerial system which may adversely affect the managerial function
of control. Control systems, or evaluation methods, compare planned outcomes and
33
actual results, and where the control function is deficient there can be no appropriate
remedial steps taken in cases of unethical conduct;
-cnanqes in the leadership style which may adversely affect the morale of
subordinates. When subordinates are used to a participatory leadership style for
example, a change to an autocratic style may still achieve the required level of
productivity because of fear of the leader (Andres 1988: 240), but remain demotivated,
dissatisfied and uncommitted. Such workers may become disloyal and dishonest to the
organisation.
2.3.1.4 Maintenance
The objectives of the maintenance function in public human resource management are,
according to De Cenzo and Robbins (1996: 19) "... to put into place activities that will
help retain productive employees". Such activities include employee health and safety
in the workplace, union-management relations, assurance of quality of work life and
social responsibility and communication programmes (Strauss & Sayles 1980: 470-
495; Geber et al 1995: 281-302; and De Cenzo 1996:19). These activities have
ethical undertones. For example it would be wrong for an institution to expose workers
to occupational health hazards, without taking adequate health precautions. The legal
framework (RSA 1996) makes provision for a Bill of Rights and the Labour Relations
Act (Act 66 of 1995) grands employees the right to organise and to strike. It is
therefore incumbent on public human resource functionaries to honour these legal
provisions.
34
2.4 ASPECTS THAT MAY CAUSE ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN
RESOURCES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
The Public Service is earmarked for major changes to make it more representative of
the South African community. In the paragraphs below the envisaged changes are
considered from an ethical viewpoint as they apply to public human resource
management. A bloated SA public service is described first.
2.4.1 Historical overview of the Public Service
Prior to the 1994 general election the Public Service consisted of eleven
administrations in the Republic of South Africa, the "TBVC states" and the "self-
governing territories" (RSA 1995: 43). In creating a unified and integrated public
service, the Ministry of Public Service and Administration is therefore faced with what is
described as "a bloated public service" (Mittner 1995: 10-11).
The Ministry of the Public Service and Administration has a formidable task in creating
a learner and cost-effective public service. Its brief includes the integration of 38 state
departments (750000 officials) from the "old" South Africa, 76 departments (210 000
officials) from the former TBVC states and 62 departments (270 000 officials) from the
former self-governing states (Mittner 1995: 10). A total of 1 230 000 officials and 176
departments that must be consolidated into a single new public service to serve the
entire country. It is not surprising, therefore, in view of the aobve statistics, that the
public service has to be transformed. Aspects of the transformation of the public
service and the concomitant ethical considerations are described in the sections below.
35
2.4.2 Transformation of the Public Service
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1987:112:8) describes the term
"transformation" as a complete change in form, appearance, or nature. The
Government regards transformation" ... as a dynamic, focused, and relatively short-term
process" (RSA 1995: 11). The objective in the transformation of the public service is
to make it a "coherent, representative, competent, and democratic instrument for
implementing government policies and meeting the needs of all South Africans" (RSA
,
1995: 11). This statement implies that prior to 1995 the public service lacked all of the
above-mentioned qualities to operate efficiently, effectively and impartially.
The Ministry of Public Service and Administration recognises that the transformation of
the Public Service will be a complex and controversial process ((RSA 1995: 11). In
this sense it can be stated that the Ministry recognises that certain individual and group
rights will be infringed upon. However, the endeavour is to strive for a transformed
public service which is transparent, efficient, effective, accountable and responsive to
the needs of all (RSA 1995: 14). The envisaged public service should be guided by an
ethos of service provided in an unabiased and impartial manner, and geared towards
development and reduction of poverty. Accordingly the mission is to create a public
service that is people centred and people driven, characterised by equity, timeousness
and a strong code of ethics (RSA 1995: 14). Another aspect that may be of great
concern is the rationalisation of the public service. This aspect is discussed next.
36
2.4.3 Rationalising the Public Service
Sykes (1976: 926) describes the term "rationalise" as an attempt at making "the
industry (institution) more efficient by scientifically reducing or eliminating waste of
labour, time or material". Rationalising the public service is therefore aimed at making
it more efficient.
The rationalisation of the Public Service started while the Constitution of the Republic
of South Africa, 1993 (200 of 1993) was still in force and section 237 made provision
thereof. In the rationalisation process the rights of employees could be infringed upon
and this was covered by Section 33 which provided that no right was absolute. In the
light of Section 33 and 237 the Minister of the Public Service and Administration could
rationalise the public service with due consideration of Section 27 which included unfair
labour practice. The above provision has been retained in the final South Africa
Constitution, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996). See Schedule 6 (RSA 1996: 123).
Beukes (1995:11) points out that rationalisation is accompanied by appropriate
redundancy packages. Hosmer (1991: 21) points out an ethical dimension to
rationalisation and argues that "there is an obvious human cost to the people forced to
leave". He argues that the older employees get the option of early retirement, while the
younger ones get a few months' severance pay and some outplacement counselling.
In the rationalisastion process, the agonising nature of the decisions public human
resource managers have to make confronts them on an almost daily basis.
Admittedly, there are national norms and standards for the rationalisaion process (RSA
1995: 44) but ethical decisions on the human cost of those forced to leave still have to
37
be made. It must be remembered that ethics means going beyond what the law
stipulates in doing what is "right" and "proper" and "just" in the decisions and actions
that affect other people (Hosmer 1991: v). Senior management in the public sector is
earmarked for restructuring. This aspect is discussed in the paragraphs below.
2.4.4 Restructuring the public service
Restructuring in the public service is aimed specifically at the senior management
echelon (RSA 1995: 44). It is not clear from the White Paper (RSA 1995: 44-45)
whether the aims of the restructuring is to make top management "flatter" or "longer".
Mittners' (1995: 10-11) analysis of this situation, however, points to a significant
increase in the quota of senior managers in the provincial governments. In fact, he
points to the fact that "the Intergovernmental Forum decided in May 1995 to adopt a
new formula which allowed a 17,5% increase in top management in the provinces"
(Mittner 1995: 10). This increase would result in a longer managerial structure with
more layers as more top posts are created.
It must be pointed out that the many layers created in top management may promote
better control and ethical conduct because of a smaller span of control, but it remains
contrary to the principles of rationalisation. One other aspect of the transformation
process is representativeness. This aspect is discussed in the section below.
38
2.4.5 Representativeness in the Public Service
Representativeness is considered one of the cornerstones of a non-sexist, non-racist
and democratic society (RSA 1995: 52). The Interim Constitution emphasised the
need for a "public service broadly representative of the South African Community"
(section 212 (2)(b) and Principle XXX of schedule 4).
In the past, that is prior to the 1994 general election, employment practices in the
public sector excluded many Blacks, Indians, Coloured, women and disabled people
from many positions of influence in the public service. The results of this exclusion has
been an enormous waste in human potential (RSA 1995: 52).
In attempting to make the public service more representative of the South African
community, the Public Service Commission proposes to (RSA 1995: 52):-
• Introduce laws which make discrimination on the basis of factors such as race,
gender, and disability illegal;
• introduce reforms in the procedures for recruitment, selection, and promotion of staff
in order to promote greater equal opportunity; and
• to promote changes in attitudes throughout the institution, especially at management
level, to ensure commitment for the success of the changes.
In pursued of the above-mentioned proposals the Public Service Commission
proposes to introduce the aspect of affirmative action. This aspect is discussed in
the section below.
39
2.4.6 Affirmative action
The South African public service is in a process of transforming from the known past to
a democratic dispensation. Public human resource management stands in the midst of
this transformation and is confronted with principles and philosophies of the past and
new value systems of the present Public Service. One problematic aspect confronting
public human resource management is the aspect of affirmative action. Many
definitions and explanations of the concept affirmative action have been presented by
various authors in public human resource management). Klingner and Nalbandian
(1985: 62) describe affirmative action as a mediating variable that affects the way a
public institution recruits, hires, and promotes employees. Starling (1986: 481)
describe it as an aggressive recruiting and selection institutional plan to remedy the
results of past discrimination. Vil-Nkomo ( in Hanekom and Thornhill 1995: 136)
describes affirmative action in the South African context. He contends that it is an
attempt to undo the policies of "separate but equal", an attempt to redress socio-
economic inequalities and to enhance the quick democratisation of the country.
An analysis of the above descriptions of the concept affirmative action indicates that
the concept refers to preferential treatment of groups in the society which had
previously been discriminated against. Through affirmative action public human
resource management functionaries would be required to reduce under-representation
and to rectify the underutilisation of groups which had previously been discriminated
against in the public sector. The question that arises is whether affirmative action is
morally justifiable? Some arguments concerning affirmative action are subsequently
presented in the following paragraphs.
40
2.4.6.1 Affirmative action and equity
"Equity denotes the spirit and the habit of fairness and justice and right dealing"
(Frederickson, in Gildenhuys, 1993: 224). Equity principles of fairness, justice and
right dealing do not support enforced sacrifices on an individual or groups, to be
justified by their inherent benefits for the majority (Gildenhuys, 1993: 224). From this
last statement, it can be stated that equity principles are diametrically opposed to the
affirmative action principle of preferential treatment in the distribution of social
resources. The functionaries responsible for public human resource management
should therefore weigh the impact of programmes such as affirmative action on the
welfare of individuals in respect of equity principles of fairness and justice. The
injustices of the past, such as constitutionalised and institutionalised discrimination on
the basis of race, sex and colour are recognised in the Constitution of the Republic of
South Africa, 1996, and a foundation for a democratic and open society is being laid
(See for examples RSA 1996: 1). Functionaries responsible for public human resource
management should therefore exercise care in the implementation of affirmative action
and ascertain that democratic values, social justice and fundamental human rights are
enhanced. Failure to observe the above-mentioned values could strengthen the belief
that affirmative action is reversed discrimination by those adversely affected by
affirmative action. Affirmative action as reversed discrimination receives attention in
the subsection below.
2.4.6.2 Affirmative action as reversed discrimination
Many authors, for example Hayes and Reeves (1984: 275) Sowell, ( in Andrews 1992:
40) Andrews (1992: 3942) write negatively about affirmative action and equate it with
reverse discrimination. Reverse discrimination refers to taking discriminatory steps in
41
order to atone for the discriminatory wrongs of the past. In the context of public human
resource management and redistribution of resources and benefits such as the
allocation of jobs, affirmative action refers to preferential employment of the victims of
historic discrimination.
In South Africa, because of the legacy of apartheid in which employment practices in
the Public Service was based on race, colour and sex, affirmative action is meant to
redress the imbalances caused by such employment practice. (see for examples White
Paper on Public Sector Transformation 1995). One of the solutions for this problem is
that functionaries responsible for public human resource management should display
sensitivities in the implementation of affirmative action. This aspect receives attention
in the subsection below.
2.4.6.3 Ethical sensitivity in the implementation of affirmative action
In the above subsection an argument against affirmative action has been presented.
The dilemma confronting public human resource management in the transformation of
the public service is that although affirmative action may be viewed negatively, some
form of remedial action in public human resource management is demanded by political
office-bearers to undo the wrongs of the past in the public service.
The suggestion in this dissertation is for those in public human resource management
to be sensitive to ethics in the implementation of affirmative action programmes.
Ethical sensitivity implies the awareness of the ethical dimensions of the situation
confronting those in public human resource management and resultant ethical action
suitable for the situation. Implementation of affirmative action programmes refers to
42
transforming plans into actions for the achievement of the objectives of affirmative
action.
Sensitivities to right or wrong, good or bad about affirmative action requires a
pragmatic approach. In such an approach the focus is centered upon the actual
consequences of a concept and the resultant action (Fox & Meyer, 1995: 100). In this
way those involved in public human resource management can steer public
employment towards positively recruiting, selecting and advancing qualified members
of the historically disadvantaged groups. A pragmatic approach to affirmative action
does not mean a quota system unrelated to a person's qualifications and job
competence (Williams & Norris, in Wessels, 1992: 42). On a more positive note
regarding affirmative action, Stahl (1983: 86) is of the opinion that to achieve a truly
representative public service, the sensible solution lies in a long-range as well as
immediate goals. He states the following:-
• accelerating the pace of broad cultural changes, sufficient to improve across the
board educational opportunity and extend the range of occupational choices open to
women and minorities;
• making certain that artificial barriers to entrance and advancement based on ethnics
or sex grounds are totally eliminated in all corners of public service;
• maintaining active recruitment in all corners of public service;
• giving the benefit of the doubt temporarily to persons identified with heretofore -
discriminated - against groups - if and only if - competing candidates are equally
qualified and show equal potential; and
• insisting that the same expectations and standard of performance apply to women
and minority appointees as they do to all others.
43
Viewed as described in this section, affirmative action should be pursued with a
positive attitude as a necessary remedial aspect of transformation in public human
resource management. In their fields, public human resource managers occupy
leadership positions. It is also vital that this aspect be considered from an ethical
viewpoint.
2.4.7 Leadership style
There are as many definitions of the concept leadership as there are persons who have
attempted to define the concept. Leadership has, variously been defined in terms of
traits, behaviour influence, role relationships, patterns of interaction, position,
knowledge (Fox, et ai, 1991: 92). For the purpose of this dissertation an acceptable
definition is that by Kroon, who conceives of leadership as the human factor that leads
an institution towards definitive predetermined objectives through the co-operative
efforts of all the people in the institution (1993: 17). This definition emphasises co-
operative effort and the human factor which for the purpose of this chapter implies
value-centeredness. (NB. Different leadership styles for the promotion of ethics in
public human resource management is dealt with in more detail in chapter 5)
Value-centered leadership is not static, but an ever-present state of consciousness
which combines the past, present and future into a dynamic integrated and unfolding
reality (Christie, et ai, 1993: 126). Stahl (1983: 435) realised the value of value-
centered leadership much earlier when he stated that for governments to be effective in
modern society, a value-oriented leadership style is a prerequisite.
Translated into public human resource management in the transforming public service,
value-centeredness implies awareness of the different value systems of the members
44
of different communities within an institution and of society in general. This ever-
present awareness and a commitment to upholding these values will guide public
human resource management in integrating past personnel tendencies with present
public human resource requirements for the realisation of the future stable and efficient
public service. Value-centered leadership as a human factor which influences
behaviour is embedded in ethics, because ethics is first, foremost and finally concerned
with human conduct. As indicated earlier, the achievement of value-centered
leadership in public human resource management may require education and training
programmeswhich accentuates ethics.
Gouws and Schwella (1998: 106-107) are of the opinion that the leadership dilemma
during transformation should be addressed by adopting a transformational leadership
approach. According to them transformational leadership is needed to handle the
challenges of transformation, empower subordinates and establish new organisational
culture (Gouws and Schwella 1998: 111). This belief is rooted in the description of
transformational leadership as being characterised by "...vision, planing,
communication, and creative action...around a set of values and beliefs ... " (Anderson,
in Gouws and Schwella 1998: 111).
Another dilemma faced by public human resource managers is ethics of management.
This aspect is discussed next.
2.4.8 Ethics of Management
In South Africa, what is written in this dissertation as public human resource
management has always been studied as part of the six generic administrative
processes. It is referred to as personnel administration and forms part of the study of
45
Public Administration. In the light of the above, it is essential to review briefly the
influence public administration has had on personnel administration and the necessity
to change it. This change can pose dilemmas for present-day public human resource
managers. A short review of public administration in the South context follows.
2.4.8.1 Background
According to Roux (in Bates et gL 1995: 184) administration pertains to those
generically institutionalised group activities. The institutionalised group of activities
include policy-making, organising, financing, personnel, control and procedures and
methods (Cloete 1994: 91-217). In the study of Public Administration in South Africa
the institutionalised group activities have always been referred to as the generic
administrative process (Bates 1982: 101-120)
Although the administrative process approach in the study of Public Administration has
persisted for a long time in South Africa, Marais ( in Gildenhuys 1988: 169-188)
pointed out its disadvantages and advocated for its abandonment on the basis of
substantive shortcomings. In Bayat and Meyer (1994: 109) Marais referred to the
administrative process approach as the study of public administration without ethics.
Marais argued that even the normative guidelines of political deference, public
responsibility, efficiency and economony, administrative law and the vaguely defined
social values, were never integrated in the administrative approach. The administrative
approach is further referred to as " a close-ended" and an extreme oversimplification
(Marais in Bayat and Meyer 1994: 108). Because of this close-endedness, values are
rigidly prescribed and ethics are laid down and prescribed by the government in the
form of laws (Marais in Bayat and Meyer 1994: 109). In the South African Public
Service the laying down of ethics by government in the form of laws was evident from
46
Chapter five of the Public Service Act of 1984, entitled "Misconduct" which according to
Marais ( in Bayat and Meyer 1994: 109) prohibited the application of normative
guidelines other than respect for political supremacy.
A more open-ended approach that is developmental and accountable is advocated
(RSA 1996: 83). Bayat and Meyer (1994: 88) appeal for the need for ethics in the
teaching and practice of public management, especially in public human resource
management. Subsequently, ethical dilemmas faced by present-day public human
resource managers are discussed in the following paragraphs
2.4.8.2 Ethics of management of human resources
The White Paper on Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) (RSA 1994:
4) set South Africa firmly on transformation and development. The transformation
process must ensure that society" ... develops strong and stable democratic institutions
and practices characterised by representativeness and participation - and addresses
the moral and ethical development of society". Development of human resources and
the ethics attached to it, such as equal rights for all workers, the right to strike, the right
to information about employers, and discrimination were discussed in the previous
pages.
The spirit of the RDP is strongly evident in the mission and vision of the White Paper
on the Transformation of the Public Service (RSA 1995: 14). Ethical challenges facing
the management of human resources in the public sector are listed in pages 17 and 18
(RSA 1995). Among these are lack of representativeness, centralised control and top-
47
down management, lack of accountability and transparency, and professional ethos
and work ethic (RSA 1995: 17-18).
Salim Latib ( in Fitzgerald et al. 1997: 134-152) discusses the above ethics of
management of human resources. He stresses, among others, that public service
accountability should be grounded in the concept of "social utility, in which an
institution or individual should serve a useful social function relative to its/his cost"
(Salim Latib, in Fitzgerald 1997: 137). He further caution, that" in a situation where
antidemocratic ethos has developed over a long period of time ... the spirit which
pervades the conduct of pubic affairs may be quite undemocractic and unaccountable"
(1997: 151). It can be stated, in the light of what has been written above in section
2.4.8.1, that present day managers of public human resources are confronted by
situations described by Salim Latib.
To address transformation, development and the ethics concomitant thereof, Gouws
and Schwella (1998: 106), mentioned earlier on, would advocate for transformational
leadership. On the other hand, Fox and Maas (1997: 31) would advise for managerial
entrepreneurs. They explain that managerial entrepreneurs can face the challenge of
empowering and developing others, and cope better than others with "growth in
transition"
2.5 Summary
This section covered the nature and scope of ethics in public human resource
management. The theoretical and philosophical perspective was described, so to was
ethics as a science. The two approaches to the study of ethics, namely, the
deontological and teleological approaches were explained. The concepts principles,
48
norms, and values were described in the context of public human resource
management. It was pointed out that shared values in public institutions could provide
a basis for good management.
The scope of ethics was explained in terms of public human resource management
goals of staffing, training and development, motivation and maintenance. Emphasis on
training in ethics as a prerequisite for satisfying the principles and values of chapter 10
of The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa 1996 (Act 108 of 1996) was pointed
out.
Because the public service is in a process of transformation, ethics was discussed as it
applies to restructuring, rationalisation, representativeness, affirmative action and
leadership. Ethics of managementwas discussed as the last aspect in this section.
In the next chapter aspects of public human resource management and ethics are
discussed.
49
CHAPTER3
3. ASPECTS OF MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES AND ETHICS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Most organisations exist to produce goods, or provide services to clients, efficiently and
effectively. Some other objectives are to provide employment and satisfaction to
employees, benefits to the public, and to make profit from the goods produced and
sold. To achieve these objectives organisations combine financial resources, physical
resources, and human resources into efficient production systems. However, for this
system to function effectively, a well-developed personnel system is needed to create
and use an effective work force.
It can be pointed out that financial and physical resources in an organisation derive
their dynamic character from human resources. Human resources are the only
resources in an organisation that act voluntarily and react when acted upon. This
aspect complicates the management of human resources especially considering that it
is not confined to the human resource manager alone, but involves line and top
managers as well.
Most experts agree that the basic functions all managers perform are; planning,
organising, leading and controlling. Some of the specific activities involved in each
function include:
• Planning, a management function concerned with setting institutional goals
and objectives.
• Organising, a management function concerned with what jobs are to be
50
performed, by whom, who makes the decisions and the grouping of
employees.
• Leading, amanagement function concerned with directing the work of
others.
• Controlling, a management function concerned with monitoring activities and taking
remedial steps.
In performing these functions, managers need certain skills, such as diagnosing skills;
communication skills, decision-making skills and interpersonal skills, among others.
Over and above these management functions, managers of human resources must
perform certain operative functions in their fields, e.g. procurement, development,
compensation, integration, maintenance, separation and labour relations. Ethics
become a central feature in management functions, because where judgement of
human behaviour is an issue, subjectivity cannot be ruled out. These aspects will be
elaborated upon in the sections that follow.
3.2 WHAT IS MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES?
In order to understand what human resource management is, it is necessary that
different definitions and explanations by authors in the field are offered. It will be clear
from some of the definitions that the term "human resource management" and
"personnel management" are used interchangeably. However this should not be a
source of confusion, as clarification will be offered in the section under historical
overview of human resource management. Some definitions of the term human
resource management are offered in the following paragraphs.
51
Flippo (1984: 5), defines personnel management as "...the planning, directing,
organising and controlling of the procurement, development, compensation, integration,
maintenance and separation of human resource to the end that individual,
organisational, and societal objectives are accomplished".
Beer et al. (in Goss 1994: 13), describe human resource management as involving
"...all management decisions and actions that affect the nature of the relationship
between the organisation and its employees, ...".
French (1990:8), describes human resource management as the term that is
increasingly used to refer to the philosophies, policies, procedures and practices
related to the management of people within an organisation. He argues that the term
personnel management - means the same thing.
Holley and Jenning (in Gerber - et al. 1995: 9), define the term human resource
management as referring" ...to activities, policies, beliefs and the general function that
relates to employees or the personnel department".
From the above definitions it emerges that management of human resource is an
intergral part of the day to day managerial functions. Traditionally this implies that the
management of human resources involves planning, organising, leading and controlling
(Stoner 1982: 16-17). The function pertains to the management of people, referred to
as employees within an organisation or institution. Human beings within an institution
may be regarded as a resource just like other resources (e.g. financial and physical
resources). Human beings in an institution are animate, proactive as well as reactive,
have feelings, emotions and attitudes, and are capable of independent thought unlike
financial and physical resources. This latter aspect lends dynamism in the
52
management of human resource as an intricate balancing act between achievement of
organisational objectives and satisfaction of employee needs and expectations.
Human beings within organisations react to decisions and actions by management, and
some of these actions and reactions may be interpreted as ethical or unethical. In
order to have a broader perspective of ethics in the development of human resource
management its historical development is subsequently reviewed in the paragraphs
below.
3.3 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES
Human labour is as old as mankind, dating back to the times of Adam and Eve. But the
formalisation of this labour emerged fairly recently and can be traced back to the time
of the industrial revolution. Modern personnel management dates back only to the
1940s (Flippo 1984: 24-35).
Over a century ago managers applied the principles of interchangeable parts, transfer
of skills from human to machine, and operational specialisation to equipment, layout
and the general plant. This approach is called the mechanical approach towards the
utilisation of personnel (Flippo 1984: 24). Related to this approach is the scientific
management approach which emphasised standardising work and training workers to
conform to organisation demands (Nigro and Nigra 1986: 316, Klingner and Nalbandian
1985: 37). In essence these approaches disregarded the human element in
organisations and humans were treated purely as means of production. This lead to
the emergence of labour organisations to address management's indifference to the
requirements of its personnel.
53
Labour organisations grew at a very slow pace through the nineteenth and early
twentieth century because of factors such as: periodic economic depression, the public
attitude which was generally opposed to labour organisations, government attitude
which reflected public attitude or vice-versa, and the aggressive efforts of most
managements' endeavours in actively combating the efforts towards unionisation
(Flippo 1984: 27-29). In an attempt to counter unionism, management adopted
paternalistic or social welfare approaches to demonstrate to employees that there was
little need for an outside force, the union. This approach was based on strong moral
grounds and took the form of company services, schools, and company housing
(Gerber et al. 1995: 33).
In the late 1920s up to late in the 1930s, experiments conducted at the Hawthorne plant
of the Western Electrical Company, had a substantial impact on the field of personnel
management (Schneier and Beatty 1978:11). Briefly, these experiments were
conducted to study the effects of physical factors such as lighting and ventilation on
worker productivity. But as time went on, it became increasingly apparent that other
factors such as emotional state of the worker, his/her relationship with others and the
kind of attention he/she received from superiors affected productivity more. These
findings served as the basis for what has since come to be called the human relations
approach and has provided personnel managers with a major jurisdiction in the field of
personnel management. Here, for the first time, was real evidence that factors in the
realm of employee attitudes and motivation did make a difference insofar as
performance, productivity, and profits were concerned.
In the public sector specifically, personnel systems adopted are the offshoots of the
prevalent political system. Cloete (1993: 22) for example, identifies the following
54
personnel systems as a result of specific political environments; (see also Rosenbloom
1993: 199-210, Stah11983: 34-38; and Klingner and Nalbandian 1985: 9-12).
• the aristocratic system which is encountered in states where the population is
stratified into classes and public offices are the preserve of the aristocracy. In
this system unethical conduct in the form of discrimination is practised against
non-aristocracts;
• the democratic system where public officials are elected as was done to some
extent in the United States of America. The system could be viewed as ethical
in the sense that transparency in the form of elections is evident;
• the spoils system where the political party in power views public offices as
spoils of the political war to be divided among its supporters. The spoils
system could serve a good purpose, like it did in the U.S.A. But it could be
stated that this system may result in all kinds of unfair practices in the sense
that supporters of other political parties are discriminated against in public
employment; and
• the merit system where it is accepted that public offices will be filled by the best
qualified candidate regardless of colour, sex or political affiliation. The merit system
could be regarded as ethically justifiable in the sense that public discrimination is
practised. However, Klingner and Nalbandian (1985: 12-18) caution against the
delemma between merit systems and political responsiveness (elaborated upon in
chapter 5). In organisations, the human resource functions are performed by a variety
55
of actors, and this may be a source of both confusion and conflict. In order to
understand the role of each actor, it is essential to clarify their functions.
3.4 WHO PERFORMS THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES FUNCTIONS?
French (1990:18) is of the opinion that all managers in most organisations, including
first-line supervisors, are involved in human resource management. He points out that
all managers participate in human resources functions such as staffing, performance
appraisals, and compensation over and beyond their day-to-day functions. Pigors et .&
(1969: 59) agree with the above statement and states that human resource
management is the responsibility of top management, the responsibility of the human
resource manager/specialist, and the responsibility of line managers. Although
Ivancevich (1995: 11-13) agrees with the above, he never-the-Iess argues that two
groups that are predominantly involved in human resource management activities, are
the human resource managers/specialists and line managers.
From the foregoing, it should be clear that human resource management functions are
not necessarily performed by human resource specialists alone. Human resource
management strategies and decisions have to be integrated with, and be supportive to,
the organisation's strategies and objectives. Swanepoel et al.(1998: 20) argues that
for this purpose, the relationship between line managers and the human resource
specialist is paramount. This aspect receives attention next.
56
3.4.1 Relationship between Human Resource Management and Line
Management
According to Ivancevich (1995: 13) human resource management is a staff function,
and supervision a line function. Swanepoel et ru.. (1998: 21) explain the two functions
as follows: staff authority refers to the right to give advice and render services, while
line authority refers to the right to give and enforce instructions. As a staff function,
human resource management specialist render services, give advice and serve as
partner and co-ordinator. Schematically, these may be represented as depicted in
figure 3.1.
Top management
Specific services
HR specialist Advice Line manager
Co-ordination
Source: Adapted from Byars and Rue 1994: 10
57
• Service
The objective of the service role is to support line functionaries in the efficient
performance of their functions. These may include, among others, administering
proficiency tests used for promotions, designing incentive pay, improving product
quality and customer service., maintaining employee records, inital stages of employee
orientation etc. (Milkovich and Boudreau 1994: 9, Byars and Rue 1994: 9). Although
some of these services may be routine, some may be less so, for example, how to
design effective training programmes, how to redesign work roles and organisations to
fit changes in technology, or how to ensure that hiring and promotional decisions are
free of discrimination ( Milkovich and Boudreau 1994: 9). The competency with which
these services are rendered may affect the efficiency of the institution
• Advice
Decisions on who to hire, promote, and train, how much to pay; how to link pay to
performance; and to assist dissatisfied employees must be made with the objective of
fairness in mind. Advising fair treatment and justice for employees is another role for
the human resource specialist (Milkovich and Boudreau 1994: 10). A sense of inequity
among employees may affect both their attitudes and behaviours and these may
manifest in lack of commitment, absenteeism, loss of motivation, and lack of concern
for the quality of service. By advocating fair, equitable treatment of employees, human
58
resource specialists provide a valuable service to other managers, especially line
managers. Advice on fair disciplinary measures, the application of the principles of
equal employment opportunities and affirmative action (Byars and Rue 1994:9), how
attitudes affect job performance, and commitment and loyalty (Greenberg and Baron
1995: 162 - 95), perceived and real equitable treatment, provided by human resource
specialist may go a long in the promotion of ethics in the public sector. It must be
stated, however, that, as advisors, human resource specialists have no authority over
line managers (Byars and Rue 1994: 9) and as a consequence there of, conflict may
occur when line managers appear to ignore the suggestions and recommendations of
the human resource specialists. To avoid this dilemma good relations between them
has to be cultivated.
• Partnership
As partners, human resource specialists are part of the management team (Milkkovich
and Boudreau 1994: 11; Ivancevich and Glueck 1983: 13). In this role they develop
and implement human resource programmes that are linked with the organisations'
objectives. As partners human resource specialists must have a hands - on knowledge
of the objectives of the organisation. To this end human resource managers need to
function successfully at three organisational levels:- operational, managerial, and
strategic (long-term) (Schuier, in Ferris et al. 1995: 2). Human resource specialists
contribute to the institution by providing cost-effective services and advices to
employees and managers, and serving as partners. For this purpose they must be
59
proactive ( Milkovich and Boudreau 1994: 11). In addition to reacting to problems
when they occur, human resource specialists must anticipate and prevent issue from
arising. In this context, it can be argued that human resources specialists are better
placed for the promotion and maintenance of ethics within an institution.
• Coordinative function
The activities of the institution have to be coordinated to avoid duplication, and to
ensure that personnel objectives, procedures and policies which have been approved
are carried out by both line managers and personnel alike. Dessier (1994: 5) refer to
this coordinative function as functional control. To ensure ethical conduct in the public
service, a code of conduct is usually drawn as a guide to different relationships, for
example, relationships with peers, with the public, and with political office-bearers.
According to Byars an Rue (1994: 9) the coordination function of human resource
specialists can involve performance appraisals and compensation matters.
It is clear from the foregoing that human resource management as a specialist staff
function is expected to play an active role in the challenge of making an organisation
both competitive and successful. Label (in Swanepoel et al 1998: 22) states that these
specialists should recognise that, like line managers, they are accountable for results.
Line managers are authorised to direct the work of subordinates and are responsible
for accomplishing the institutions' goals (Desier 1994:4). For an institution to achieve
its objectives effectively, the purpose of establishing an effective human resource
60
department has to be appreciated. This aspect is elaborated upon in the next
paragraphs.
3.4.2 purpose of the management of human reources
Werther and Davis (1996:8) state that, "... the purpose of human resource
management is to improve the productive contribution of people to the organisation in
ways that are strategically, ethically, and socially responsive". Ethics, then, becomes
an integral part of human resource management. De Cenzo and Robbins (1996:120)
support this statement and they state that" ...human resource management faces many
ethical dilemmas". It is not surprising, therefore, that the American Society for Human
Resource Management has a code of ethics for all its members which is aimed at
promoting and maintaining the highest standard of personal conduct and professional
standards among its members (Ivancevich 1995: 12). The main concern is that only
humans can and are able to behave and act ethically or unethically. Hence the
management of people should be undertaken in such a way that their actions promote,
and are consistent with ethical requirements (See for example Werther and Davis
1996: 9). In attaining the above purposes, human resource specialists have to
cultivate a good working relationship hand in hand with line managers in the execution
of their functional activities. This last statement suggests that there should be a close
working relationship between the human resources specialist (staff function) and the
line manager (line function) as explained in section 3.4.1. However the success of an
institution depends to a large degree on the quality of its personnel, and this also
61
depend on how functional activities by human resources specialists are carried out
Functional activities in human resource management are discussed next.
3.5 FUNCTIONAL ACTIVITIES OF THE MANAGEMENT HUMAN RESOURCES
It was mentioned in the sections above that human resource management is part and
parcel of general management activities in public institutions and include all
management functions. Yet a comprehensive definition of human resource
management also includes the operative functions in the field. Flippo (1984: 4)
describes these as procurement, development, compensation, integration, maintenance
and separation, these are subsequently discussed in the paragraphs below.
3.5.1 Human Resources Provisioning (Procurement)
People do not just find themselves working for organisations, they are recruited,
subjected to selection criteria before being judged suitable to fill the vacant posts.
Even before they are recruited, the organisational manpower requirements are
determined and the existing posts are analysed. This process is referred to as human
resource provisioning. The various steps in human resource provisioning are
discussed next.
62
3.5.1.1 Job analysis
Andrews (1996: 71) describes job analysis as referring "...on the one hand to a
process which determines what the job involves, that is, the tasks, job circumstances,
duties and responsibilities involved in the specific work. On the other hand, job
analysis refers to the process which determines what sort of individual can do a specific
work, that is, the experience, training and skills which are required of a specific worker".
Jackson and Musselman ( in Gerber et al. 1995: 84) content that job analysis is " ... the
process of determining, by observation and study, pertinent information about the
nature of a specific job". Graham and Bennet (1995: 170) define job analysis as " ... the
process by which a description of the job is compiled".
From the above definitions, it can be concluded that job analysis involves a detailed
study of the content of the job to provide a description of the skills, knowledge and
personal qualities needed to fill that role. According to Hartley and Marshall (1995:
274) job analysis covers not only the scope of the job itself, but also the context in
which it is done. They also point out pitfalls to be avoided, such as taking the easy-way
out by looking at what the current jobholder does rather than what the job itself is and
how it should be done. This could be the source of both inaccuracy and potential bias
and could lead to stereotyping. According to Hodgets and Krock (in Cheminais et al.
1998: 120), job analysis provides the cornerstone of the employment function and links
with the overall human resource plan, which will be discussed in the following
paragraphs.
63
3.5.1.2 Human resource planning
Graham and Bennet (1995: 163) define human resource planning as " ... an attempt to
forecast how many and what kind of employees will be required in the future, and to
what extent this demand is likely to be met". To this definition Werther and Davis
(1996: 155) add that human resource planning is a systematic forecast of an
organisation's future demand for the supply of employees. Milkovich and Boudreav (in
Gerber et al. 1995: 94) argue that human resource planning has to be understood as
" ... the process that estimates the future demands for employees, both in quality and
quantity, compares the expected demand with current work force, and determines the
employee shortages and surpluses based on the organisations strategies and
objectives".
These definitions indicate that human resource planning involves a series of activities
which may be described as: analysing the existing human resources, forecasting future
needs, and planning to provide for these needs. According to Cheminais et al. (1998:
4-5), human resource planning should be meshed with the strategic planning of public
organisations. In this sense it will link with the broader strategies of the organisation
and ensure the co-ordination of human resource management activities. With job
analysis completed, and the human resource demand determined, the organisation is
then in a position to embark on recruitment, an aspect which is discussed next.
3.5.1.3 Personnel recruitment
Rosenbloom (1993: 224) defines recruitment as the process of encouraging individuals
to apply for vacant posts in an organisation. Megginson (1985:165) describes
recruitment as " ...the term applied to that phase of personnel management that
64
involves reaching out and attracting a supply of people from which to select qualified
candidates for job vacancies".
Andrews (1996: 94) describes recruitment as referring" ... to the personnel function
which is carried out to obtain sufficient applicants for vacant positions, so that a
differentiation may be made between applicants who possess the qualifications
required for a specific position and those who do no!". It can be concluded from the
above definitions that recruitment serves as a means to selection. The purpose of
recruitment is to attract a pool of candidates from which to select the qualified number
to fill the vacant positions. Recruitment may be undertaken either passively or actively.
Rosenbloom (1993: 224) points out that in general, passive recruitment failed to attract
personnel with the necessary talent in the past, hence the resort to active recruitment.
Recruitment sources may be both internal and external (Cheminais et a1.1998:132-
133). Present employees often form the most important internal source of recruitment,
while external sources may be the mass media, public and private sector agencies,
educational institutions, labour unions, as well as professional and technical
associations (Schwella et ~ 1996: 40). Once candidates have been recruited, the
selection process is undertaken.
3.5.1.4 Selection
Selection is defined by Livy (in Cheminais et al. 1998: 44) as " ... a process of job
matching, and must begin with a description of the jobs to be done and the
identification of personal qualities necessary for the field of candidates by progressively
eliminating those who do not measure up to the specification". It can be inferred from
this definition that selection involves a choice from the attracted pool of applicants of
the most suitable candidate. Underlying this choice is the assumption that the
65
individual will be able to function successfully in the post (Cheminais et al. 1998: 44).
From the above, it can also be concluded that selection is judgemental and subjective,
and is thus subject to errors. This last statement necessitates that the candidate be
placed on a probationary period to further determine the job matching process (Cloete
1993: 121). The selection process is conducted through the following stages (Cloete
1993: 115-121, Andrews 1996: 107-124, Schwella et al. 1996: 42-44).
o Short-listing, which consist of the perusal of the application form, preliminary
interviews, preliminary sifting and selection tests. At this stage all applications which
do not meet the requirements of the post are discarded. Preliminary interviews are
designed to gather more information about the candidates and to eliminate those
whose personal dispositions are unacceptable (Cheminais et al. 1998: 44).
Personal interviews, which are normally conducted by a selection panel. At this
stage the panel evaluates the candidates through structured, semi-structured or
unstructured list of questions. Personal interviews serve as the final and conclusive
measurement of acceptability or unacceptability of a candidate. However, despite its
popularity, research shows that the selection interview is a poor selection instrument
(Hartley and Marshall 1995: 278). According to Megginson (1985: 204) and Wherther
and Davis (1996: 225) its popularity stems from its flexibility. It can be used for
unskilled, skilled, managerial and staff employees. It also allows a two-way exchange
of information in the sense that the interviewers learn about the candidate, and the
candidate learns about the employer.
Placement and the probationary period serve as the last stage in the
selection process. Once the applicant has been selected he/she is placed in the post
applied for a period termed the probationary period. According to Andrews (1996:
66
126), the purpose of a probationary period is to observe the adaptation of the employee
in his/her new position, and to evaluate the quality of his/her work.
The responsibilities of line and staff managers in human resource provisioning are
depicted by Casio (1995: 49) as follows:
• line managers: responsible for providing data for job analysis and required
minimumqualifications, interviewing candidates and making final decisions on
entry-level hires and promotions;
• staff managers: responsible for job analysis, advertising of posts, written tests,
compliance with legal requirements, background investigations, reference checks
and physical examinations
There is a need for the above responsibilites to certify ethical requirements. Dessier
(1994: 53-54) for example, argue that all forms of discrimination such as "male or
female" wanted have to be avoided during recruitment. Educational requirements
which virtualy exclude certain groups or can be shown not to be job-related may be
held illegal and unethical. Reference to physical characteristics, such as height,
weight, colour and sex which may have adverse impact on certain ethnic groups, race
or women may be held illegal and unethical. He also points out that reference to arrest
records is invalid as a predictor of job performance and would therefore be unethical to
exclude someone on this basis. Cascia (1991: 442) adds to the above list of ethical
requirements, and contents that personal decisions to select, promote or to train are
major events in individuals' careers, and have to be undertaken fairly, with concern for
individual rights.
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Once personnel has been recruited and selected, and are thus members of the
organisation, there arise the need to train and develop them. This aspect receives
attention in the paragraphs below.
3.5.2 Training and Development
Competent and motivated employees can be considered an important asset in any
organisation. However, the ability to delivering services of high quality of such
employees should not be taken for granted, and therefore employers should ensure
that their employees are trained and developed on a continuous basis. Experts
differentiate between education, training and development. Subsequently, some
definitions are presented to highlight the differences between these concepts.
Megginson (1985:229) describes education as a process of "... Iearning several
subjects and acquiring broad, generalised knowledge". Nel (in Gerber et al. 1995:
461) describes training as u ... a deliberate effort oriented toward improvements relevant
to future jobs". In contrast to the above two concepts, employee development is a
broad term which relates to training, education and other intentional or unintentional
learning and include general growth through learning (Swanepoel et al. 1998: 479).
It appears from the foregoing that a meaningful differentiation can be made between
the three concepts. The emphasis in education is broad, generalised knowledge,
whereas in training it is specific, aimed at a specific purpose. Development refers to
growth through learning. In practice, though, the distinction is often blurred, mainly
because efforts to upgrade present skills automatically improves performance in future
jobs. As a result, because in practice it is always not easy to determine where training
68
ends and where development begins, these will be discussed simultaneously. Human
resource training and development will now be discussed with reference to the
following aspects induction training, technical training and development.
3.5.2.1 Induction training
Hall and Goodale (in Gerber et al. 1995: 156) define induction training as " ... the
process through which a new employee learns how to function efficiently within a new
organisational culture by obtaining the information, values and behavioural skills
associated with his or her new role in the organisation". It must be explained that "new
employees" encompasses a new recruit, a transferred employee, and a promoted
employee.
According to Strauss and Sayles (1980: 394) the aim of induction training is to
familiarise the employee with the tasks he/she will be expected to perform, introduce
him/her to fellow workers, provide information about company rules and personnel
procedures, and provide them with ideas of how their jobs fit into the total operation.
This process is aimed at inculcating positive work attitudes and improve productivity. It
is realised that haste and insensitivity at this early stage may spawn unnecessary
personnel problems later. Accordingly, induction training has to be well-planned and
systematically executed. Such planned, systematic, and purposeful induction
programmes usually have three components, namely (Botes 1994: 114, Cheminais et
al. 1998: 69):
o The pre-commencement phase which actually starts with notification of
appointment. Good first impressions have to be created from the start. For example,
69
the new recruit has to be given the feeling that the organisation is looking forward to
his/her arrival. Cheminais et al. (1998:69) point to the importance of the information
contained in the letter of appointment and mentions conditions of service, details
relating to where, when, and to whom he/she should report.
o The commencement phase, a stage at which the newcomer is welcomed to the
organisation. This phase last from the time he/she reports for duty until he/she feels at
ease in the post. The incumbent is familiarised with the organisation, its mission,
vision, the department or section where he/she will be working, and introduced to
superiors and colleagues.
o The sustained induction phase is an ongoing process in which functional training
takes place.
Sloane (in Cheminais 1998: 68) explains that the nature and extent of the induction
programme is influenced by many factors and may differ from situation to situation.
Some of the factors are: the number of employees to be inducted, their background in
terms of education and experience, their level of appointment, that is, technical or
managerial, available financial resources, and the time allocated by top management
for induction. As stated before, induction training is aimed at familiarising the
incumbent of the post with the organisational objectives. Such objectives need to be
achieved efficiently and effectively. This, however, requires further training and
depending on the level of appointment, such training may be divided into technical and
management training.
Induction training is important from an ethical point of view. Swanepoel et al. (1998:
326) reiterate the importance of the expression "first impression last", and they point to
70
the dangers of negative disposition of an employee towards an institution during his/her
first weeks or months. This may have a lasting influence on the employee's attitude
towards the public institution in the long term. The opposite is also usually true. Both
line and staff mangers have leading roles to play at the induction phase. For example
Dessier (1994: 8) points to the role of the line managers as that of "...orienting
employees with details regarding the company and the job and instructing and training
new employees. Staff managers, on the other hand, prepare training manuals and
orientation documents and outlines.. It is important to recognise that new employees
need information on (i) institutional standards, traditions and policies of the
institution; (ii) expected social behaviour within the institution; and (iii) information
on the technical aspects of the job. This suggests, according to Cascio (1995: 267)
two levels of orientation: institutional, by a human resource representative, and
departmental, by a line manager.
3.5.2.2 Technical training
According to Bartol and Martin (1991: 420) technical training helps the incumbent of a
position to learn various aspects of his/her job and provides specialised knowledge and
skills that enhances productivity. Such training does not take place in a vacuum, but is
a result of training needs analysis at both the operational and individual level (Fisher et
al. 1990: 323-325). At these levels of needs assessment it is possible to determine the
required skills (operational level) required to perform a job, and whether the incumbent
of a post possess such skills (individual level).
Once training needs have been identified, the next step is to develop a training
programme to achieve the objectives, and to select an appropriate training method.
Fisher et al. (1990: 326) point out that the selection of a training method must be
71
consistent with learning principles. These he lists as :- condition of practice,
knowledge of results, overcoming interference, transfer of training and adult learning
principles. (For more on learning principles please refer:- ( McCormic and ligen 1980:
229-233, Fisher et a1.1990: 327 - 331, Gerber et a1.1995: 482-486).
Various training methods for non-management employees are available in human
resource management. These range from training within the organisation and outside
the organisation (Marx 1986: 153-155). On-the-job training, which takes place while
the employee is carrying out his/her work. According to Fisher et al (1990:432) this is a
cost-effective method in terms of facilities and the costs of a full-time trainer. Transfer
of training to the job is maximised because the training setting is also the performance
setting and, because trainees see the relevancy of training and the job, this serves to
motivate them. Off-the-job training refers to a situation where employees are taken
away from the workplace for training (Marx 1986: 154). Outside training is training
arranged with outside organisations, such as universities, technikons, trade, and
professional associations (McCormic and ligen 1980: 234).
Technical training is aimed at improving productivity and quality through the
improvement of skills, but it is only one facet of the factors that influences productivity
and quality. It would therefore be unethical to subject employees to such trainig if in
fact it is factors such as motivation, job design, and organisational structures that affect
productivity and quality adversely. In terms of ethics, Rosouwand Zager (1994: 333)
point out that many employers have a tendency of describing some categories of
employees as "functional illiterates". These are considered poor risk for technical
training. They argue that recent research evidence opens new options for trainig
current and potential employees whose talents would otherwise be wasted. The above
72
statement also suggest that millions of such employees were excluded from such
training in the past. Within an institution, training should be offered to all employees.
The importance of training in the South African public sector was highlighted at the
workshop on transforming training in the public sector held on 27-28 March 1996, at
Midrand, Johannesburg. Some of the papers advocated for a paradigm shift in training
in terms of content and method (Schwella 1996), practical approaches to public sector
training based on competency (Ballard 1996), preparing personnel for diversity,
clarification of authority and job specification, and the creation of training accountability
centres (Hillliard and Wissink 1996).
The South African Management Development Institute (SAMDI) is regarded as a single
most important statutory body with respect to training in the public sector. It provides
line-function and management training at all levels of the public service (Mbere 1996:
5, RSA 1997: 57). According to Human (1991: 333) people training is crucial in South
Africa. Not only managers need to be trained, but subordinates as well, and she points
out that the latter is a line responsibility. Such training should address values,
attitudes, as well as behaviours at both managerial and operational level. Training
alone is no guarantee that human beings will operate at the best of their ability in
pursued of organisational goals. Development, discussed next, is another aspect
which merits attention.
3.5.2.3 Development
Although managers also undergo training, certain literature on management often
creates confusion by referring to this training as management development ( e.g. .
Fisher et al. 1990: 331). Sometimes it is even referred to as organisational
73
development (Graham and Bennet 1995: 249), which refers to a planned attempt to
improve the effectiveness of an organisation. The Glosary of Training Terms (in
Graham and Bennet 1995: 249) defines management development as follows: uA
systematic process of development of effective managers at all levels to meet the
requirements of an organisation, involving an analysis of the present and future
management requirements, assessing the existing and potential skills of managers and
devising the best means for their development to meet these requirements".
As can be seen, the above definition describes development in terms of management
only, and can be described as narrow. The assumption is that the development of
managers will lead to institutional success in terms of effective and efficient delivery of
goods and services. This can be misleading, as goods and services are delivered by
subordinates who are affected by a variety of factors in their work situations such as
peer group pressure, satisfaction dissatisfaction, work related attitudes, over and above
management by highly developed managers. Development is for the people (Coetzee
1989:1) implies that in work situations all employees must be developed. The objective
of development must be to raise the level of living standards (Streeten, in Coetzee
1999: 2) of all employees and not only of managers, and should provide all employees
with the opportuni.ty to develop their potential. This aspect is particularly pertinent in
the South African public sector, especially when affirmative action employees are taken
into account. Cheminais et al.(1998: 57) views affirmative action as a necessary step
in the transformation of the public sector in South Africa, in the sense that it promotes
representativeness and compatibility with the needs and culture of the public that it is
suppose to serve. They further argue that such employees should be selected on the
basis of potential rather than qualification and experience only, and should then be
trained and developed to ensure that they are empowered to attain their full potential.
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In the light of the above arguments, Coetzee's (1989:405-406) description of
development is most appropriate. He states that "...development must contribute
directly to the alleviation of poverty, must contribute to an increase in employment
opportunities, and it must serve to lessen the gross inequality in income which normally
exists". In a sense Lovell (1994: 11) supports this argument when he points out that
human resource specialists should embrace the notion of human resource
development, the need to change leadership styles in order to transform organisations
and empower its employees, and work towards changing attitudes and behaviour within
the culture in which people work. Notwithstanding the fact that institutions have ethical
responsibilities ( Wheelen and Hunger 1995: 73) of following the generally held beliefs
about how people should act and behave in society, by developing all of its employees,
the institution will be contributing, albeit in a small way, to the development of society at
large. Another aspect meriting human resource management consideration is human
resource motivation. This aspect will now be discussed.
3.5.3 Motivation
To understand what motivation is, some definitions are presented.
Bartol and Martin ( 1991:445) defines motivation as "...the force that energizes
behavour, gives direction to behaviour, and underlies the tendency to persist". Werther
and Davis (1996: 501) describe it as "...a person's drive to take action because that
person wants to do so". According to Megginson (1985: 341) managerial motivation is
the process by which managers attempt to bring the best performance of their
employees and attempt to direct their behaviour towards achieving personal and
organisational goals. French (1990: 122) defines motivation "...as the desire and
willingness of a person to expend effort to reach a particular goal or outcome".
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From the above definitions it can be concluded that motivation pertains to an inner
force, drive, desire, and willingness to work towards an objective. Megginson's
definition links management to motivation and performance, and accordingly argues
that it is the manager's job to motivate employees towards achieving both personal and
organisational goals.
There is no single, generally accepted theory of what motivates people, hence the
existence of several contemporary theories an motivation. French (1990: 122) argue
that reviewing these theories can be helpful to human resource managers in the sense
that enhancing motivation can lead to improved performance and greater
organisational performance. Contemporary motivational theories are subsequently
reviewed underneath (French 1990, Rosenbloom 1993, Dessier 1981).
• Maslow's needs hierarchy theory
According to Maslow's needs hierarchy, individuals are motivated by the desire to fuifiII
particular needs that are shared by all people. These include psychological needs,
security or safety needs, belonging and affection needs, esteem needs, and self-
actualisation needs. According to Maslow, these needs emerge in a particular order
and the needs at the lower level must be satisfied before higher order needs are
satisfied.
• Herzberg motivation - hygiene theory
Herzberg developed a theory of motivation based on factors that produce job
satisfaction and dissatisfaction. According to this theory, key factors in motivation and
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satisfaction are identified as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility
and advancement. They are called motivators. The other group of factors, the hygiene
factors, include company policy, supervision, salary, working conditions and
interpersonal relations with supervisor. According to Herzberg if hygiene factors are
absent or negative dissatisfaction results.
• Adam's Equity theory
Equity refers to the quality of being just or fair. According to this theory employees hold
certain beliefs about the output they get from their jobs and the inputs they bring to
bear in order to obtain certain outputs (McCormic and ligen 1981: 270). The outputs of
a job include actual pay, fringe benefits, status, and other intrinsic benefits in the job.
• Vroom's Expectancy theory
According to this theory, motivation is a function of an individual's expectancy.
Employees are decision makers and choose alternatives that are advantageous to
them with certain expectations as outcomes or rewards (McCormic and ligen 1981:
279). In motivating personnel, human resource managers may consider certain
aspects related to the work situation. These aspects are pay plans, incentives, benefits
and security, and commitment and loyalty. These will subsequently be discussed in the
paragraphs below.
3.5.3.1 Pay plans
In the public sector, human resource management is undertaken within a political
milieu. As the result of the element of politics the adoption of some of the flexible
77
personnel practices of the private sector cannot be applied to the public sector (Nigra
and Nigra 1986: 112). Stahl (1983: 313) points out that theoretically, the limit to what
the government can spend in salaries and wages is determined by the state of the
taxpayer's ability to pay tax. However, remuneration remains a dominant condition of
service of public officials (Cloete 1993: 174) and to be perceived as ethical from both
the equity and expectancy theories of motivation it has to be perceived as fair and just
by its reciepient. In the private sector flexible pay plans based on the principles of
payment by results may be implemented. According to Graham and Bennet (1995:
291) payment by results requires that a standard be set for each job expressed either
as a quantity produced per unit of time or as the time taken to do the job, and a bonus
is payable when the standard is exceeded. Payment by results of course requires a
steady flow of measurable work, the pace of which is within the control of the worker,
aspects which are hard to come by in the public sector because most of the work is
nonquantifiable. Steers et al. (1996:508) refer to the above tendency, as "...fascination
with objective criterion" which may be unethical in public human resource
management.
3.5.3.2 Incentives
According to Andrews (1996: 173) an incentive compensation system is designed to
encourage human resources to greater productivity. French (1990: 463) agrees with
Andrews, and he explains that incentive plans provide financial and non-financial
rewards to employees who make substantial contributions to organisational
effectiveness. Common to all incentive plans is to encourage personnel to achieve
specific organisational goals such as increasing profit, lowering cost, raising
productivity, improving product quality and rendering quality service. As Megginson
(1985: 467) points out, time work or salary tends to perform the equity function, and
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incentive wages, tends to perform the motivation function. In this sence, Steers et al.
(1996: 509) argue for emphasis on effeciency rather than morality and equity.
A variety of incentive plans are available for both private and public sector employees
at both production and management levels. These include according to Dessier
(1981: 375-387), Stahl (1983: 320-323), and French (1990: 463-474), individual
incentive plans, group incentive plans, merit-pay plans, and the bonus plan.
Another aspect to consider in motivation is benefits of employees. This aspect is dealt
with next.
3.5.3.3 Benefits
In addition to compensation in the form of wages and salaries, it is normal practice for
organisations to provide various services known as employee benefits. French (1990:
497-500) points out that employee benefits are important for two reasons, first, benefits
are important to the well-being and security of the employee, second, benefits can be
helpful in recruiting and retaining qualified employees. Andrews (1996: 274-287)
discusses a variety of employee benefits such as insurance, payment during absence
from work, and perquisites.
In these times of rapid change and slimmer organisations, the resultant effect may be
the demise of traditional forms of career path (Burnes 1996: 86), with employees
hopping from one job to the other. The emphasis then shifts to employability, and
benefits as a means of retaining good employees may well loose out in the end.
Burnes (1995: 87) further points out that highly marketable individuals see their
careers in terms of many different jobs and organisations they have been associated
79
with. It is also doubtful in the light of Burnes argument, if employee benefits can serve
as a motivational tool in addition to retentivity. The endeavour in human resource
management is also to make employees committed to the organisation and its goals.
This aspect receives attention below.
3.5.3.4 Commitment and loyalty
Coopey and Hartley (in Legge 1995: 180) define commitment as "...affective attachment
and identification with the organisation". Porter et al. (in Legge1995: 180) describe
commitment as " ... the relative strenght of the individual's involvement with, and in, a
particular organiation."
It is clear from the two definitions above that commitment of employees to
organisational values, beliefs, and culture depends on the individual employee
him/herself. It can also be concluded that commitment is linked with attitudes and
behaviour of the individual employee. Hollinshead and Leat (1995: 19-20) argue that
human resource managers can enhance commitment of employees to organisations by
"establishing systems of work which foster high commitment". They suggest a
paradigm shift in job design that includes a broad definition of jobs, employee rotation,
pay for skills mastered, emphasis on self or peer supervision, removal of status
differentials, and allowing substantial employee influence and participation. Such
paradigm shift in job design may result in job satisfaction and ultimately improved
productivity. Failure to consider the above may result in unethical behaviours such as
increased turnover, absenteeism, dissatisfaction and sabotage (Steers et al. 1996:
565). According to Lawier ( in Steers et al. 1996: 571) commitment and loyalty of
employees requires that an institution places information, power, knowledge, and
reqards in the hands of individuals who actually performs the work. The above may be
80
understood as concerning open communication channels, assigning of responsibility,
adequate training, and pay plans that are related to performance.
It is also important that human resource is maintained well in terms of safety and
health. This aspect is discussed in the paragraphs below.
3.5.4 Human Resource Maintenance
Having procured, trained, developed, motivated and compensated employees,
employers must endeavour to maintain the effective work force that has been
assembled. Special effort must be made through communication and counselling to
maintain employee attitudes and physical conditions (Flippo 1984: 495).
French (1990: 620) points out that the health and safety management process is
aimed at ensuring the physical well-being of employees. Andrews (1996: 359) support
this statement, but adds that health should be understood as including both bodily and
mental welfare.
Management involvement in health and safety and further ongoing development of the
employees represents an organisation's response to a number of influences. French
(1990: 620) lists these as government intervention, union pressure, the general public,
but contents that the most basic is a sense of social and humanitarian responsibility
which is an ethical responsibility on the part of employers.
According to Klingner and Nalbandian (1985: 280) research evidence supports the
notion that healthy employees are happier and better workers. Inference can therefore
be made from the last statement that productivity will be affected either positively or
81
negatively depending on the health of the workers. The same can be said about
motivation. Megginson (1985: 411) concludes that there is, however, a need "to
balance the human and material benefits" in health and safety management. The
human and material benefits of health and safety have to be balanced against the costs
involved, taking into consideration scarce resources.
As mentioned before, government intervenes in the work situation through legislation.
This intervention is to protect both the employer and employee. It can thus be said that
human resource management takes place within the legal framework imposed by
government. This aspect is dealt with in the section below.
3.5.5 Human Resources and the Legal Framework
Human resource management does not take place in a vacuum. It takes place within a
complexity of environments both within and outside the organisation. These
environments have direct and indirect impacts on how human resource management is
carried out. For example it will be futile on the part of human resource managers to
plan for the recruitment and selection of highly skilled and qualified personnel if no
such candidates are available in the labour market. Certain government legislation
impose constraints on the activities of human resource managers and forces them to
consider ethical requirements. Labour movements also have an influence on the
treatment of their memberswithin organisations.
Bearing the above in mind, and the fact that the responsibility for human resource
management activities rests with all managers (Wherther and Davis 1996: 12) it is not
surprising that this aspect of management has received and continues to receive, at
82
both academic and practitioner's level, locally and internationally, much attention
(Hollinshead and Leat 1995: 3-39).
Through the enforcement of labour laws, governments have a direct and immediate
impact on human resource managers' functions (Wherther and Davis 1996: 45).
Because employers and employees are engaged in a power struggle which may result
in unethical behaviours (Schwella et al 1996: 81) governments intervene through
impositioning of labour legislation which spells out the rights of each party (Bates 1994:
240-244; Gerber et al. 1995: 396 - 399). Bendix (1993: 17) views the establishment
of this legal framework as being necessary for two reasons, namely: first, because of
the inequality of the parties involved, and second, because the parties involved may
engage in destructive and unethical practices to the detriment of society as a whole.
(Legislation pertaining to the public sector are dealt with in chapter 5 of this
dissertation).
The labour relationship may be described as a tripartite relationship involving the state,
employers and employees. The role of the state may be described as "controversial"
because its position is that of an equal partner and regulator (Bendix 1993: 10).
However, this situation has to be accepted without question, because the state exists
for the promotion of the general welfare of society (Bates et al. 1996: 3) it acts as a
non-profit employer (Bendix 1993: 11), and prevents wrong practices and unethical
conduct by all parties in the labour relationship.
To increase their bargaining power, employees form and join trade unions so that they
can confront management as a united force (Bendix 1993: 77). This aspect has
become necessary for employees to avoid unethical practices such as exploitations by
83
employers because in most instances the interests of employers and those of
employees may not dovetail (Bendix 1993: 77).
The promotion of ethics in the management of people (human resource) remains
paramount to human resource specialists. In the light of the above statement it is
worthwhile to review in general what different authors have written on the subject..
3.6 ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN RESOURCES
Kerr (in Crainer 1995: 1011) makes the point that after the financial and other scandals
of the 1980's, ethics has become a feature on management development programmes
and an aspect of growing importance for all types of managers. He further states that
managers have to be acquainted with ethical reasoning and that organisational
structures and practices should be geared for the promotion of ethics. Stahl (1983:
382) argue that ethics are a part of competence and of democracy. Bendix (1993: 17)
laments that" ... too little attention is paid to a system of ethics as regulator of the labour
relationship". Rosenbloom (1993: 520 - 524) reviews the managerial perspective to
accountability and ethics and concludes that it emphasises, among other,
responsibility, loyalty, discipline, and internal audit. French (1990: 269) argue that of
all selection devices in human resource management, tests face the most intense
ethical challenges. Because of the importance of ethics in human resource
management, Andrews (1996: 34-40) lists a number of measures that can be applied in
order to maintain the actions of public official on a high ethical plane. Van der Waldt
and Du Toit (1997: 39) argue that in future greater demands in the workplace will place
greater emphasis on ethical conduct.
84
It can be concluded from the above arguments that managerial ethics is, and will in the
future be an important aspect of management. Human resource management, as
management of an animate production factor, will, in the future, be in the forefront on
ethics in organisations.
During the human resource provisioning, ethics could feature prominently during
recruitment, testing, selection, and interviewing where nepotism could be experienced.
With aspects such as affirmative action, representivity, and gender issues clouding
personnel provisioning it can be expected that ethics will be dominant at this stage.
Recruitment advertisements which make reference to certain personal characteristics
or race should be avoided, as they can be interpreted as discriminatory. It is also
doubtful whether it is possible to design a culture-free selection test, hence test results
have to be interpreted with the culture of the candidate in mind. Mechanisms to avoid
nepotism in selections have to be devised, for example, outsourcing such activities to
neutral agencies such as consultants. In the South African public sector, it is essential
to reconcile the principles of affirmative action (e.g. preferential treatment of previously
disadvantaged groups) with those of equal employment opportunities (e.g. selections
based on qualifications and experiences only). The ability to assess potential for
development becomes crucial for public human resource managers in reconciling these
principles. All categories of employees in the public sector need to be given the
opportunity to develop to realise their full potential.
Motivation is aimed at improving productivity in an organisation through instilling
commitment, loyalty and developing positive attitudes. These are linked to values such
as organisational culture, organisational climate, and job design. These are important
ethical values which merit strong consideration in motivating human resources (Jones
1994: 193). The development of positive work-related attitudes has to be approached
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in a holistic manner. A mere concentration on developing positive attitudes while
neglecting organisational culture, organisation climate, job design and management
style, to name but a few, is likely to fall short of achieving the required commitment and
loyalty from employees.
A subversion of legal prescriptions on health and safety of employees may be
considered both illegal and unethical. Rosenbloom (1993: 577) explains that
subversion can be the result of unilateral or transactional corruption for private gain,
and can also be due to discontent with one's position in the work situation. Public
human resource managers have to keep abreast of the latest amendments to
legislation relevant to their field and advise line managers accordingly
3.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter human resource management has been defined and explained. Its
historical development was discussed at length, and the various aspects covered in
Human Resource Management such as human resource provisioning, human resource
training, and development, motivation, maintenance, safety and health, and its legal
frame fully discussed. Various authors were quoted in support of the fact that ethics
are part of management, and the chapter concludes with an explanation of how ethical
dilemmas may be experienced at the different functional activities covered in human
resource management.
In the next chapter values and principles which underpin ethics in human resource
management in the public sector are discussed.
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CHAPTER4
VALUES AND GUIDELINES THAT UNDERPIN ETHICS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
HUMAN RESOURCES IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
4.1 INTRODUCTION
One characteristic of the Discipline Public Administration is that it is value-laden. This
implies that the Discipline and its activities will have relationships with other disciplines
which deal with values in their contents. For example Public Administration borrows
freely from established disciplines such as Psychology, Biology, Politics and
Philosophy, to name but a few.
In order to understand what values are, some definitions are presented and explained
in ways relevant to public administration. Likewise, by combining various contributions
from various disciplines to the understanding and use of values it should be possible to
develop a relatively comprehensive perception of the central role values play as
stimulants of ethics in public human resource management.
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4.2 DEFINITION OF VALUES
Values are defined and explained by many authors in the social sciences. Baier and
Rescher (in Kruger 1987: 8) define a value as " ... an attitude for or against an event or
phenomenon, based on a belief that it benefits or penalises some individual, group, or
institution". Mercer (1992: 58) defines a value as " ... an enduring belief that a specific
mode of conduct or result is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or result". Fox and Meyer (1995: 134) define value as " ... a
concept about what is fundamentally good or desirable that an individual hold onto as a
guide through life".
Common to the above definitions is an emphasis on the desirable, attitudes for or
against an event, action or conduct. It can therefore be concluded that values, have an
influence on the choices of modes, means and ends. A value describes the quality of
any object, phenomenon, or conduct which causes it to be viewed as desirable or
necessary by an individual or a group. They are also psychological by nature or
matters of beliefs and their measures are usually qualitative. Values influence the
selection of actions of individuals or groups and are closely related to ethics.
According to Wiechers, (1993: 250) values do not only refer to ethics, but are also
grounded on morals and religious convictions.
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From what has been written above, it can be inferred that values have a role to play in
public human resource management. Decisions and actions by public human resource
functionaries have to, for most of the time be based on the values they hold onto as
guides in their decision making processes. Values could, however, present problems
in a heterogeneous public personnel corps. This aspect is dealt with in the paragraphs
below.
In a plural democratic society like South Africa, divergent individual and group values
could be an issue in the management of human resources. Public human resource
managers in the transforming South African public sector will for most of the time
encounter divergent values emanating from a culturally diversified society. The South
African society from which public personnel are recruited is heterogeneous in nature. It
consists of members that are very different from one another, for example whites,
blacks, Indians, and coloureds. Even among the different population groups one finds
different ethnic groups such as the Afrikaners and English, among Whites, and Zulu's
and Sothos, among blacks. These groups have different value systems which have to
be reconciled in public institutions for them to can be described as being ethical.
Values lie at the heart of all public institutions. Likewise, managers of human
resources may be affected by value judgements and it can be expected that they will try
to understand the values held by groups or individuals within the institution. The
obligations faced by public managers is then to endeavour not to substitute their
personal values for individual or group values, but to try, at all times to put the values
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which will benefit the institution as a whole, as a first priority. Examples of such values
include, honesty, efficiency, loyalty and, responsibility. This challenge should be
embraced by public human resource managers who should cultivate effective and
efficient human resource management based on transparency accountability, fairness
and professional ethics (RSA 1996: 83). Cultivating good human resource
management that meets these requirements entails the utilisation of human potential
through eliminating obstacles to personal development and job satisfaction. The
search for productivity improvement in the public sector should entail a more
sophisticated understanding of employee motivation and satisfaction. It is also
important to recognise, as Klingner and Nalbandian (1985: 191) point out, that in
labour-intensive work, such as the public sector, turnover and absenteeism can
significantly affect productivity because of lost time and the costs in recruitment and
selection. Good managers of human resource should be aware of the divergent values
subordinates bring along to work and the faiths that enrich and inspire them.
The above-mentioned obligations facing public human resource managers naturally
mean identifying shared individual or group values as basis for ethical actions. For the
purposes of public human resource management, some of these values are described
in this section. It will be noticed in the forth coming discussion, that although South
Africa is predominantly a Christian country, other religions have to be considered as
well. This is essential, because in almost all religions some kind of ethics is
acknowledged and practiced. Differences and similarities abound in different religions,
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and these may necessitate management of diversity in the management of human
resources in the public sector. Ethics and religious values are discussed next
4.3 ETHICS AND RELIGIOUS VALUES
Ethics and religion have been closely connected in the history of man. As mentioned
earlier in this dissertation, ethics is concerned with the right, the good, and the
desirable in respect of human conduct. Religion is the conviction that " ...what is highest
in spirit is also deepest in nature" (Titus and Keeton 1966: 508). Religion attempts to
relate man to ordinary values in human life.
In South Africa, freedom of association and religion is a constitutional right (RSA 1996:
7). Although according to Reynolds (1977: 293) the majority of South Africans are
Christians, it is necessary to consider the values espoused by other religions. The
different values espoused by Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Islam, Judaism and
Christianity are discussed below. Although the list is not exhaustive, it represent
dominant world religions according to Titus and Keeton (1966) and De Gruchy and
Prozesky (1991). Reference to different religions is necessary in the South African
context because, as Prozesky (1991: 1) has observed, it has a rich diversity of faiths
and the knowledge and understanding of this fact is essential in the public sector.
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4.3.1 Ethics of Hinduism
Hinduism is a religion practised mostly by Indians (Maxwell and Naidoo 1991: 43).
According to Titus and Keeton (1966: 509) Hinduism includes different beliefs and
types of conduct and in Hindu ethics individuals have to act on their own account and
to control their future and to assist others. Hindus in positions of authority are expected
to be kind and "selfless," that is, conduct themselves in a manner that benefit others.
According to Titus and Keeton (1966: 512-513) among the lofty Hindu sentiments are
some like the following: "let not any man do unto another any act which he wisheth not
done to himself, knowing it to be painful to himself." This sentiment corresponds with
the Christian doctrine of doing unto others as one would have them do unto him.
4.3.2 Ethics of Buddhism
Buddhism is also practised mainly by Indian people, it being an attempt to reform
Hinduism (Titus and Keeton 1966: 513-514). Like Hinduism this religion emphasises
that people are products of their past thoughts and deeds. Whatever a person sows, is
what he reaps. With reference to human resource management, Williams (1980: 509)
points out that "...using unethical means runs the high risk of contaminating or
preventing the accomplishment of the very objectives we set out to achieve". Public
human resource managers should therefore lead by examples, and endeavour, at all
times, to be ethical.
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4.3.3 Ethics of Confucianism
Hofmeyer (1991: 101 )points out that Confucianism is a religion practised mostly by the
Chinese people. In Confucian ethics the central concept is right relationship" .. .for the
achievement of harmony". According to Titus and Keeton (1966: 516) these
relationships refer to the relations of ruler and subject, the relation of father and son,
the relation of husband and wife, the relation of elder and younger brothers, and the
relation of friend and friend. In communities where confucianism is practiced the basic
institution is the family. In Confucian ethics, justice is attained when each person plays
his/her part in the society, and there should be harmony in the various relationships.
The basis of the relations is hierarchical (Hofmeyer 1991: 107). Which means that one
member is dominant and the other submissive. Based on confucian ethics, it can be
expected that public human resources manager would be dominant in their style of
management and the subordinates should carry out instructions without questions. The
ethical tone in an institution would be determined by public managers and subordinates
would be expected to tow the line.
4.3.4 Ethics of Islam
According to Moosa (1991: 203) Islam means "... to surrender to God and to be
unfettered", and a person who surrenders is called a Muslim. The familiar islamic
greeting, salam (peace) implies that peace in the world can only be attained if humans
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"surrender" themselves to God. Spreading the message of "surrender" depends on the
authenticity and credibility of the transmitters. Moosa (1991: 214) points out that when
a great number of reliable transmitters preach the same message it attains the highest
quality of consecutive testimony and makes it inductively so certain that doubt is
logically excluded.
In terms of ethics in a public institution, the source would be the law and the
institutional code of ethics to which all members of the institution have to abide by.
Down the hierarchy, public human resource specialists and line managers would serve
as transmitters of ethics. However, in order to have a great number of reliable
transmitters it would be wise to include subordinates to ensure that everybody in the
institution is aware of the kind of behaviour expected.
4.3.5 Ethics of Judaism
Judaism may be ascribed to the early Hebrews. The main characteristics and points of
emphasis in the ethics of Judaism are reflected in the Old Testament of the Bible
(Exodus 20: 1:17, Deuteronomy 5:6-22). Its persistent effort is to shape human
character and behaviour. According to Heilig (1991: 119) the primary objectives in the
ethics of Judaism are the virtues of justice and love. He also points out that another
important feature of the ethics of Judaism is emphasis on community and social-
mindedness. In the context of the management of human resources, managers would
be expected to be fair and just in dealing with subordinates. Social-mindedness can be
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interpreted in terms of the development of the whole work force. Judaism is closely
related to Christianity which is discussed below.
4.3.6 Christian Ethics
Christian ethics embodies the teachings of both the Old Testament and the New
Testament (Exodus 20:1-17, Mark 12: 28-34, Matt.22: 34-40). Some of the central
points of emphasis or distinguishing characteristics in Christian ethics may be listed as
follows:- (Titus and Keeton 1966: 529-530).
First, Christian ethics places emphasis on man's motives, will, and desires - the inner
character of man. The emphasis is on the individual as opposed to collectivities of
Islam and Confucianism. Such ethics are the exact opposite of externally imposed
ethics such as laws and codes of conduct. It appeals to a man's sense of duty,
uprightness, and obligation as espoused by deontological ethics. In this sense an
action may not be right simply on account of its effects as espoused by utilitarian
ethics. According to Christian ethics actions that benefit the majority may still be judged
wrong. For example a person who steals money in order to build a church, although
his/her motive of building a church is noble, the act is ethically unacceptable, because
stealing is considered a wrong act (Exodus 20:15).
Second, Christian ethics is an ethics of love. Titus and Keeton (1966: 529) point out
that such ethics are non-reciprocal, which means that the person does not ask what
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he/she is to receive in return. Love in Christian ethics designates an attitude and the
devine law to love the neighbour applies universally among Christians (Uys and Smit
1987: 9-10). According to Mott (1982: 42) the ethics of love demands a compassionate
response for the poor, the needy subordinates, and the recipients of one's services.
Christian ethics, because of its emphasis on the individual, relates to Maslow hierarchy
of needs in the motivation of personnel.
As can be seen from the discussions of the ethics of the various religions above, there
is much in common between them. Wrongdoing is condemned by all religions, and man
shall reap what he sows. The ethics of love is dominant, and this can also be inferred to
the relationships in Confucianism. Selflessness by those in positions of authority is a
central feature of the various religions (compare for example serving the public interest
as opposed to serving self-interest).
With reference to public human resource management, the common features of the
various religions are what public managers in general would like to see happen in
public institutions. For example wrongdoing (unethical conduct) is a punishable
offence, workers should be paid according to their performance (they reap what they
sow); and concern for the well-being of others (selflessness) should be a dominant
characteristic of managers of human resources in the public sector.
However there are also noticeable differences among the various religions. Christianity
for example lays emphasis on the individuals, their inner motives and what they aspire
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to. According to Maslow's theory of motivation (in McCormick & ligen 1980: 264) it
would appear easier to deal with Christians in a work situation because of emphasis on
individual needs and motives, although externally imposed constraints such as rules,
regulations, and codes of conduct may be opposed. Islam and Confucianism
emphasise collective action and the role of authority. In these two religions there is a
distinct hierarchy of relationship of authority with one member dominant and the other
member submissive. In work situations it would appear easier to impose external
control measures such as codes of conduct on members of these religions because of
their submissiveness to authority. Hinduism and Buddism lays emphasis on exemplary
behaviour. According to these religions, human resource managers should behave
ethically themselves if they expect their followers to behave ethically.
According to Uys and Smit (1987:3) the importance of religious values is rooted in the
fact that, human beings are social beings and as such are only happy within the
bounds of social structures of which they are part. If individuals or groups feel that their
religious values are being undermined or disregarded within an institution, it could
make them unhappy. Managers of public human resources need to recognise the
different religious doctrines of their personnel corps so as to try to be accommodative
of the various religious value systems.
A public human resource manager for example could observe that a group of workers is
occasionally absent from their work place. On investigation he/she may find out that
this occurs on a particular day at a certain time before the lunch hour, and further that
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the group belongs to a particular religion that prescribes prayer on that day and time.
To be accommodative, the manager may decide that the lunch hour be taken just that
fifteen minutes earlier and explain to the group that this is to accommodate their prayer
time without causing disruption to the work flow. This action may have the effect of
satisfying the needs of a specific group without an adverse effect on the rest of the
work force. Such actions indicates pro-activeness and responsibility on the part of the
manager. In addition to religious values, the phenomenon of responsibility is also
regarded as a fundamental prerequisite for ethical behaviour. This aspect is discussed
below
4.4 RESPONSIBILITY AS A VALUE
In the context of Public Administration the concept of responsibility is one that has a
confusing wealth of different meanings and shades of meanings. According to Covey
(1992: 71) responsibility consists of two words, namely, "response" and "ability," the
ability to choose ones response to a stimulus. To act responsibly, therefore, means a
person's conscious choice and depends on a person's decision and not his/her
condition. However, authors in Public Administration wrote extensively on the concept
responsibility and many attempted to alley its confusing meanings. For example one
early author, Mosher, (1968: 7) distinguishes between objective and subjective
responsibility. According to him, the so-called objective responsibility is the same as
accountability or answerability wherein a public human resource manager would be
responsible to someone outside of the self for some kind of performance. From a
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classical viewpoint of institutions, objective responsibility would be essential for the
heirarchical structure. Understood in the context of ethics in institutions, objective
responsibility would be categorised as institutional ethics.
Subjective responsibility focuses on individuals. The emphasis in subjective
responsibility is on identification, loyalty and conscience ( Mosher, 1968: 8). According
to the values espoused in deontological theory of ethics, subjective responsibility could
be understood as corresponding to personal ethics.
From the exposition of the concept "responsibility" in the above paragraphs, it is no
wonder why one sentence definition of responsibility is in most cases avoided by
authors in public administration. Hence they hasten to qualify responsibility by
describing the various facets within which the concept is used. Harmon (1995: 12-32)
offers a solution to this confusion surrounding the concept. He argues that
responsibility could be regarded as agency, accountability, and obligation. These
aspects are briefly explained below.
4.4.1 Responsibility as agency
The term agency embodies the idea of freedom of the will (Harmon 1995: 6).
According to Hattingh (1986: 95) agency may be defined as formal authorisation by an
institution or a person in a higher hierarchical position to an institution or a person in a
lower position to perform certain tasks on its I his behalf. To qualify as agents,
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responsible managers should possess the power to cause events to happen through
the voluntary exercising of their wills (Harman 1995: 19). In Jean-Paal Saitre's
(Harman 1995: 6) phrase, public human resource managers should be "incontestable
authors" of their actions. Niebuhr (1963: 49) pointed this out earlier when he stated
that agency embodies the ancient symbolism of a person as the maker, that is one who
is in charge of his/her own actions and fate.
The other aspect of responsibility as agency transforms it into a moral one (Harman
1995: 20). This aspect is symbolised by what Niebuhr (1963: 56) called" ...the image
of a person as the provider of answers". In terms of this point of view public human
resource managers as "answerers" are responsible for their actions to other members
of their communities (Harman 1995: 20).
From the paragraphs above, it can be inferred that public managers as agents should
take responsibility for whatever happens within an institution. As agents of ethics within
an institution, they should take the initiative in ensuring the existence of a code of
conduct where such codes do not exist. And where codes of conduct do exist, it is the
managers duty to ensure its application and where ambiguity arises, to provide
clarification. Responsibility is sometimes understood as accountability. This aspect
receives attention in the following paragraphs
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4.4.2 Responsibility as accountability
Harman (1995: 25) explains accountability as referring "...to an authoritative
relationship in which one person is formally entitled to demand that another answer or
provide an account of his or her actions". In this relationship, rewards or punishments
may be meted out to the latter depending on whether those actions conform to the
formers wishes. Niebuhr (1963: 63) points out that accountability was frequently
defined by resorting to legal thinking, in the sense of one giving an account of his/her
actions in a court of law. This interpretation is limited in scope in the sense that it limits
accountability to legality of ones actions. Covey (1992: 71) offers a better explanation
of responsibility as accountability. He states that the word responsibility is made up of
response plus ability, the ability to respond to a stimulus. Between the stimulus and the
response there is freedom to choose. In other words, one has the freedom to choose a
response for which one will be accountable for.
In public human resource management, decisions and actions are taken within the
constraints of policies and regulations. The policies and regulations determine the
framework within which manager of human resources in the public sector operate.
Although discretionary powers are accorded public human resource managers in
carrying out their functions (Cohen and Golembiewski 1976: 170-171), accountability
is demanded in order to promote a high standard of professional ethics (see also RSA
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1996: sec 195 (I) (a) and (f)). Responsibility can also be linked to the concept of
obligation.
4.4.3 Responsibility as obligation
According to Harman (1995: 6), responsibility as obligation denotes the notion that
"ethical action is determined by its correspondence to principles and standards deriving
from sources external to the agent". Obligation emphasises moral meaning to
responsibility by suggesting that one should, or should not, perform certain actions in
certain ways. For example the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act
108 of 1996) sec 195 (I) (a) (c) (f) (g) and (I) support the promotion of professional
ethics, development, accountability, transparency, and fairness in the practices of
human resource management in the public sector.
Baier, ( in Harman 1995: 26), points out that obligation has a forward-looking
dimension in the sense that the agent has the duty or obligation to bring about the
desired future state of affairs. In this sense one could think of the envisaged future
state of affairs of the public service that may be realised through the transformation of
the public service in accordance with the White Paper on the Transformation of the
Public Service (RSA 1995).
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Responsibility as a value in public human resource management also implies the
obligations to fairness, reasonableness and justice. These concepts are discussed
below as ethical guidelines in public human resource management.
4.5 FAIRNESS AND REASONABLENESS AS GUIDELINES
The main objective of government institutions and public human resource functionaries
is the promotion of the general welfare of the community (Cloete 1994: 79). From the
above statement it can be inferred that public officials should always be fair and
reasonable in dealing with members of the public, regardless of sex, race, language,
origin and religion of those members (Cloete in Du Toit and Van der Waldt 1997: 97).
Cloete (1984: 28) explains that the pursuance of fairness and reasonableness will
ensure that the actions of public officials are within the law and within the spirit of the
law, in the sense that they will be above unethical conduct, and in support of promoting
the general welfare of the community. Fair and reasonable treatment should not be
reserved for the rich and educated members of the community because of their status
in the community, but should extent to the poor, the destitude, and the uneducated
without discrimination and favours.
It can be inferred from the above paragraph that the aspects of fairness and
reasonableness are equally important in public human resource management in the
sense of promoting and maintaining a high standard of professional ethics (RSA 1996:
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83). These ethical guidelines are closely linked to justice, a concept which will be dealt
with in the paragraphs below.
4.6 JUSTICE AS AN ETHICAL GUIDELINE
The concept of justice is closely linked to ethics, indicating the quality of being morally
right, fair and proper (Dictionary of Contemporary English 1987: 570). Justice in public
human resource management implies equitable treatment of subordinates and clients,
and proper performance of lawful duties ( Williams 1980: 502).
Wiechers (1985: 208) contends that in legal terms, justice as an ethical guideline
necessarily means recourse to the rules of natural justice. He points out that although
all rules are important, the rules of natural justice, that is, common-law rules which are
applicable to administrative enquiries and hearings, occupy a position of special
prominence because of their emphasis of the maxim :audi alteram partem". Translated
literally this means: hear the other party's side or case.
Understood in the context of public human resource management, it means, for justice
to prevail, subordinates should be given a chance to state their cases especially in
cases of discipline. Expanding on this statement Williams, (1980: 510) argues that
subordinates should be treated as ends and not simply as means. He points out that
the on-the-job application of this precept is the development of the competence of
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employees as ends in themselves, which contributes positively to their self-
actualisation and the spirit of the institution ( Williams 1980: 510). With regard to the
concept that people should be regarded as ends, Kant ( in Jones 1971: 82) argues that:
"...man, and in general every rational being exists as an end in himself, not merely as a
means for arbitrary use by this or that will: he must in all his actions, whether they are
directed to himself or to other rational beings, always be viewed at the same time as an
end". Jones (1971: 28) argues that in order for managers to treat subordinates as ends
they must regard them as such. It can be concluded from this argument that treating
subordinates as ends suggest a different approach to motivation. The emphasis should
be on the subordinate to do his/her best in whatever they are engaged in, and not on
the institutional goals per se. Justice implies that people have to be honest with
themselves , their subordinates, the institution as well as members of communities.
The concept of honesty is also fundamental to deontological theory of ethics and
receives attention in the paragraphs below.
4.7 HONESTY AS AN ETHICAL GUIDELINE
What immediately comes to mind in the day-to-day consideration of the concept
honesty, revolves around financial transactions, avoidance of bribery, reliability in
keeping ones word, and fulfilling ones promises. Even though the aforementioned
aspects form part of what is understood by honesty, Hill ( 1980: 300 ).points out that
honesty, in a wider sense, has to be understood as an "illuminating agent, which throws
light on the problems to be solved. It breeds faith and confidence". It can therefore be
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inferred that public human resource managers need to be honest in dealing with their
subordinates, the community and their colleagues in order to win their faith and
confidence. In the following paragraphs, honesty as an ethical value in public human
resource management is discussed under five subheadings. Although the list is not
exhaustive, it is an effort to highlight the importance of the concept.
4.7.1 Honesty and lying
According to Hill (1980: 299) many people do not consider lying dishonest, especially
mild forms of lying. He states that, to many people, the threshold of dishonesty begins
with stealing, which to some, is not even considered very dishonest either. Consider for
example a public human resource manager who calls in sick to get a day off and goes
to do his/her private business. He/she lies and steals taxpayers money in that at the
end of the month he/she gets fully paid. But because the public manager never literally
put his/her hand in the money- till, the act is not always considered dishonest.
Consider also the use of office telephones for long-distance personal calls. The list is
endless. These are dishonest acts, and they amount to stealing tax-payers money
although indirectly.
To all the above, Hill (1980: 300) makes the point that lying is grossly unethical
because it expresses disregard and disrespect for the self and others. He also points
out that "when a small lie starts from the top, it creates an avalanch of lying at the
bottom". According to Williams (1980: 509) subordinates always adopt an attitude of
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"where you lead me, I will follow" Accordingly, public human resource managers need
to be honest and exemplary. Williams (1980: 509) further makes the point that honesty
and truthfulness cannot be projected unless they are genuine. Prudent public human
resource managers should understand this and should ask themselves the question of
whether they can handle it if their subordinates follow their dishonest and lying
examples.
Honesty can be better practised by professionals in the sense they adhere to a strict
code of professional ethics. This aspect is discussed in the paragraphs below.
4.7.2 Honesty and professional ethics
The Dictionary of Contemporary English (1993: 826) describes a profession as "...a
form of employment especially one that is possible only for an educated person and
after training and that is respected in society as honourable". Hanekom (1995: 197)
points out some features which are characteristic of professional public officials, such
as a conviction to serve society honestly and properly, the fuifiIIment of a code of
professional conduct, and the violation of which will lead to exclusion from the
profession. Professionals therefore dedicate themselves to an honest and proper
service by adhering to professional ethics in order to advance the honour of the
profession.
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In South Africa, human resource management is offered as a course at tertiary
institutions leading to professional qualification such as professional personnel
practitioners and general managers. A qualification in Industrial Psychology entitles
one to register with the South African Board for Personnel Practice before going into
practice (Gerber et& 1995:36). The practice of human resource management is also
controlled by the Institute of Personnel Management, so as to ensure professional
standards (Gerber et& 1995:35).
From the above paragraphs it can be inferred that human resource management could
be regarded as a profession, where a profession is defined as "...an occupation that
properly involves a liberal education or its equivalent and mental rather than manual
labour ..." (Funk & WagnaIls in Thornhill and Hanekom 1995: 196-198). As a
profession it can be expected that practitioners thereof should act in accordance with
ethical principles to uphold the honour of the profession, and be honest in dealing with
subordinates and the community at large.
Hanekom (1994: 200) points out that in the public sector, a variety of professions such
as medical, engineering and human resource management are practiced. He also
argues that these professionals function differently from private practitioners such as
human resource management consultants because their loyalties should first be to the
state as employer and only then towards their areas of specialisation. This brings about
a fundamental difference in the functions of professional human resource managers in
the public sector in the sense that they do not function under the principle of "time is
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money" (Townley 1994: 64), as it is the case with private practitioners whereby the
client is charged on the service provided and the time spent with the client. With the
public as employer coming first, it can also be argued that there could exist some
degree of slackness in upholding professional ethics, as evidenced by a high rate of
corruption in the pubic sector (Leon 1996: 22). Corruption is discussed next.
4.7.3 Honesty and corruption
According to section 1 of the Prevention of Corruption Act. 1992 (Act 94 of 1992)
corruption is an offence and accordingly:-
• "any person shall be deemed guilty of a corruptible offence whenever such a person
corruptly accepts, obtains, or agrees to accept any gift as an inducement or reward for
himself/herself or any person the result of such an action leading to favour or disfavour
being shown to the party offering the inducement; and
• any person who corruptly gives or accepts any gift from a party as an inducement or
reward for rendering services on behalf and in favour of the designated party shall be
deemed of a corruptible offence".
The concept of corruption has many meanings and can include administrative
misdemeanours such as bribery, theft, kickbacks, patronage, nepotism and countless
forms of dishonesty and violence (Joubert 1979: 2; Dwivedi in Gildenhuys 1991: 45).
Heidenheimer ( in Gildenhuys 1991: 44) categorised the definitions of corruption into
three main groups, namely:-
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• public-office-centred definitions which explain corruption as deviations from the
normal benefits attached to a person's office or status. Misuse of public resources and
bribery, such as accepting money from job-applicants as a means of securing a post.
In this case a public functionary is regarded corrupt in accepting money or other
benefits for doing something that he I she non-the-less is duty bound to do;
• market-centred definitions, which explain corruption as an unlawful phenomenon to
gain influence over public officials.
A central feature of the definitions of corruption is that there are always two parties
involved, namely, the corrupter and the corrupted, and as defined in Act 94 of 1992,
both shall be deemed guilty of an offence (Gildenhuys 1991: 45). Friedrich (1978:
120) points out that corruption "... is deviant behaviour associated with a particular
motivation, namely of private gain at public expense. It may be a rapid promotion, an
order, decoration and the gain may not be personal but benefit a family or other group
...a responsible functionary or office holder, is by monetary or other rewards, such as
the expectations of a job in the future, induced to take actions which favour whoever
provides the reward ....". Bailey (in Richter et.ê.L.1990: 58) categorises corruption into
two, namely, "clearly wrong" and "conditionally wrong". He categorises corruption under
"clearly wrong" as behaviours and actions which are widely viewed as being so
unethical that few people would attempt to justify them on moral grounds. Under
"conditionally wrong" might be classified aspects such as lying (Bailey in Richter et .ê.L.
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1990: 58) in which a person might ask the questions, under what conditions would
lying be regarded as unethical? Or under what conditions is lying ethically permissible?
Managers of human resources should be wary of such corrupt tendencies to avoid
questionable actions.
Public human resource managers hold the keys to public employment and are therefore
in delicate positions that can be corrupted by members of the public in the sense of
being bribed for such employment. Members of the public who aspire to work in the
public sector but lack the necessary qualifications and experiences may use devious
means such as bribery to gain entry into public employment. Certain factors and
conditions of which the following are examples may be conducive to corruption in the
public sector:
4.7.3.1 Poor remuneration
According to 8eardwell and Holden (1994: 547) adequate reward and motivation
derive from such concepts as equity, fairness and comparability. Employees'
perceptions of how fairly they are being treated by their institutions depends among
others, on their perceived equity of rewards and their comparable worth. If public
personnel perceive that equity, the dictum of a fair day's work for a fair day's pay, does
not prevail they will be demotivated and may seek to restore equilibrium through other
means, such as exerting less effort in their work. If they perceive themselves as being
III
less compensated than their counterparts in the private sector they may resort to
means such as accepting briberies to supplement their meagre salaries. A corruption
syndrome may develop because of poor remuneration (StahI1983: 312).
4.7.3.2 Greed
Greed can be defined as a strong desire for personal gain often in a selfish or unfair
way to other people (Dictionary of Contemporary English 1987: 458). Greed could
seriously undermine efficiency and effectiveness in public human resource
management resulting in human resources managers abusing their authority for
personal gain. The following factors could exacerbate this form of self enrichment
(Hilliard 1994: 217):
• First, over-emphasis of results which may result in use of unethical means.
• Second, impatient ambitions for promotion and other rewards such as
monetary and recognition.
• Third, unguarded trust resulting in insufficient supervision thereby providing
public officials with ample opportunity to engage in corruptible deeds.
4.7.3.3 Nepotism
The Dictionary of Contemporary English (1993: 697) defines nepotism in the narrow
sense as "... the practice of giving ones relatives unfair advantages when one has
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power, especially by giving them jobs". In this sense the dishonesty, hence unethical
conduct in public human resource management is confined to bestowing favours to
relatives in job situations. In the wider sense nepotism refers to any appointment that
is made outside of the normally accepted rules and regulations pertaining to
appointments. This would include, according to Bekker (1991: 55) appointing any
person from outside the public services to a position which is advantageous to
himself/herself. He states that such nepotic appointments place existing personnel in
an unfair position and may result in their rights to promotion being prejudiced.
In the transformation phase of the public service public human resource managers
could be exposed to many influences which could lead to malpractices such as
nepotism. A clear understanding of government personnel policy should form a basis
for honest action in this regard. Kotze (1985: 120) however maintains that
misinterpretation of personnel policy could lead to confusion as this misinterpretation
will not correlate with the objectives of other policies
4.7.3.4 Patronage
Patronage basically entails the assignment of government offices and appointments on
the basis of political loyalty (Klingner and Nalbandian 1985: 33). In Jackson's view (in
Klingner and Nalbandian 1985: 33) public jobs belong to the common people because
of their simplicity. The authors point out that in its excesses, when patronage politics
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turns into politics for personal gain, the system becomes known for the spoils of
electoral victory.
Spoils, as a system in public human resource management, refers to a system in which
the political party which gains power after an election regards public service posts as a
booty to be distributed among its supporters (Cloete 1994: 167). As can be seen from
the definitions, in both systems merit as a criteria in selection and appointment to public
posts is disregarded. However, before discussing the merit system, it is worthwhile to
discuss other values which underpin ethics in public human resource management.
These are discussed before the merit system because they are more pronounced
under this system.
Klingner and Nalbandian (1985: xviii) makes mention of the following values, namely,
individual rights, administrative efficiency, political responsiveness, and social equity as
meriting consideration in public human resource management. These values are
discussed in the sections below.
4.8 INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AS A VALUE
South Africa has a history of human rights abuses, hence the institution of the Truth
and Reconciliation Commission. The human rights abuses were not confined to the
political sphere only, but were experienced also in employment settings, hence the
appointment of the Wiehahn Commission (1971) which investigated all aspects of
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labour legislation (Gerber et.êl. 1995: 551). Discrimination on the basis of race, sex or
creed took the form of wage discrimination, employment discrimination, occupational or
job discrimination, and human capital discrimination (Bendix 1993: 188). Wage
discrimination refers to discriminatory wages being paid to different types of employee
doing the same job. Employment discrimination refers to employment of fewer persons
of particular group. Occupational discrimination pertains to job- reservation for
particular race groups, while human capital discrimination refers to exclusion of certain
groups on the basis of defective education and training.
The result of these unethical employment practices has been a racially distorted
income distribution which ranks as the most unequal in the world (RSA 1995: 4). In
recognition of the above abuses, South Africa has adopted a Bill of Rights which is
constitutionally entrenched. Employer(s) and employee(s) rights both individually and
collectively are entrenched in sections 22 and 23 of the Constitution of the Republic of
South Africa. 1996,(Act 108/1996).
According to the Public Service Labour Relations Act 1994, (Act 103 / 1993) some of
the fundamental principles concerning the rights and privileges of state employees
are:-.
• all employees have the right to establish and to join or refrain from joining
employee organisation of their own choice;
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• no employee shall be intimidated to join or to refrain from joining an
employee organisation;
• no employee shall be victimised or unfairly discriminated against on the
grounds of race, colour, sex, or religion; and
• no unfair labour practice shall be perpetrated by any person.
Section 19 of Act 102 of 1993 makes provision for the right to strike, however this right
is denied those rendering essential services. This category of employees refer to
fundamental or indispensable government services which are of life-sustaining
importance and which may not be interrupted in anyway, such as intensive care units in
hospitals, fire brigade services and ambulance services (Botes 1994: 277).
Olivier (in Gildenhuys 1991: 38), quoting Paul Sieghart points out that people have
rights simply because they are human, and that these rights are inalienable. If they
cannot be claimed on legal grounds, they can be claimed on moral grounds. A denial
of these rights causes suffering and may lead to conflict. Nino (1991: 25-29) supports
this argument and he states that" ...human rights derive from moral principles, or more
precisely from a system of moral principles." Where the employee rights are
constitutionally entrenched or promulgated in acts of Parliament these are the effects
and not the a priori of constitutional entrenchment (see also Nino 1991: 16-29).
116
Nel and Bezuidenhout (1995: 3-4) support the above argument. They state: "The
philosophical foundation of human rights is frequently found in the works of proponents
of natural law. Proponents of natural law hold that there is a set of universal norms on
which the validity of man-made laws and rules depends". The concept "universal
norms" is controversial and can result in consensus not being reached among nations.
But in 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a Declaration listing
the basic rights to which citizens throughout the world were entitled to (Nel and
Bezuidenhout 1995: 4). This was called the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
and was adopted on 10 December 1948 (Everyone's United Nations 1979: 235).
Presently, because South Africa is a member of the international community and of the
United Nations, it has to abide by what is contained in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. As far as labour is concerned, the stipulations of the International
Labour Organisation such as equal treatment of women in work situations, elimination
of discrimination, and abolition of child-labour (Nel and Bezuidenhout 1995: 5) should
apply.
Considering what has been written above, it is no wonder strikes and work-stoppage
are such important tools for workers in South Africa (City Press 18 January 1998 p. 4).
With its history of discrimination, job reservation, wage discrimination, denial of workers
rights, and human capital discrimination, the working class in South Africa suddenly
finds itself legally free and entitled to rights that were formerly denied to them as a
group. This invokes in them a sense of impatience and they engage in strikes as a
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form of pressurising the employers to accede to their demands (Gerber et al 1995:
411). Strikes and work stoppages have an adverse effect on productivity. Efficiency as
a value is discussed below.
4.9 ADMINISTRATIVE EFFICIENCY AS A VALUE
Efficiency as it is usually referred to in the public sector (Cloete 1994: 81-82; Bates et
al 1996: 289-291) is a controversial concept or value. It is controversial in the sense
that it cannot be precisely measured or quantified (Klingner and Nalbandian 1985:
194-195). However, efficiency as a value in public administration has persisted for a
long time. One early author in Public Administration, Luther Gulick, quoted by Robert
Dahl in Hawley and Weintraub (1966: 24) postulated that efficiency was "...axiom
number one in the value scale of administration".
Efficiency is defined as the "...most effective way of achieving an objective with the
most economical use of funds" (Bates et& 1996: 290). In this definition, funds may be
replaced by the word resources, in the sense that it is an encompassing term which
refers to human, capital, and land resources as means of efficiency. The efficiency
process may be explained by means of a sketch as depicted below.
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The Efficiency Process
input conversion I-----H output I--~ market
human resources markets, consumer or
capital, materials ~-----I ~---___,1--10:::-----1 customer needs
efficiency utilisation effectiveness
Source: Adapted from SAIPA 1996 Vol. 31 No. 4
Visser (1996: 241) points out that efficiency starts at the effectiveness end, both in the
public and private sector. The questions asked in determining efficiency are: "Does a
person do the right things? Are the outputs acceptable to the recipients the public
service serves? Do the outputs have value? What should be done to improve
services?"
According to the author the first thing to consider in improving efficiency is
effectiveness. Then if one is doing the right things, the next step is to do those things
right. He argues that efficiency should not be thought of mechanistically but as a state
of mind in the sense that the willingness and desire of people to be efficient should be
119
taken into account. It should also be pointed out that efficiency is influenced by the
motivation to work, the level of training and development of employees, performance
appraisal system applicable in the institution, as well as safety and health or working
conditions of employees (Klingner and Nalbandian 1985: 208-273).
It can be stated that efficiency as a value implies cost-effectiveness in attaining
predetermined objectives. The objective is to raise the ratio in the input-output
continuum through economical use of resources and to the satisfaction of the recipient
of the outputs. Efficiency can then be calculated by using the formula:- E = Output input (
where E = Efficiency) Klingner & Nalbandian 1985: 194). Client satisfaction
presupposes a public service that is responsive to clients needs, a concept which
receives attention in the following paragraphs.
4.10 RESPONSIVENESS AS A VALUE
According to Friedrich ( in Cooper 1990: 145-146) the concept responsiveness
connotes an inner attitude or disposition to act, where the action is based on technical
knowledge and a positive sensitivity towards popular public sentiments. Tschudin and
Marks-Maran (1993: 6) support this description and regard response as a challenge
that a person is facing and is felt and interpreted according to values, beliefs, attitudes,
experiences, memories and anticipations of such as person. As a value,
responsiveness is based on the system of ethics, the response ethics (Niebuhr in
Tschudin and Marks-Maran 1993: 5) and is closely linked to responsibility.
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In a democratic setting, responsiveness refers to the prompt acquiescence by an
institution to popular demands for change or satisfaction of needs (Straling 1986: 115).
In a democracy the public freely communicate with government in the form of inquiries,
criticisms, and suggestions (Friedrich in Cooper 1990: 147). But because of the
magnitude of legislative work (Cloete 1991: 194) the public turns more and more to
public officials. This puts the public officials in a dilemma concerning responsiveness
in the sense that they have to respond to both the political office-bearer (political
responsiveness: Klingner and Nalbandian 1985: 39-41) as well as to popular public
sentiments (Cooper 1990: 146). An example of such a situation is to determine, what
action to take when faced with criticism of affirmative action policies (a political
directive) and efficient satisfaction of needs (a public demand for efficiency).
Rosenbloom (1993: 242) points out that responsiveness relies heavily on political
patronage in recruiting, selecting and promoting public employees. The people elect
political officials who in turn appoint public officials who are sympathetic to the party's
policies. He argues further that this promotes administrative responsiveness to elected
officials and, by extension, to the public. It is questionable if such appointments can
enhance efficiency in the public sector.
Niebuhr ( in Tschudin and Marks-Maran 1993: 27) suggests that in order to reach a
valid judgement a public manager should seek answers to two questions, namely:-
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• What is happening and who is affected?
• What is the fitting answer to what is happening, and to the people affected?
To get answers to the first question public managers may refer to the White Paper on
the Transformation of the Public Service (RSA 1995). Public Managers could seek
answers to questions such as:-
• What is happening to the subordinate as a public employee with rights and
responsibilities? The transformation process may lead to job loses, demotivation,
uncertainties and enforced retirement and deployments. Managers of human resources
have to deal carefully with these issues so that they do not upset the remaining
employees, but also not to be seen as discriminating against those who have to leave
the institution.
What is the fitting answer:
• from the subordinate, do they expect to be informed through meetings, circulars or
through their union representatives?
• from public managers, do they transform the public service for the sake of
transformation without due regard to efficiency and responsibility? If they do not
approve of the transformation what are their options?
• institutional organisation: how is it to be transformed? Should it be flattened with
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few hierarchies or steep with more hierarchies? How best to effect control? How
are new managers to be fitted in the institution? Should they understudy
experienced public managers for a specified period or assume total control
regardless of expertise?
• client or customer reactions and expectations: How will the public react to a
transformed public service? What expectations could this transformation process
raise to the clients? How are public managers to deal with them?
Answers to these questions appeal to personal ethics, institutional ethics,
considerations for subordinates and client-orientation. As can be seen from the above
questions, no easy answers can be provided, and, when applied to public human
resource management, the response of human resource managers become critical.
The critical challenges of responsiveness will determine the quality of the decisions
and actions to be undertaken. These will be judged politically, institutionally, and from
the standpoint of popular public demand (see also Rosenbloom 1993: 507)..
In an attempt to promote responsiveness it is sometimes argued that a representative
public service is the answer to responsiveness (Starling 1986: 143). According to
Starling (1986: 143) the assumption in this regard is that by hiring more members of
certain groups, the representation of those groups' attitudes will be enhanced and by
extension their responsiveness both politically and to group values.
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Responsiveness is also closely associated with social equity, a concept which receives
attention below
4.11 SOCIAL EQUITY AS A VALUE
The Collins English Dictionary (1995) describes equity as the quality of being impartial,
fairness, a system of using principles of natural justice and fair conduct to reach a
judgement. Equity therefore implies fair and impartial decisions and actions on the part
of human resources managers.
Whenever equity is discussed within the context of human resources management,
what immediately comes to mind is Adams equity theory of motivation (Lussier 1993:
187) which is based on the comparison of perceived inputs to outputs. Beardwell and
Holden (1994: 508) states that equity becomes of particular concern to human resource
managers for recruitment and selection purposes when they compare their institutions
salary packages with those of their competitors. This comparison is seldom undertaken
in public institutions because they are not in competition with each other.
Social equity on the other hand tampers with the above understanding of equity.
According to Cooper (1990: 47) the assumption that equal treatment is fair treatment
needs to be re-examined. He argues that if members of a population are varied in
preferences, backgrounds and needs, then treating them as though they were the same
is not fair. Klingner and Nalbandian (1985: 23) agree with this proposition, they state
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that" ... not only are public services and opportunities supposed to be fairly distributed,
but people who have been deprived the opportunity to enter the individual competition
for society's rewards should be compensated". This situation is especially applicable in
the South African context, hence the institutionalisation of affirmative action and
employment equity.
Inequity in public institutions has often been institutionalised especially under the
banner of standardisation (Cooper 1990: 47). This has tended to reflect attributes of
one population group, for example the culture and values of whites in the case of South
Africa (Du Toit and van der Waldt 1997: 142).
The above description of social equity justifies the impositioning of affirmative action in
the public service in the sense that they both emphasise compensatory employment
strategies regarding previously disadvantaged groups. The merit system under which
these values and guidelines in promoting ethics may be successful is described in the
next section. But first, a short description of the system approach.
4.12 MERIT: A SYSTEMS APPROACH TO PROMOTING ETHICS
Robbins (1990: 12) defines a system as "...a set of interrelated and interdependent
parts arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole". A system takes in inputs,
converts them, and produces outputs. Erasmus ( in Bayat and Meyer 1994: 85) agrees
125
with this description. He states that it is a patterned relationships involving frequent
interactions and substantial degree of interdependence.
Human resource management activities of staffing, training, motivation and retention
(De Cenzo and Robbins 1996: 10-11) may be viewed as a system in the sense that the
institution takes in employees (inputs) trains them (conversion) so as to make them
efficient (output). Furthermore a system is open to the extend that it recognises
interaction with its environment. Schematically the above may be represented as in the
so-called basic open system and the detailed open system as indicated in the figures
below.
Environment
II input I-~ ------~~ conversion Io-~ ---~~ output
Environment
Fig. 3.1. Basic open system. Source: Robbins 1990: 13
-
126
Environment
J inputs 1----4I~ /1 conversio.n 1 1 outputs I
Il 1
community needs H.R.M. services
satisfaction
institutional needs personal ethics
dissatisfaction
political needs responsiveness
directives institutional ethics
)~
subordinates constraints e.g.
finance
,
legislation
Feedback Feedback
/
Environment
Fig. 3.2. Detailed open system. Adapted from: Botes et al 1996: 261
At the conversion (e.g. training & deelopment) stage (refer fig. 3.2) human resource
managers have to make decisions and ethical dilemmas may arise. These are
influenced by personal values, institutional ethics, and the degree of responsiveness
both politically and to popular public sentiments. An advantage of the system approach
is the feedback mechanism. Through this mechanism the manager can always measure
his/her ethical performance in terms of satisfaction/dissatisfaction to the ethical
question that may arise. The feedback to the environment ( which consists of the
community workers, politicians, business, labour unions etc.) may serve as further
127
inputs in the form of queries, complaints and/or even compliments which further serves
as a measure of ethical performance.
In human resource management, the merit system is one that is characterised by
selections and promotions based on relevant qualifications, experiences and
performances (Cloete 1993: 22). According to Klingner and Nalbandian (1985: 11) the
merit system is based on certain ethical principles. Some of these are the following:
First, that selection and advancement should be determined solely on the basis of
relative ability, knowledge, and skills after a fair and open competition.
Second, that no employee shall be discriminated against on the basis of political
affiliation, race, sex, religion or colour.
Third, that employees should maintain high standards of conduct, integrity and concern
for the public interest.
Fourth, that employees should be used efficiently and effectively for the achievement of
predetermined objectives.
Fifth, that employees should be retained in the institution on the basis of the adequacy
of their performance, and
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sixth, that employees should be provided with education and training in cases where
such education and training would benefit both the institution and the individual.
It can be stated that the merit system of accentuating qualifications and experience
during recruitment and selection (input into the institution) has to be tampered with by
the introduction of identification of potential, and the need for representativeness.
Cheminais et al. (1998: 57) support this statement. They state that suitability and
potential in terms of representativeness and trainability should be strongly considered
at entry to address educational disparities and lack of experience. The aspects of
training, education, and development based on identified potential addresses the
problems of affirmative action in the sense that if entry standards are lowered, for
example from those with degree to those with matric, to accommodate the educationally
disadvantaged, thus negatively affecting merit, then more attention should be paid to
training and development. The feedback process is the most important as described
earlier, and ensures the dynamism expected in human resource management.
4.13 SUMMARY
A discussion of public administration without reference to values misses an important
component of the subject. Values underly public administrative activities, and from a
generic administrative approach to the study of Public Administration, they form an
129
integral part of public human resource management. In this chapter some values and
guidelines pertinent to public human resource management were discussed.
After a definition of the concept value was presented it was also important to discuss
divergent values as they manifest in a plural society. Because South Africa is a
religious country, no single religious values were emphasised above the others. This
aspect necessitates that public human resource managers strive to find commonalities
in the values espoused by the different religions so as not to offend some members of
the personnel corps.
Responsibility as a value was fully explained. The explanation took the form of
responsibility as agency, responsibility as accountability, and responsibility as
obligation. Fairness and reasonableness as well as justice as ethical guidelines in
public human resource management were also explained in detail. Honesty and lying,
honesty and professional ethics, honesty and corruption, including some causes of
corruption which manifest in public human resource management were described in
detail. Individual rights and efficiency as values which underpin ethics were discussed
in detail. The confusion surrounding the concept of efficiency in the public sector was
resolved with reference to the productivity process by Visser. Responsiveness and
social equity as values pertaining to public human resourc management were dealt
with.
130
A systems approach as a means of promoting ethics in public human resource
management was explained in detail. This approach is combined with the ethical
principles underlying the merit system in highlighting the advantages of such a
combination.
In the next chapter the promotion and maintenance of ethics in public human resource
management is discussed from diverse aspects such as environments, internal and
external control mechanisms.
131
CHAPTERS
PROMOTING AND MAINTAINING ETHICS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN
RESOURCES INTHE PUBUC SECTOR
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the performance of human resource functions public managers are influenced by a
variety of factors. Besides the internal organisational factors which influence their
work, the external factors have a decided influence on their activities. How these
managers view and understand these factors impacts either positively or negatively on
their activities. Because managers in general - and human resource managers in
particular _are involved in decision-making, it can be expected that both these factors
will influence their decisions and hence their actions. Promoting and maintaining ethics
in public management cannot be left to individual managers' conscience. It requires
that guidelines for ethical conduct be provided, possible potential areas of conflicts be
identified and possible solutions to problems be suggested. In this chapter the
constitutional framework for the promotion of ethics in public human resource
management is described. Some internal factors which may hamper the promotion of
ethics in an institution are identified, and how the traditional administrative process can
be applied to promote ethics is described. Codes of conduct, leadership, human
relations, training, administrative law are described as means for promoting ethics in
public human resource management.
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5.2 IMPACT OF THE CONSTITUTION AND LEGAL FRAMEWORKS ON ETHICS
According to Botes (1995: 29) a constitution may be described as an embodiment of
the will and wishes of the citizens. Botes et al. (1996: 30) describe it as a solemn
treaty between individuals, groups, ethnic communities, religious denominations,
private business and many other forms of social associations to acknowledge the state
and the government as the organ charged with authoritative allocation of values. They
point out that often provision is made in a Constitution for how administration should be
exercised. Craythorne (1997: 1) compares a constitution to a door. He writes: ''The
constitutional door opens to provide rights and obligations and to define and
circumscribe the structures and institutions for the nation". He argues that it closes to
those who choose to violate the rights of others, twist structures and institutions for
their own purposes. In other words the constitution sets out ethical guidelines for public
human resource management and provides standards against which to measure
performance and deviations. The constitutional and legal framework for the promotion
of ethics in public management is discussed in this section.
According to section 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, (108 of
1996) the Constitutional act is the supreme law of the Republic and is binding to all
legislative, executive and judicial organs of state at all levels of government. This
brings about a fundamental adaptation to public management in the sense that political
133
supremacy is now vested in the Constitution (van der Waldt and Heimboid, 1995: 8).
This means in effect that public management must function in accordance with the
guidelines and restrictions of the Constitution and that public human resource
managers must act within a strict framework of laws and regulations (Van der Waldt
and Helmbold 1995: 10). By way of promoting and ensuring ethics in public
management, chapter 10 of the Constitution outlines the basic values and principles
governing public administration (RSA 1996: 83). Section 196 (1)(2) states that there
shall be a single Public Service Commission for the Republic which shall be
independent and impartial Wessels 1996: 110). The Commission shall function
without fear in the interest of the maintenance of effective and efficient public
management and the promotion of a high standard of professional ethics in the public
service. Unethical conducts in the form of injustices of the past are recognised early on
in the Preamble, and The Bill of Rights is entrenched in Chapter 2 of the Constitution
(Kant 1996: 55). To atone for unethical conduct of the past, affirmative action
principles, although not referred to by name, finds reflection in the Constitution (RSA
1996 sec (9), Hugo 1996: 81). Section 195 (1) is particularly important in public
management, and is analysed herein under. According to this section, ethics in public
management may be promoted through adherence to democratic values and principles
enshrined in the Constitution. Section 7 (I) refers to the Bill of Rights as the
conrnerstone of democracy in South Africa, and affirms democratic values as
comprising, among others, human dignity, equality and freedom. Chapter 2, on rights,
consists of 27 rights, and sections on application, limitation, conditions for suspensions,
enforcement, and interpretation of the Bill of Rights. According to Venter (1997: 224)
134
human dignity is the most fundamental value and the other values derive from it.
Section 10 of the Constitution emphasise this point, it states: "Everyone has inherent
dignity and the right to have their dignity respected and protected". It can therefore be
inferred from the above that public managers should take cognisance of democratic
values in the performance of human resource functions in order to be in accordance
with the Constitution and the promotion and maintenance of ethics in public
management.
Section 195 (1)(a) - (i) outlines important principles governing public management for
the promotion and maintenance of ethics. These are the following:-
• The promotion and maintenance of a high standard of professional ethics.
According to Le Bris (1996: 12) ethics and professionalism complement one another.
He points out that ethics stresses the importance of values, of the purpose of action
(1996: 9). It aims at anticipating or resolving conflicts of interest and reminds the public
manager that the end does not always justify the means. Professionalism, on the one
hand, requires that a public manager fulfills his/her role efficiently and with
competence and precision. He further points out that ethics is general and unifying,
while professionalism gives pride to the specific vocation within the public service.
According to Venter (1997: 230), promoting professional ethics in public management
implies that instruments to measure standards should be developed. Le Bris (1996: 13)
supports this point, and he considers the introduction of methods to assess customer
satisfaction as a means to bring government back to its primary vocation of serving the
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public. The Department of Public Service and Administration encourages development
of such service standards (see Batho Pele White Paper 1997: 17). This white paper
provide the most important and practice-oriented guidelines for the promotion of ethics
in the public sector. These are set out in unambiguous terms, and fully explained.
Broad implementations strategies are also spelt out.
• The promotion of efficient, economic and effective use of resources. The
principle of efficiency in public management dates back many years. Dahl (1947: 24),
quoting Luther Gulick, states that in the science of administration the basic good is
efficiency, and conceived of it as being "... axiom number one in the value scale of
administration". Bates et al (1996: 290) explain economy and effectiveness as the
meeting point on the efficiency curve where both are maximised.
• Public management must be development-oriented. In his paper at the
New Public Administration Initiative Conference, Cloete (1991: 76-77), pointed to the
need for public management being development oriented. He stressed a new paradigm
which not only stressed "the generic functions of public administration, but aimed at a
more principled multi-disciplinary approach to issues of administrative development".
Such an approach would emphasise, among others, capacity building, skills creation,
empowerment of communities to enable them to participate and maintain sustainable
development programmes.
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• Services must be provided impartially, fairly, equitably and without bias.
According to Kant (1996: 55) the 1996 Bill of Rights in the Republic of South Africa
applies both vertically and horizontally. The horizontal application of rights affects all
individuals equally and are therefore all entitled to equitable services without bias.
• People's needs must be responded to, and the public must be
encouraged to participate in policy-making. Public management that ignores the needs
of the people will soon find itself irrelevant and without the supports of the people it
serves. Mokgora (1991:31) support this point. He writes that in the past blacks never
supported the bureaucracy because they perceived it as a controller rather than an
initiator and facilitator of development.
• Public management must be accountable. Venter (1997: 230) makes the
point that unaccountable public management would be unconstitutional and therefore
open to legal attack. When the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1993 (200
of 1993), came into force on 27 April 1994, South Africa was transformed into a
democratic state. Hitchner and Harbold, (1996: 614 - 616) describe a democracy not
only as a form of government, but also as a matter of values and virtues. From this
description, Cloete (1996:21) argues that accountability in the Republic of South Africa,
" ... should therefore be viewed as a matter of ethics in addition to the devising and
application of control measures". He further states that the citizens have a final say in
the evaluation of the performance of public institutions and can therefore bring about
public accountability in public human resource management. (1996: 23)
l37
• The public must be provided with timely, accessible and accurate
information by a transparent public management. An uninformed public cannot be
expected to make accurate assessment of the quality of the services rendered. Thus
secrecy and witholding of information from the public is discouraged. The principle of
transparency further strengthens accountability and probity.
• Good human resource management and career development practices, to
maximise human potential, must be cultivated. According to the White Paper on the
Reconstruction and Development Programme (RSA 1994: 8) development of human
resources aims at empowerment through education and training. The values derived
from the Constitution, which underpin human resource management, are, fairness,
equity, accessibility, transparency, accountability, participation and professionalism
(RSA 1997: 10).
• Public management must be broadly representative of the South African
people. The principle of representativeness seems not an immediate goal. This can be
deduced from the requirement that employment and personnel management practices
based on ability, objectivity, fairness, and the need to redress the imbalances of the
past, must apply in order to achieve broad representation. Venter (1997: 230) support
this view.
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An analysis of the values and principles governing public management shows
that ethics in public management may be promoted through adherence to these. To
promote and ensure ethical ideals contained in the Constitution, statutory and
regulatory frameworks for public human resource management are in place in the form
of Acts, Bills, White Papers, Green Papers and Government Notices. For the purposes
of this dissertation the following legislatory measures will be discussed (Cheminais et
a1.1998: 93-111).
• The Public Service Act, 1994 (103 of 1994), which aims at providing for
the organisation and management of the public service, the regulation of conditions of
employment, discipline, and discharge of members of the public service.
• Basic Conditions of Employment Act, 1997 (75 of 1997), which according
to section 2, aims at enhancing economic development and social justice, and to give
effect to the right to fair labour practices. According to section 3(1) the Act applies to
all employees and employers except members of the National Defence Force, the
National Intelligence Agency and the South African Secret Service.
• The Employment Equity Bill, 1997, which aims at achieving equity through the
elimination of unfair discrimination, and the implementation of affirmative action
measures to advance black people, women and people with disabilities. Unfair
discrimination in the Bill includes "any distinction, exclusion or preference made on one
or more grounds, including race, gender, sex, pregnancy marital status, family
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responsibility, ethnic or social origin, colour, belief, religion, age, culture, disability
language and birth" (RSA 1997:10).
• Green Paper on Public Service Training and Education, Government Notice 422
of 1997, which aims at the cultivation of good human resource management and
career-development practices for effective and efficient Public Service, and
• The Skills Development Bill, Government Notice 1296 of 1997, which aims at
providing for a skills development strategy on a partnership between the public
and private sector.
It is apparent from the above descriptions that the Constitution and other
legislation provide broad frameworks for the promotion of ethics in the public
sector. Statutory and regulatory provisions derive from the Constitutional
requirement and are implemented by public managers.
As factors external to institutions, the constitutional and legal frameworks
described above are not the only factors aimed at the promotion of ethics in the
management of human resource in the public sector. Other factors external to
public institutions which may promote or inhibit ethics, include, among others,
political factors, economic factors, and cultural factors.
140
Political factors derive from the political system, which refers to the way in which
society is governed (Hodge & Anthony in Fox et al 1991). How the political
system may promote or inhibit ethics in public management is pointed out by Du
Toit and van der Waldt (1997: 170), who argue that the political system of the
past used public management to promote the ideals of apartheid.
Economic factors derive from the economic system which concerns the
allocation of scarce resources, the creation and distribution of wealth (Fox et al
1991: 19). Kantor and Rees (1982: 36-45) point out that, although South Africa
enjoyed economic prosperity in the 1960's and 1970's, its economic system was
debatable on moral grounds. The result is great economic inequality among the
South African population pointing to an imbalance in the distribution of wealth
(RSA 1994). According to Straussman (1990:342) such conditions are fertile
ground for unethical behaviour.
Culture consists of society's beliefs, attitude and interaction (Fox et al 1991:
20). According to Gollnick and Chinn (1994: 8) a society's value system is
determined initially by its culture. South Africa is a multicultural community, with
many different cultures varying in values and attitudes living and working side by
side (Spoelstra and Pienaar 1996: 250). Ethical dilemmas in public
management derive from managing diversity within the workplace.
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Internal to the institution, there are other factors which influence ethical
behaviour in the management of human resources. These are discussed next.
5.3 INTERNAL FACTORS WHICH PROMOTE ETHICS IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
HUMAN RESOURCES
The internal factors of public management refers to the factors internal to the
institution itself. Du Toit and Van der Waldt (1997: 132-145) describe internal
factors to a public institution and differentiates between formal and informal
internal factors. Formal internal factors which may promote ethics in an
institution are communication and the workplace itself. They argue that
communication channels are vital for effective and efficient achievement of
objectives. Where communication does not take place, information, ethical
directives, and orders will not be conveyed to where they are needed and
cooperation will be hampered. Bowen et al. (1990:370) point out that high-quality
service delivery, requires understanding and cooperation across different
departments and people. Daft (1995:451) makes the point that indoctrination as
a form of downward communication is designed to motivate employees to adopt
the institution's, ethics, mission, and cultural values. Thus according to Arnold
and Feldman (1986:154) the ability to communicate effectively is critical for the
promotion of ethics and successful management of human resources in the
public sector.
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Working environment reflects a certain image and the effect of the public's
perception of the institution may have an influence on public managers and the
public service in general. According to the International Labour Organisation
(1970: 57) the improvement of efficiency and effectiveness requires a stimulating
workplace which does not have a negative effect on the workers. A workplace
that is dirty, unhygienic, noisy with poor lighting and ventilation will seriously
affect the morale of the workers with disastrous consequences on ethical
conduct such as inefficiency and ineffectiveness ( Du Toit and Van der Waldt
1997: 140). Among others, informal internal factors consists of values, will and
attitudes. The will of people in leadership positions, such as public human
resource managers, can play a major role in determining the atmosphere and
culture of the institution as well as the pursued of promoting ethics. Heckman
and Huneryager ( in Thornhill and Hanekom 1995: 217-218) point out that this
will is expressed in the management approach followed, for example dictatorial,
~,
democratic, laissez-faire and a carrot-and-stick approach to management.
The attitude of public human resource managers towards their work, colleagues
and the political views and directions of the government of the day can
contribute immensely to promoting ethics in the public sector. To this end, Du
Toit and Van der Waldt (1997: 144) point out that, because the Public Service of
the past was dominated by Afrikaners, the attitude of some of them towards the
real needs of other communities was one of "it's not my problem". This kind of
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attitude is hardly conducive to promoting ethics in public human resource
management. Because attitudes are so important in promoting ethics, a broader
explanation is warranted. McCormick and ligen (1981: 302) define an attitude as
"...the affective orientation towards a particular attitude object". They explain that
the attitude object may be very specific, such as money, or general such as an
attitude towards ethics. Schiffman and Kanuk (1983: 199) agree with this
definition. They describe attitudes as expressions of inner feelings that reflect
whether a person is favourably or unfavourably predisposed to some "object".
These feelings are manifested in some judgements about the goodness and
badness of the attitude object from the individual's point of view.
If the attitude, "it's not my problem", were accepted as the true reflection of the
prevalent attitude in public human resource management, then an attitudinal
change is imperative for the promotion of ethics in public management. Bailey (in
Martin 1965: 240) argues that promoting ethics requires that attitudes be
supported by moral qualities, such as: patience, honesty, loyalty, cheerfulness,
courtesy, humility, to name but a few. He also points out that optimism, courage
and fairness tampered by charity are essential moral qualities. Jones (1995:
511) refers to attitudinal change as attitudinal structuring, a process designed to
influence the attitudes of the opposing party and to encourage the perception
that both parties stand to benefit out of the change. Changes in attitudes are
essential for the promotion of ethics in public human resource management.
Outfield and Eling ( in Lavei 1994: 116) point out that the process may require
144
that public managers give different support to different members of staff to
enable them to cope effectively with the change.
In the discussion above, factors internal to the institution which may promote
ethics were discussed. However, certain enabling activities for the promotion of
ethics in public human resource management have to be undertaken. These are
discussed in the following paragraphs under administrative processes.
5.4 ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESSES AND ETHICS
According to Cloete (1993: 25-39) the generic administrative functions refer to
policy-making, organising, financing, personnel management, procedure and the
exercising of control. He also refers to these six categories as enabling
functions, and must always be undertaken to achieve a goal (1993: 25). It can
therefore be said that if the goal is the promotion of ethics in public human
resource management, these enabling functions should be undertaken. In an
analytical model for input-conversion-output transformation, Adlem et al. (1987:
40) indicate that these enabling functions appear under conversion and are
referred to as administrative activities. Du Toit et al (1998: 74) also argue that
to enable government institutions to deliver services, these enabling functions
must be undertaken. How these six generic administrative functions may
promote ethics in public human resource management is discussed in the
paragraphs below.
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5.4.1 Policy as a means of promoting ethics
Starling (Hanekom 1987: 7) defines policy as a program of goals, values and
practices serving as "...a guide that delimits action". Anderson (1984: 3)
defines policy as "a purposive course of action in dealing with a problem or
matter of public concern". From these definitions it emerges then that policy
serves as a guide to purposive course of action. Institutional policy therefore
serves to guide the actions of institutional members. In this instance, Fox et al
(1991: 36-40) point out that internal policies guide the internal operations of the
institution towards ethical conduct. Cloete (1994: 92-97) distinguishes four levels
of public policy, of which the administrative policy level is of particular interest for
this dissertation. He states that administrative policy is concerned mainly with
the practical steps to achieve an objective, and it is usually formulated by public
managers. At this level an endeavour can be made to accentuate ethics in the
policies of the institution, for example by incorporating the ideals of Chapter 10
of the Constitution. Cloete and Mokgoro (1995:106), for example, point to the
need for training policy which encourage and facilitate development of
democratic, non-racial and non-sexist values. To achieve this, and promote
ethics in public human resource management, it may be necessary to adopt a
"retain and retrain" policy. The assumption (Cloete and Mokgoro 1995:110) is
that in order to ensure continuity, the existing public service should be
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substantially restructured, while retraining and reorientation programmes for
existing public service staff is being undertaken.
Meehan (1987:9-12) argues for the normative requirements for policy making to
promote ethics. He states that, because policy making is concerned with
directing human actions towards ethical behaviour, two issues need to be
addressed in policy making. These are, the important dimensions of human life,
and how the various configurations in which human life appear should be
ordered in order to show preference. The above suggest (Meehan 1987:10) that
the policy-making process should consist in identifying preferred outcomes
within a given set of options, e.g. preferred ethical behaviour, determining
situations that are normatively unacceptable, such as corruption and
inefficiency, and determining human actions that are liable to produce
normatively significant consequences, such as contained in a code of conduct.
The success of policy in promoting ethics may be subject to the manner in which
an institution is organised. This aspect is dealt with next.
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5.4.2 Organising for the promotion of ethics
Various organisation theories have been developed over a period of time. A few
of these theories are subsequently discussed. The relevancy or irrelevancy of
each organisation theory to public human resource management is pointed out
from an ethical viewpoint
5.4.2.1 The scientific management approach
The scientific management approach to organising is the brainchild of Taylor
(Robbins, 1990: 34). Other proponents of the scientific management approach
are Gulick, Urnwicks, Mooney, Riley (Fox et al 1991: 65). Organising along
scientific management guidelines involves discovering the one best way for
each job to be done to maximise efficiency (Robbins, 1990: 35). Human beings
in organisations are assumed as given, hence no attempt is made of analysing
and understanding interpersonal relationships. External factors impinging on the
organisation are also not explored (Nigro, 1970: 89). Public human resource
management organised along scientific management guidelines disregard the
human element in organisations. Organisations are constituted by human, with
different attitudes, values, beliefs and backgrounds. Although institutions
(organisations) should not be structured around individuals (Kroontz and
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Weihrich, 1988: 174) it is doubtful whether the scientific management approach
to organising is appropriate for promoting ethics in an institution.
~
5.4.2.2 The bureaucratic theory
Max Weber, using the concept of an "ideal type" developed the bureaucratic
theory in organisation structure (Nigro, 1970: 89). The ideal organisation
structure is characterised by division of labour, a clear authority hierarchy,
formal set of rules and procedure and impersonal relationships (Hanekom, 1987:
28, Robins 1990: 35; Fox, et al; 1991: 64-65). Public human resource
management, organised according to the "ideal type" organisation structure, is
inflexible, impersonal and could not be user-friendly. The endeavour in public
human resource management should be to translate the commitment to
efficiency, accountability, and transparency into a practical, user-friendly system
(Naidoo, 1995:15). Impersonality, inflexibility, overemphasis of rules and
regulations in public personnel management dampens human dynamism and
initiatives. Gould ( in Farazmand 1991: 469) points out that organising
characterised by long-windedness, and organisational slowness could be fertile
ground for corruption and therefore detrimental to promoting ethics within the
institution.
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5.4.2.3 The Systems approach
In the systems approach to organisational theory, organisations are conceived of
as absorbers of input, processors of input and generators of output (Fox et al
1991:65). Conceived of as open systems organizations could be understood as
consisting of, and under the influence of a variety of independent factors such as
individuals, groups, attitudes, motives, informal and formal structures,
interactions and authority. Robbins (1990: 42) argues that current discussions
on organisational theory is incomplete if the environmental factors are not
thoroughly assessed.
Organising according to the open-system approach has the advantages of
feedback from the affected environment ( Botes et al 1996: 261). Remedial steps
could thus be introduced and wrongs corrected. The essence of an ethical
model in organising in public human resource management is to have in the
system an in-build information mechanism upon which remedial actions would
be based (See: Scott 1981:103). Through the open-systems approach to
organising, contingencies in the environment can always be accommodated,
thereby avoiding broad-based generalisations about organisational practices. A
contingency or situational approach to organising answers the question about
situational ethics, and could be an effective approach of promoting ethics and
enhancing efficiency and effectiveness in an institution. Other important factors
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to consider in organising with the aim of promoting ethics are organisational
culture and organisational socialisation (Jones 1995: 179; Noorderhaven 1995:
151; Moorhead and Griffin (1989: 497). Hellgriegel et al (1992: 516) argue that
failure to develop an ethical culture may diffuse responsibility and accountability
for the consequences of unethical behaviour and thereby make such behaviour
more likely to occur. Institutional socialisation is the process through which new
employees are brought into the culture of the institution ( Robbins 1990: 447),
and, according to Jones (1995: 201) an institution is ethical to the extent that
institutional members are ethical. Pheysey (1993: 18) supports this argument
and states that" ...people contribute out of a sense of commitment to institutions
of 'Nhich they feel themselves as true members". Promoting ethics in an
institution is also subject, to what Hellriegel et al. (1992:736) refers to as the
"people variable". It refers to how people in an institution are organised including
their individual differences - personality, attitudes, perceptions, attributes, needs
and motives. Finally public human resource managers need to take care of
aspects of synergy and sub-systems in promoting ethics within the institution.
According to Daft (1995:56), these refer to conceptions that the whole is greater
than the sum of the parts, and the interdependence of the parts of the system
respectively. Institutional units working together can achieve more than those
units working alone. One can also imagine what would happen to the morale
and subsequent unethical behaviour among personnel if a section or division
were given preferential treatment, such as a raise in salary while other sections
or divisions are denied same. Therefore, promoting ethics requires a holistic
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approach in public human resource management. Bennet (1995:362) support
this statement.
It is also important to discuss ways in which finances, such as salaries and other
financial incentives may promote ethics in public human resource management.
This aspect receives attention in the paragraphs below.
5.4.3 Financial planning for the promotion of ethics
No public institution can function without funds. The state receives funds from
the general public in the form of taxes, tariffs, levies, fines and loans. The money
received remains the property of the public until spent satisfactorily through the
various government institutions on the many societal needs, desires and
demands. Every administrative action in the public institution has a direct or
indirect financial implication. It is for this very reason that institutional financial
planning is important in the public sector.
According to Botes (1993: 210) public human resource constitutes the largest
percentage of expenses in the budget of any public institution. Bryce (1992: 4)
supports this viewpoint. Chruden and Sherman (1984: 407) argue that pay has a
direct bearing on the employee standard of living, status, and recognition and if
perceived as being equitable may serve to promote ethical conduct both on and
off the job. Cascio (1992: 345) supports this argument about equitable employee
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compensation structure. But, according to Mittner (1995: 10) the South African
Public Service is bloated, expensive and inefficient and must be rationalised
through, among other, retrenchments, layoffs and redeployments (RSA 1995:
43-47). However, the rationalisation process may create problems such as the
loss of earning power, dislocation of families, loss of status and recognition,
unemployment, low morale, and may be unaffordable from an economic
viewpoint ( Beurkes 1995: 11).
An analysis of the White Paper on Human Resource Management in the Public
Service (RSA 1997) shows no reference to remunerations or financial incentives
to public servants. Although these aspects are covered in the revised Public
Service Staff Code (RSA 1994) this is hardly soothing in view of the White Paper
on the Transformation of the Public Service (RSA 1995) with rationalisation and
retrenchments being the order of the day.
From the above arguments, it can be inferred that these problems may serve to
destabilise the public service and thereby inhibit ethics in public human resource
management. One of the solutions for this dilemma is training in financial
management (specially for those earmarked for retrenchments), investments and
business opportunities. Motivation and assurances concerning their careers may
serve to dispel uncertainties on the remaining employees and thereby promote
prospects for ethical conduct from them. It is also important to consider
153
procedures and methods followed in achieving goals efficiently for the promotion
of ethics. This aspect is discussed next.
5.4.4 Work procedures and methods for the promotion of ethics
Goal-achievement is virtually impossible without work procedures and methods,
and in the public sector these need to be standardised (Coetzee, 1988:62).
Standardisation of work procedures and methods serves to eliminate confusion,
ensures uniformity, serves as control mechanism, the ultimate goal of the public
institution is never lost sight of, it is also possible to promote responsibility and
accountability among employees (Bates, 1993:218). For the same reasons that
apply for standardisation, it is necessary to have procedure and methods in
writing. The preparation of work procedures and methods is crucial/critical in
public human resource management, and may promote ethical behaviour or vice
versa. Bates (1993:219) argues for example that :-
i) there is a tendency of written manuals attaining assumed status of quasi-
legislation and thereby be difficult to amend. The result is that they become
dysfunctional and have to be circumvented, which is unethical (Straussman
1990:340);
i i) rigid instructions provide for narrow interpretation and thereby inhibits
innovativeness and experimentation, and these may adversely affect efficiency
and quality of service, which would be unethical;
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i i i) those responsible for drawing up manuals tend to show off their verbal and
semantic skills, thereby making it very difficult to understand, and thereby impact
negatively on communication and cooperation.
iv)
In the public sector standardised rules, procedures and methods are drawn to
promote efficiency, effectiveness, lawfulness, responsibility and accountability.
Straussman (1990: 341) argues that situations where these aspects cannot be
easily attached, such as the circumvention of rules and procedures may create
environments where ethical shortcomings may flourish and have to be avoided.
A recent example in which rules, regulations and procedures have been flouted
is the North West Scandal ( Nkomo and Mfoloe, 1998: 1-2). Because of
tendering procedures not being followed the North West Department of
Education has lost R74,4 million in fraud and actions bordering on theft.
Flouting of rules, regulations and procedures abound in the present South
African Public Service. For example the appointment of the management
echelon in the Free State Department of Education, which lead to the Mphahlele
Commission of Enquiry ( Horn 1995:1). The deputy speaker of parliament's
licence scandal in Mpumalanga in which procedures for acquiring a drivers
licence were flouted. The solution lies in training ( Cloete and Mokgoro 1995:91-
117; Mbere 1995:6-7;23) with emphasis on the public service ethos. Tampoe (in
LoveI1994:147) lists these ethos as:
155
• giving undivided allegiance to the government;
• putting official duty before private interest;
• honesty, and avoiding bringing discredit to the public service;
• keeping the confidence to which the public servant is a party, and
• dealing sympathetically, efficiently and promptly with the public.
Although procedures and methods are essential in ensuring that ethics in
institutions is promoted, control still has to be implemented. This aspect receives
attention in the paragraphs below.
5.4.5 Promoting ethics through control
Botes et al (1996: 361) describe control as "...taking steps in order to stay in
control of affairs". Staying in control of affairs and ensuring ethical conduct is
essential in the public sector. They argue for example, that to err is human and
public human resource managers are exposed to many temptations such as:
stealing money, embezzling funds, accepting bribes, and doing particular favours
for particular people. And he concludes that since government action must take
place strictly according to the law, control must be exercised over action taken to
ensure its legitimacy. Esterhuyse ( in Gildenhuys 1991: 12) describes ligitimacy as
related to the moral acceptability of public institutions.
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Cloete (1994: 207-209) discusses five formal control measures usually instituted
in the public sector to ensure among others, efficiency, effectiveness, high
standard of ethics, legitimacy, and accountability. These are written reports,
inspections and investigations, auditing, cost accounting and statistical returns. A
striking disadvantage of these control measures is that they are instituted after an
action has taken place ( post facto control measures). What could be
recommended are a - priori control measures such as procedural presciPiptions
and codes of conduct. Through prescribed procedures public servants will know
exactly what to do and confusion may be avoided (See also Botes et al 1992:
229).
The importance of codes of conduct in promoting ethics in the public service
should be emphasised. This aspect is discussed next.
5.5 CODES OF CONDUCT AND ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR
Bateman and Zeithaml (1993: 168) describe ethical codes as "...written
statements of beliefs and policy which give explicit guidelines for employees to
follow". They point out that ethical codes provide the most visible sign of
commitment to ethical behaviour. Cooper (1990:137) argues that ethical codes
are the major form of control. He points out that they seek to establish limits,
requirements, boundaries, and standards. According to Bateman and Zeithaml
(1993: 543) codes serve as feedfoward control mechanism, are future oriented
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and aim at preventing problems before they arise. A code of conduct exists for
the South African Public Service (RSA 1997). Its main purpose is to act as a
guide to public employees as to what is expected of them from an ethical point of
D
view, and to promote exemplary conduct. Because of the importance of this
document, some of the points that are relevant to promoting ethics are
reproduced below.
5.5.1 Relationship with the legislature and the executive
"An employee:-
• puts the public interest first in the execution of his or her duties;
• loyally executes the policies of the Government of the day in the performance of
his or her official duties as contained in all statutory and other prescripts".
5.5.2 Relationship with the public
"An employee:-
• will serve the public in an unbiased and impartial manner in order to create
confidence in the Public Service;
• is polite, helpful and reasonably accessible in his or her dealings with the public,
158
at all times treating members of the public as customers who are entitled to
receive high standards of service;
• does not unfairly discriminate against any member of the public on account of
race, gender, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability,
religion, political persuasion, conscience, belief, culture or language".
5.5.3 Relationship among employees
"An employee
• co-operates fully with other employees to advance the public interest;
• refrains from favouring relatives and friends in work-related activities and never
abuses his or her authority or influences another employee, nor is influenced to
abuse his or her authority;
• is committed to the optimal development, motivation and utilisation of his or her
staff and the promotion of sound labour and interpersonal relations;
• deals fairly, professionally and equitably with other employees, irrespective of
race, gender, ethnic or social origin, colour, sexual orientation, age, disability,
religion, political persuasion, conscience, belief, culture or language, and refrains
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from party political activities in the workplace"
5.5.4 Performance of duties
"An employee:-
• strives to achieve the objectives of his or her institution cost-effectively and in
the public's interest;
• executes his or her duties in a professional and competent manner;
• is honest and accountable in dealing with public funds and uses the Public
Service's property and other resources effectively, efficiently, and only for
authorised official purposes;
• promotes sound, efficient, effective, transparent and accountable administration;
• in the course of his or her official duties, shall report to the appropriate
authorities, fraud, corruption, nepotism, maladministration and any other act
which constitutes an offence, or which is prejudicial to the public interest;
• gives honest and impartial advice, based on all available relevant information, to
higher authority when asked for assistance of this kind".
160
It is apparent from the above excerpts that the code of conduct envisages
certain behaviour from public servants. However a code of conduct is not a
panacea for unethical conduct, and has both advantages and disadvantages.
5.5.5 Advantages of codes of conduct
Cooper (1990: 143) mentions the following advantages:
First, codes of conduct can project ideas, norms, and obligations better than
legislation. Legislation "generally focus on conflict of interest and tend to be
negative in its prescription". Codes of conduct can establish an ethical status to
members of a profession.
Second, codes of conduct can be tailored to the typical situation of the
profession. While legislation tends to be universalistic and more inclusive, codes
can be more particularistic in their audience.
Third, if codes of conduct are not prepared by a few in isolation of the majority
they can serve as a means of socialising members, clarifying and internalising
the values of a professional group. Durkheim (Cooper 1990: 143) warns against
codes that are prepared and imposed by a few, and suggests that they should
evolve through the active participation of many.
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5.5.6 Disadvantages of codes of conduct
Cooper (1990: 144) points to the following as disadvantages of codes of ethics.
First, a striking disadvantage of codes of ethics is the absence of an enforcement
mechanism. As a form of external control, codes are generally weak because of
lack of operational enforcement structure and procedures.
Second, even where enforcement mechanism do exists, these may be
meaningless. He argues that most professional associations in the public sector
do not license practitioners in their fields, as a result a wayward member's
career is not likely to be significantly affected by the actions of a professional
association.
However, regardless of these shortcomings, codes of conduct remain an
important document for the promotion of ethics in public management. Clapper
(1996: 23) for example, points out that codes of conduct channel the public
human resource manager's personal morality and technical skills, codes
assumes that public human resource managers have personal value systems
that disposes him/her towards serving efficiently and ethically, they serve to
steer the judgement and discretion of public managers in an effort to ensure
efficient service delivery. De Baros (1990: 6) argues that codes of conduct serve
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two purposes, namely to combat corruption and prevent maladministration. He
describes corruption as the blatant dishonesty in the use of public money, and
maladministration as a disfunctional condition where the tax-payer is a loser as a
result of inefficiency but where there is not necessarily enrichment of the public
official. Thakathi (1995: 14) also emphasises the role of codes in promoting
ethics. He writes that codes indicate the belief that ethical management is
essential for the achievement of the service objective. That they are a
demonstration of the highest standards of personal integrity, truthfulness,
honesty and fortitude in all public activities.
An analysis of the excerpts of the code of conduct shows that it is not a set of
"don't", but lays emphasis on what a public employee shall do. In this sense the
code is enriching in guiding action towards positivity. Another aspect which
merits consideration in promoting ethics is leadership. This aspect is discussed
next.
5.6 PROMOTING ETHICS THROUGH LEADERSHIP
Starling (1986: 418) defines leadership as "the process of influencing the
activities of a group in efforts towards goal attainment in a given situation".
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Cloete (1993: 199) defines it as consisting of "those functions which must be
performed specifically to make employees work to the utmost of their physical
and mental capacities". Among the functions he names motivation,
communication, directing, and determining work programmes.
After an extensive investigation of leadership in South Africa, Schilbach (Gerber
et al 1995: 343) defined leadership as "an interpersonal process through which
a leader directs the activities of individuals or groups towards the purposeful
pursuance of given objectives within a particular situation, by means of
communication".
Central to these definitions is that:-
• leadership is a process and not a once off event. It takes place on a continuous
basis and it is intentional;
• the intention in leadership is to influence the activities of employees through
coordination and motivation, hence it is a purposive activity, aimed at achieving
set goals;
• leadership requires both interpersonal and communication skills. A leader needs
to be able to deal with and handle people and to communicate effectively with
both colleagues and subordinates, recognising that communication is a two way
process.
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In their leadership roles, public human resource managers can adopt certain
leadership styles or a combination of them. These are discussed below and
assessed from ethical viewpoints.
5.6.1 Autocratic leadership
According to Bartol and Martin (1991: 485) an autocratic leader is one who
makes unilateral decisions, dictates work methods, limits worker knowledge, and
gives feedback that is punitive. He/she uses coercice power and invariably
promotes unrest and dissatisfaction (George 1982: 29) in the sense that sooner
or later the employees "revolt" by implementing a work slowdown. This type of
leadership can hardly be described as ethical, in the sense that the quality and
quantity of his/her results can long remain at a high level. Starling (1986: 423)
points out that this type of leadership fails to size up the situation particularly the
maturity level of subordinates - and may lead to loss of good employees through
resignation. In a sense, autocratic leadership operates on the premises of "you
must not" ethics (de Baros 1990:7) and fails to address ethics according to
situations as they arise. This type of leadership may be suitable in situations
where personnel is uneducated, obedient and apathetic to participation. Stahl
(1983: 230) sums this up better. He states that "it is hard to see how one-man
decision making, in contrast to group decision making, has worked to the
betterment of human history".
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5.6.2 Laissez-faire leadership
Sometimes referred to as the permissive leader (George 1982: 29) the laissez-
faire leader gives complete freedom to subordinates, provides them with the
necessary material, only answers questions when asked, avoids giving
feedback, and literally provides no direction (Bartol and Martin 1991: 485).
Rosenbloom and Goldman (1993: 153) point out that this leadership style can
only be of importance where employees involvement in the institution is based
primarily on a moral commitment to its goals. In terms of affecting ethics in public
human resource management, this leadership style cannot, with reference to
definitions above, promote ethics in an institution because it provides no
direction to subordinates and does not influence activities towards set goals,
such as promoting ethics.
5.6.3 Democratic leadership
Democratic leadership is a type that is characterised by participative decision
making (Stahi 1983: 231), involvement of employees in determining work
methods, the use of feedback as an opportunity for helpful coaching (Bartol and
Martin 1991: 485), and employees that function effectively even during the
leader's prolonged absences (George 1982: 29). Communication between the
leader and subordinates is crucial particularly in the form of feedback.
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In terms of how this leadership style may affect the promotion of ethics, may be
deduced from its definition. The involvement of subordinates in setting
objectives, ( Megginson et aI.1989:343) such as the promotion of ethics,
presupposes a commitment to achieve these. The feedback and monitoring
serves to measure the extent to which goals have been achieved.
From an analysis of leadership styles above it cannot be readily said that one
particular type of leadership is best in all situations. What is best in one situation
may be worse in another, although in general, the democratic type is probably
the all-round best. For example in situations where close control must be
maintained it may be best to adopt an autocratic style, whereas a laissez-faire
style may be suitable if one leads a group of highly skilled self-starters, e.g.
research scientists. In most work situations, public human resource managers
will have to judge for themselves which type or combination is best suited for
achieving objectives efficiently and effectively. As leaders in their fields, public
human resource managers need to develop good human relations and
communication skills. These aspects receives attention in the paragraphs below.
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5.7 PROMOTING ETHICS THROUGH GOOD HUMAN RELATIONS AND
COMMUNICATION
Marx (1986: 201) defines human relations as "...the interpersonal relations
within specific enterprise which arise from the daily contact between people
within the work situation and the way in which they behave towards one
another". Lussier (1993:5) defines it as "... interaction among people." George
(1982:102) describe human relations simply as applying the golden rule, that is,
doing unto others as one would like them to do unto oneself. Or as an ethical
approach to personnel problems in work situations.
Lussier's definition is broad and general, while George and Marx's are specific
to work situations. George's description of human relations as an ethical
approach to personnel problems is more appropriate in this context in the sense
that it highlights the importance of ethical reflections in dealing with personnel
problems. He goes further to explain that practising good human relations
means getting employees to work toeether harmoniously, productively and
cooperatively to achieve economic as well as social satisfaction. Lussier (1993:
5) supports this explanation by George and he states that to achieve this, a win-
win situation has to be created in which both the satisfaction of employees
needs and achieving organisational objectives are fused together as priorities in
human resource management.
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The beginning of success in this context is understanding oneself (George 1982:
105) and then the institution. Understanding lower management and employees
is difficult, but as Marx (1986: 215) points out, the ethical example set by human
resource managers is of vital importance and permeates the whole institution.
The key is communication and may be regarded as the foundation of human
relations. George (1982: 55) supports this observation, and calls it "the big job".
It can be seen from the above descriptions that sound human relations and
communications are better achievable under a democratic style of leadership. It
is also essential that public human resource managers be trained in public
service ethics so that they can act from the basis of knowledge. Training in
ethics is discussed next.
5.8 PROMOTING ETHICS THROUGH TRAINING
Training is defined in the Public Service Staff Code (1995) chapter L, section 3.1
(g) as u ••• all those planned and purposeful activities which improve knowledge,
skills, insight, attitude, behaviour, values and working and thinking habits of
public servants or prospective public servants in such a way that they are able to
perform designated or intended tasks more efficiently". The need for training in
the public service is manifold. For example, Cheminais et al. (1998: 190) point
out, among others, that personnel come to workplaces with patterns of
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behaviour, attitudes, views and prejudices which might not fit into their working
circles. Such behaviour patterns and attitudes may be dysfunctional to the
institution and need be changed through training. Beach (1985: 244) supports
this point. He states that the objective of training programme is to try to create
new attitudes or change existing ones. Chapter L sec 4.6 of the Public Service
Staff Code (1995) on training recognises the diversity of the human resources
utilised in the public service, and encourages that training programmes should
be designed to allow for such diversity to promote a common culture to support
unity at the workplace and the ethics of a single public service.
Promoting ethics through training in the public sector has been an ongoing
endeavour. Kernaghan and Dwivedi (1983: 151) report on an international
perspective in this regard. They point out that the International Association of
Schools and Institute of Administration (lASlA) devoted considerable portion of
its activities on examining values and ethics on training programmes and
concluded that these could not be ignored by nations concerned with quality of
the public service. This conclusion was reached despite the fact that
participants in group deliberations came from greatly contrasting political and
cultural systems (Kernaghan and Dwivedi 1983: 151). Hanekom (1984: 63)
supports this conclusion. He states that all employees be trained in public
service ethics and in the necessity to abide by prescribed codes of conduct.
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The Green Paper on Public Service Training and Education (Government Notice
No. 17852: 35) envisages a Public Service staffed by dedicated and
productive public servants whose performance is maximised. Carsten (1996 : 1)
points out that the civil service is currently in a state of flux, and an ideal
opportunity is presenting itself for training in public service ethics. He argues
that new training methodology is essential to break from past practices of
maladministration and corruption. The principles of "Batho Pele" require that the
behaviour of all public servants should be raised to the level of the best through
training in public service ethics (RSA 1997: 18). Promoting and upholding ethics
in public human resource management requires that administrative action be
just. This aspect receives attention below.
5.9 JUST ADMINISTRATIVE ACTION: A way to further ethics in public
human resource management
According to Bekker (1997: 236) just administrative action implies, among
others, first, that everyone has the right to administrative action that is lawful,
reasonable and particularly fair, and second, that everyone whose rights has
been infringed upon by administrative action has the right to be given written
reasons for the infringement. Thakathi (1995:14) argues that public management
must take place legally with all actions of public officials occuring within the
framework of the existing legislation.
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An analysis of the White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery (RSA
1997: 17-24) shows that just administrative action entails among others:
• setting service standard in public management and a concerted endeavour to
meet these in service delivery. Standards are yardsticks against which to
measure performance. According to Bates (1994:178) standards may be both
qualitative and quantitative in nature. Qualitative standards express the degree
to which something, such as an action, is acceptable or unacceptable.
Ethics does not take place in a vacuum, but concerns judgement on human
conduct. Ethical standards concern the degree to which human conduct is
perceived to be in the public interest, in terms of good or bad, right or wrong,
proper or improper, approved of or disapproved of, and acceptable or
unacceptable. Setting ethical standards requires that they be set at a level
which is demanding but realistic (RSA 1997: 17). In other words, although these
ethical standard should be demanding in terms of effort, dedication, and
commitment, they must be within the mental and physical capabilities of a trained
public official (Bates 1994: 180);
• showing courtesy towards the public, which goes beyond giving a smile, say
please and thank you. Such courtesy should convince the member of the public
that he/she is being treated "as a customer who is entitled to receive the highest
standard of service;
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• increasing transparency with the public so as to build confidence and trust
between the public sector and the public they serve. Just administrative action
requires that action be open to public scrutiny. This is what Cloete (1994:80)
refers to as probity. He writes that public officials should conduct themselves in
such a manner that they will be able to withstand any test of public scrutiny. In
other words, when the need arises to pass ethical judgement on the public
officials behaviour, his/her behaviour should be able to withstand the test.
According to the Batho Pele White Paper (RSA 1997:20) transparency is the
hallmark of a democratic government, and is fundamental to the public service.
Promoting ethics in the public service requires that administrative actions be
undertaken openly. Administrative secrecy provides an opportunity to cover up
unethical conduct (Rourke in Hanekom et al. 1986:154). Warren ( in Hanekom
et al. 1986:154) point out that secrecy is an ally of corruption and that is why
corruption is always practised in secret;
• a willingness to remedy mistakes and failures if and when these occur. This
requires a new approach in handling complaints in line with accessibility, speed,
fairness, responsiveness and training.
Thakathi (1991: 14) further points out that just administrative action requires that
public human resource managers be sensitive to public needs. Promoting ethics
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in public management also requires upholding democratic values. This as is
described next.
5.10 PROMOTING ETHICS BY UPHOLDING DEMOCRATIC VALUES
According to Botes et al (1996: 23) a prominant characteristic of a democracy is
the principle of free general elections without coercion. Du Toit and van Der
Waldt (1997: 56) support this view, and further state that participation by the
citizen must be such that it results in efficient and effective government.
Cheminais et al (1998: 113) point out that to ensure that the views of all
interested parties are taken into account in a democracy, public institution
should be organised in a manner that fosters transparent deliberation,
consultation, and discipline. To attain the objectives of democracy and promote
ethics in public management, certain democratic values have to be observed
and implemented. Schwella et al (1996: 15) point to the following values,
namely, representation, legitimacy, transparency, responsiveness and
accountability. Cheminais et al (1998: 113) write as follows concerning these
democratic values:
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• Representation
Public management work involves an important and complicated interface with
the political process. As a result, because the public chooses political
representatives, public institutions must reflect the composition of the population
on both management position and in occupational group. The rationale is that a
representative public service will have empathy with those they serve and view
problems from their perspective.
• Responsiveness
Responsiveness as a value rests on the belief that elected representative must
answer to the will of the electorate, and that public institutions and public
human resource managers be sensitive to the real needs of the client. Public
human resource managers should at all times be accountable to both the
political office-bearers and the public.
• Legitimacy
According to Fox and Meyer (1996:73) legitimacy denotes the feeling among
citizens that government actions are legally and morally correct and
acceptable. Cheminais et al (1998: 114) point to the fact that public human
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resource managers have a legitimacy which arises from their professional
status and organisational positions, and their actions should be according to
legal and moral conduct.
• Transparency
Schwella (1996: 16) makes a point that transparency concerns itself with the
extent to which the actions of public human resource managers are open to
public scrutiny. To this end the White Paper on Transforming Public Service
Delivery (RSA 1997:20) envisages an annual report to citizens published by
each national and provincial department.
In promoting and maintaining ethics, it is also essential to consider some causes
of unethical behaviour so that public human resource managers can guard
against them. These are discussed in the paragraph below.
5.11 CAUSES OF UNETHICAL BEHAVIOUR
There are many factors that could influence public human resource functionaries
to behave unethically. Bayat and Meyer (1994: 216-223) discuss, among others
the following:-
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• greed, which they describe as a "avarice and the concomitant striving for
personal gain". Because of greed, public functionaries may seek private gain at
public expense thereby enrich themselves materially;
• presence of an ethos of corruption in which public functionaries are "wittingly or
unwittingly drawn into corruption due to ignorance, or perhaps because they are
poorly remunerated". (See also Gildenhuys 1991: 60);
• differing ethical standards and norms prevalent in an institution because of the
heterogeneity of the personnel corps could lead to "ethical dilemmas such as
moral ambiguity or dualism". In this instance public human resource managers
may find themselves in conflicting situations in which emphasis of the views and
values of other groups takes precedent.
Van der Waldt and Helmbold (1995: 161-162) discuss deficient control and
accountability, complex legislation, inadequate procedure and manuals, deficient
management and organisation as some of the factors which may cause unethical
behaviour. Some of these were discussed earlier on in this chapter.
Bateman and Zeithaml (1993: 168) make mention of the following as causes of
unethical behaviour, namely:-
excessive emphasis on short-term gains over long-term considerations;
ii failure to establish and adhere to a written code of ethics;
iii looking for simple solutions to ethical problems;
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IV unwillingness on the part of public human resource managers to take an ethical
stand that may impose financial costs;
v looking at ethics solely as a legal issue and not being prepared to go beyond
what the law prescribes; and
VI a lack of clear procedures for handling ethical problems.
Promoting and maintaining ethics in public human resource management is not
easy. Among others, it requires that decision makers define an ethical issue
clearly, identify the relevant values in the situation, and carefully weigh the
conflicting values. (See for example Bateman and Zeithaml 1993: 170-171). An
awareness of the factors discussed above could be of assistant in promoting
ethics for public human resource managers.
5.12 SUMMARY
Public human resource management does not take place in a vacuum. It takes
place within certain environments. These environments influences the actions of
public functionaries responsible for public human resource management. The
environments may be divided into external and internal environments.
In promoting and maintaining ethics in public human resource management it is
important to consider how, from an ethical perspective, these environments
influences the decisions and actions of public functionaries. External
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environments discussed in this chapter include, among others, economic
environment, political environment, cultural environment, and the social
environment.
The generic administrative process of policy, organisation, finance, procedures
and method are discussed as internal environments in public human resource
management. How these internal environments influence the decisions and
actions of public functionaries responsible for public human resource
management is discussed from an ethical view point. The aspect of accountability
as a means of promoting and maintaining ethics is also discussed in detail.
Establishment of a written code of ethics for the promotion of ethics is discussed
as an external control mechanism. Both the advantages and disadvantages of
codes of ethics are explained.
Factors which may elicit unethical behaviour in public human resource
management are listed and discussed. Leadership, human relations and
communication are discussed as aspects which promote ethics.
In the next chapter conclusions and proposals based on the first five chapters are
made.
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CHAPTER6
CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS
6. INTRODUCTION
Ethics is an all-embracing concept concerning human behaviour. In work
situations, ethical behaviour is important in the sense that it can affect the
productivity of an organisation as well as the quality of the goods produced and
services rendered. In the public sector, ethical behaviour is even more important
in view of the high public profile of the activities of this sector. In the light of this,
it is necessary to review what has been written in the previous chapters and
weigh the accumulated evidence against the hypothesis stated in Chapter one.
This leads to the drawing of some salient conclusions and proposals in the
endeavour to promote ethics in human resource management in the public
sector. In testing the hypothesis, the chapters in this dissertation will be revisited
seriatim.
6.1 Testing the hypothesis
It has been noted in Chapter one that incidents of unethical behaviour in the
South African public sector is high. It has also been stated in Chapter five that
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perceptions and attitudes held by public managers towards both internal and
external factors to their institutions, affect activities either positively or
negatively. This indicates that the hypothesis stated, that perceptions and
attitudes on ethics in human resource management in the public sector
influences behaviour should be accepted. Literature evidence indicates that the
truthfulness of the hypothesis can be explained in four different ways. These will
subsequently be elucidated below.
6.1.1 Theories of ethics
Literature study indicates that theories of ethics can be divided into two broad
types, namely, teleological and deontological theories. The teleological type
could be categorised into two sub-types, namely, the directive utilitarianism ( e.g.
the law and codes of conduct) and the situational sub-type ( e.g. where the
decision is dictated to by prevailing circumstances, such as pressure from the
union ). Deontological theories pertains to values such as accountability,
transparency, fairness, efficiency, responsiveness, to name but a few.
In the performance of their duties, managers of human resources are confronted
by ethical dilemmas that can be classified within the above-mentioned
categories. How managers perceive the dilemmas and their attitudes towards
them determines their decisions and ultimately their actions. Research evidence
in this study reveal that codes of conduct play an important role as guides for
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action in the public sector. However, for codes of conduct to be well received,
there should be wide consultation (e.g. with labour unions) when they are drawn,
and the need for enforcement mechanisms in cases of violation of codes. In
decision making, managers of human resources combine both ethical theories to
address ethical situations, although many are not aware of the mental process
they use.
From the findings of this dissertation, it can be stated that codes of conduct can
enjoy better support if not drawn by a few people in isolation ( e.g. management)
but democratically agreed upon or collaboratively derived ( e.g. by involving
labour union members). The absence of enforcement mechanisms renders
codes of conduct weak. From the last statement, it can be suggested that some
form of sanctions should be attached to the violation of codes of conduct.
6.1.2 Human resource management
Different role players are involved in the management of human resources.
Clarification of roles of the players is presented in Chapter three. It is pointed
out, for example, that there is potential for conflict between human resource
specialists, and line managers. Line managers are prone to disregarding advice
provided to them by staff managers. In any institution, cordial relations between
the two categories of functions should be created and maintained to prevent
unnecessary conflicts. In this way, line managers will be able to accept advices
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without reservations in the full knowledge that staff functionaries have no
authority over them.
6.1.3 Values
Values are integral parts of ethics. In Chapter four, some of the values that
underpin ethics in human resource management in the public sector have been
discussed. These include, among others, religious values, responsibility,
fairness and reasonableness, individual rights, efficiency, responsiveness,
equity and merit. In theories of ethics, values are described in deontological
theory .
In the South African context of human resource management in the public
sector, consideration of different value systems is essential. The reason for this
is the fact that South Africa is a heterogeneous society. This implies that the
society is multicultural with different cultural groups or ethnic groups maintaining
their cultural identities and value systems. Managing in such an environment
requires the skills of managing diversity. Management of diversity requires from
managers to draw strength from the diverse value systems prevalent in the
different public institutions without undermining the values of either group or
ethnic groups.
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From the reason advanced, it follows that human resource managers in the
public sector have to consider the values held by the different members of their
personnel corps. The attitude managers of human resources hold towards the
different value systems will determine how they treat their subordinates and the
public. This statement is critical in the sense that, should a manager be
negatively pre-disposed towards one group, he/she is likely to treat it adversely.
Such treatment could be interpreted as discrimination. In South Africa, with its
history of individual right abuses which extended into work places, human
resource managers' actions should be characterised by caution concerning
value systems. Their actions should also be characterised by fairness and
impartiality.
It was found that there is not enough evidence to support the assumption that
representativeness promotes responsiveness, although it is so assumed in some
literature. Since the focus of this dissertation was confined to theories and
principles of ethics, it could be of interest if the relationship between these two
values is subjected to further research in order to establish whether a
representative public service is in reality responsive to public demands. It should
also be investigated if a representative public service satisfies the values of
efficiency and effectiveness. Democratic values should also be researched vis-a-
vis bureaucratic values. In practice, democratic values of participation and
involvement are in contrast to bureaucratic values of top-down decision making
and authority. Also, where as democracy enshrines the values of equality,
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bureaucracy enshrines the values of hierarchy, with those at the top enjoying far
greater power than those at the bottom. In this dissertation, political
responsiveness is confirmed. It is pointed out that this aspect relies on
patronage in recruiting, selecting, and promotion of personnel. With the result
that appointed public officials are usually those that are sympathetic to the ruling
party's policies. Concerning the values of efficiency, effectiveness, and
responsiveness to popular public sentiments, it can be suggested that these be
the subjects of empirical research, which have not been looked at scientifically in
the context of this dissertation. It can also be suggested that the bureaucratic
nature of public institutions, which is characterised by top-down decision making
and authority, be adapted to accommodate democratic values of participation
and involvement.
6.1.4 Promotion of ethics
The promotion of ethics in human resource management in the public sector
raises questions of whether ethics can be taught, whether it is possible to train
people in ethics, and whether such education and training can contribute to the
enhancement of quality, efficiency and effectiveness of service delivery.
Literature evidence is inconclusive on the above questions. However, in the
South African public sector, there is a host of white papers which provide
guidelines on the promotion of ethics. The most important guidelines are those
in The White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery (Batho Pele White
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Paper 1997 ). The principles of Batho Pele are set out in simple terms and a
broad implementation strategy is suggested.
In Chapter five of this dissertation, it is argued that ethics in human resource
management in the public sector should be maintained and promoted. Beside
the legal framework provided, aspects such as leadership, communication,
human relations, training, just administrative action, upholding democratic
values, and the generic administrative processes are discussed in detail. With
unethical behaviour so prevalent in the public sector, the deliberate promotion of
ethics can serve as one of the means to curb this phenomenon.
6.2 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF ETHICS IN THE PUBLIC
SECTOR
It is certain that many factors contribute to occurences of unethical behaviour in
the public sector. Curbing such behaviour cannot be left to the government
alone, although it has indicated its seriousness in dealing with corruption in the
public sector. Several white papers exist in which guidelines for ethical
behaviours are provided, but to date these have had no significant effects.
Findings from this study lead to the following conclusions and suggestions.
• Codes of conduct are perceived to be more important as ethical guides than acts
and regulations. This is confirmed by the fact that the advantages of codes of
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conduct outweigh those of legislation as guides to ethical conduct. However, two
aspects were apparent concerning codes of conduct, namely, that public
managers should not compile such codes in isolation but through participation,
and to make them effective, some form of enforcement mechanism is essential.
• Managers of human resources should be imaginative and innovative in order to
reconcile the different religious values, value-systems and cultures of the
different communities and personnel corps. This finding implies that no values
espoused by one group should enjoy priority over values espoused by other
groups.
• In the transformation of the Public Service, the aspect of affirmative action
should be approached cautiously. This statement implies that unplanned
implementation of affirmative action that does not take into consideration merit
and efficiency, may have the effect of demoralising some employees and
thereby affect their performance and service- delivery.
• Ethics in the management of human resources depends on everybody making a
concerted effort to promote and uphold ethical conduct. This study reveals that
the will to expose unethical conduct such as corruption by colleaques, is not
something that should be taken for granted. It appears from the study that
unethical conduct by colleaques will not be revealed as long as a public
manager is not directly involved. This may explain the reasons for the occurance
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of corruption in the South African public sector in that public managers are
reluctant to blow the whistle on each other.
• Findings in this dissertation also lead to the suggestion that strong leadership is
needed and that it should be backed up by management practices that reflect:
• no tolerance for unethical conduct;
• training in ethics;
• clear disciplinary measures for ethical offences regardless of status or position;
and
• analysis and evaluation of training courses to ensure their relevancy to work
situations and serving of a society in transition. Training and development
should aim at improving skills, attitudes, ethics and be beneficial to both the
individual, institution and the community at large.
• It has already been pointed out that the relationship between responsiveness
and the values of efficiency and effectiveness should be the subject of further
research. In the South African context, it is hoped that a transformed and
representative Public Service will be able to satisfy these values. However, it
should be borne in mind that efficiency and effectiveness are influenced by a
variety of factors, such as the level of training, motivation, management style
and the commitment displayed by an employee to his/her work. In assessing
these values vis-a-vis responsiveness, these factors should be taken into
account. Presently, the South African Public service is in transition, with many in
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this sector still trying to find their footings. Empirical research undertaken in this
transition period to establish the relationship between the above values may not
yield the same results than when undertaken in a more stable public service.
• The democratisation of public institutions necessarily implies tampering with
their bureaucratic nature. The long winded manner of doing things prevalent in a
bureaucracy should be substituted by innovativeness, experimentation and
creativity. Turning public institutions into organisations with clear vision, mission,
flexible flat structures, and participatory type of decision making may serve to
achieve the above objectives, and to promote ethics. This is based on the fact
that such organisations have the effect of promoting a sense of ownership
among all concerned, a sense of commitment and loyalty, and therefore
responsibility and accountability.
These aspects should be enhanced by a code of conduct that has clearly
defined enforcement mechanisms.
6.3 Proposals
It is inconceivable that an acceptable level of ethics in the public sector can be
attained while the majority of the people in the society are apathetic towards
ethics. To bridge this gap, it is proposed in this dissertation that aspects of
ethics be included in the school curricula. Ethics need not be a formal school
189
subject, but ethical aspects can be integrated into different school subjects such
as Business Economics, Economics, and Accountancy, to name but a few. Many
subjects offered at tertiary level, among them, Public Administration, Human
Resource Management, Business Administration, can accommodate aspects of
ethics. At this level, knowledge of ethics should be intensified regardless of the
study direction a student follows. In this way, professional codes of conduct will
assume special status when a student eventually qualifies as a professional.
Assuming that unethical behaviour in the form of corruption is prevalent among
people in higher positions, empowering them on ethics throughout their
educational careers can contribute to the promotion of ethics in their work life.
Education in aspects of ethics is a long term endeavour and its sustainability
should be manifested in further training in ethics. This statement suggests that,
where as teaching approaches should aim at enhancing the ability to link theory
to practice, training of public officials should emphasise innovativeness and the
importance of values. This type of training is a departure from training public
officials to fuifiII roles as instruments of state power and controllers of the public,
into being service providers. This shift essentially indicates that the Public
Service shifts from being servant of the government to servant of the people.
It also put public officials in a position to assess the environment within which
services are provided in terms of social events such as poverty and violence and
empower them to take action based on real life situations.
190
Many organisations have mission statements that reflect how they intend
conducting business with their clients. These mission statements embody core
values that need to be communicated throughout the organisation, and not just
be the preserves of high ranking officials such as the Chief Executive Officers
and their immediate subordinates. People involved in the day-to-day operations
of the organisation should be well conversant with the mission statement in order
to put it into effect.
6.4 Possible research projects that may emanate from this dissertation
Chapter Ten, section 195 of The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa,
1996 (Act 108 of 1996) outlines the basic values and principles governing public
administration in South Africa. There is also a code of conduct for public
servants to guide their conduct in dealing with members of the public. In
addition, the White Paper on Transforming Public Service Delivery, 1997 (Batho
Pele White Paper 1997: 15-23) identifies eight broad principles for application
by national and provincial departments to ensure promotion of ethics in the
public sector. In the light of the above, it is evident that ethics in the public
sector should receive much more attention than ever before.
Important questions that stem from this research project are:-
191
• Whether ethics can be taught to employees and, if so, how such training should
be undertaken?
• the extend to which such training endeavours might enhance quality, efficiency
and effectiveness in service delivery? and
• what mechanisms could be used to enforce codes of conduct?
The endeavour to promote ethics in the public sector should be backed up by a
measure against set standards. To this end, the Batho Pele White Paper
advocated for setting standards through consultation.
The above represents but a few questions and issues relevant to this dissertation
that may be considered for research.
6.5 Summary
Theories are important tools for explaining and predicting phenomena. In this
dissertation theories of ethics in the management of human resources in the public
sector have been discussed. These formed the core of the discussions in the entire
dissertation.
Chapter three dealt with aspects which are normally undertaken in human resource
management. Suggestions on how to overcome conflict between staff functionaries
192
and line functionaries have been discussed in detail. This aspect is essential in order to
promote cordial relations between the two categories.
Values are central to ethics, and for this reason have been accorded a chapter, that is,
Chapter four The values discussed include, among others, religious values, personal
values, institutional values, as well as public administration values enshrined in the
constitution.
The promotion of ethics in the public sector is fundamental to quality service delivery
and the of combating corruption. For this purpose, Chapter five is devoted to the
discussion of means of promoting and maintaining ethics in the management of human
resources in the public sector. Various aspects are discussed in this respect, and the
chapter concludes by highlighting on aspects may that cause unethical behaviour.
The conclusions and proposals contained in this dissertation are made in the light of
what is contained in the text. Although the emphasis in this dissertation has been on
the management of human resources in the public sector, it is hoped that the
arguments presented and the proposals made will be equally applicable to public
management in general.
193
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SUMMARY
The public sector is a sector characterised by its own value system. Values such as
accountability, transparency, efficiency, equity, to name but a few, have to be taken into
account by all those engaged in this sector. On the other hand, values are integral parts of
ethics, thus necessitating that those engaged in the public sector should be well versed in
ethics.
In this dissertation, the author argues that theoretical principles of ethics should form the
basis of all activities in human resource management in the public sector. Emphasis on
human resource management is deliberate, since only human beings are capable of ethical
or unethical behaviour. Managers of human resources in the public sector should be
adequately trained in ethics in order for them to train their subordinates, and thereby curb
unethical behaviour. Theories are helpful in predicting and explaining phenomena, such as
why people behave the way they do. Principles, on the other hand, serve as fundamental
basis for reasoning or action. Both the teleological and deontological theories of ethics are
discussed in this dissertation. The two sub-types of teleological theory, that is, the
directive utiliterianism and the situational sub-type are discussed, and practical examples
provided. Deontological theory pertains to values, and it is also discussed with examples.
Human resource management activities, such as human resource provisioning, utilisation,
motivation, and maintenance are discussed from an ethical point of view. The roles of
different role players in human resource management are explained, and so too is the
necessity for ethics from each role player. Although no claim is made of being exhaustive
on values, some important ones in human resource management in the public sector are
discussed at length.
The promotion of ethics is fundamental to the endeavour to curb unethical behaviour such
as corruption, fraud, maladministration and theft. Different ways for the promotion of
ethics in human resource management are suggested in this dissertation. Among these,
leadership and training are singled out as being particularly important, because leaders
determine the culture, climate, and the direction of institutions. While acknowledging that
training has always been undertaken in human resource management in the public sector,
training in ethics requires a paradigm shift. New training methodologies, designed to
develop new attitudes and change old ones should be developed. Especially now that the
South African Public Service is in a state of flux, it present an ideal opportunity for
training in public service ethics.
Suggestions for the promotion of ethics are dealt with in the last part of this dissertation.
It is suggested, for example, that some form of enforcement mechanism for codes of
conduct be introduced to enhance effectiveness. The democratisation of public institutions,
which tampers with their bureaucratic nature, should be speeded up in order for
participatory decision making to take place. Leadership that reflects innovation and
imagination, driven by a vision and experimentation should be encouraged. The
development of an ethics culture that goes beyond the confines of the institutions into the
community should be entertained. The introduction of aspects of ethics in relevant subjects
at tertiary should be looked into. Also suggested, are possible research projects that may
emanate from this research project.
OPSOMMING
'n Uitstaande kenmerk van die openbare sektor is dat dit oor 'n eie waardestelsel beskik.
Werknemers in hierdie sektor moet waardes in ag neem soos onder meer aanspreeklikheid,
deursigtigheid, doeltreffendheid en gelykheid in die funksionering van hierdie sektor.
Waardes vorm 'n integrale onderdeel van etiek. Derhalwe moet werknemers van hierdie
sektor deeglik bekend wees met etiese reels.
In hierdie verhandeling poog die skrywer om aan te dui dat die teoretiese grondbeginsels
van etiek die basis behoort te vorm van alle aktiwiteite rakende menslike hulpbronbestuur
in die openbare sektor. Die klem word doelbewus op menslike hulpbronbestuur geplaas,
aangesien dit slegs die menslike wesens is wat tot onetiese optredes in staat is.
Bestuurders van menslike hulpbronne in hierdie sektor moet deeglike opleiding in etiek
ontvang. Deeglike opleiding deur bestuurders aan ondergeskiktes ten einde onetiese
optrede te beperk is noodsklik.
Teorië is nuttig in die voorspelling en verklaring van gedragsverskynsels. Beginsels dien
egter as beweegredes vir optredes of redenasies van persone. Beide die teologiese en
deontologiese teorië van etiek word in hierdie verhandeling behandel. Die twee elemente
van die teologiese teorie, te wete, direktiewe utiliterianisme en die situasionele teorië word
bespreek. Praktiese voorbeelde word ook verskaf Die deontologiese teorie handeloor
waardesisteme, en word ook deur middel van voorbeelde bespreek.
'n vertrekpunt wat op etiek gebaseeris, word gevolg insoverre dit menslike hulpbron-
bestuurs aktiwiteite soos voorsiening, benutting, motivering en onderhoud van die
arbeidsmag aangaan. Die onderskeie rolle van die rolspelers in menslikke hulpbron bestuur
word verduidelik, asook die noodsaaklikheid van etiek by hierdie rolspelers. Alhoewel
geen aanspraak op volledigheid rondom waardebeskouings gemaak word nie, word sekere
belangrike waardes in menslike hulpbronbestuur volledig bespreek.
In 'n poging om onetiese optredes soos korrupsie, bedrog en wanadministrasie, te
bekamp, speel die bevordering van etiek 'n fundamentele rol. Verskillende werkswyse
hieroor word ook behandel, soos onder meer leierskap en opleiding, wat in hierdie
verhandeling as besonder belangrik ge-identifiseer word.
Die belangrikheid van die twee elemente blyk daaruit dat die leiers van 'n instansie die
kultuur, klimaat en die rigting daarvan bepaal. Terwyl dit erken word dat opleiding nog
altyd onderneem is in menslike hulpbronbestuur in die openbare sektor, word die stelling
gemaak dat opleiding op die gebied van die etiek 'n klemverskuiwing vereis. Nuwe
opleidingsmetodologieë, gemik om nuwe opvattings, sowel as om die bestaande
opvattings te wysig, moet ontwikkel word. Veralop die huidige tydstyp, waar die
openbare sektor 'n stadium van verandering odergaan, is dit 'n ideale geleentheid om
hierdie soort van opleiding te implimenteer.
In die laaste gedeelte van hierdie verhandeling word voorgestel dat etiek meer op die
voorgrond geskuifbehoort te word. Dit word byvoorbeeld aan die hand gedoen dat
afdwingingmeganismes vir gedragskodes ingestel word.
Die demokratisering van die openbare sektor, wat oënskynlik in teensteling is met sy
burokrtiese aard, moet versnel word ten einde gesamentlikke besluitneming te fasiliteer.
Innoverende leirskap, oorgedrewe deur visie en eksperimentasie, moet aangemoedig word.
Die ontwikkeling van 'n kultuur wat wyer strek as die samelewings instelling behoort
ondersoek te word.Die bekendstelling van etiese aspekte in relevante vakgebiede op
tersiêre vlak moet ondersoek word.Moontlike navorsingsprojekte wat kan voortvloei uit
hierdie verhandeling word ook voorgestel.