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CRIEAT~NGA CULTURE OF
EFFECT~VE lEARNING THROUGH
~NV~TAT~ONAl EDUCAT~ON:
A DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
FOR TEACHERS
ZENDRé SWANEPOEL
November 2000
CREAT~NG A CULTURE OF EFFECTIVE lEARNING
THROUGH ~NV~TATIONAl EDUCATION: A DEVELOPMENT
!PROGRAM !FORTEACHERS
by
ZENDRé ~VYSWANEPOEL
(B.A., H.E.D., B. A. Hons., M. Ed. (Psig))
THESIS
submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree
PHILOSOPHIAE DOCTOR
in the
FACULTY OF THE HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION AND DEPARTMENT OF
COMPARATIVE EDUCATION AND EDUCATION MANAGEMENT
at the
UNIVERSITY OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE
BLOEMFONTEIN
Promoter: Prof. R. R. Brazelle
Co-promoter: Prof. W. J. Paulsen
November 2000
IDECLARAlr~ON ~~
I declare that the thesis hereby submitted by me for the Ph.D. degree at the
.University of the Orange Free State is my own independent work and has not
previously been submitted by me at another university/faculty. I further cede
copyright of the thesis in favour of the University of the Orange Free State.
~:'.~ .
ZJ.SWANEPOEL
IS/03/0100/
•• , '0' •••••• " .•••••••••••••••••
DATE
I wish to express my thanks to the following people:
o Prof. Robbie Brazelle for his excellent guidance and support, even through
times when I lost faith.
o Prof. Willie Paulsen who has come a long way in shaping my future.
e Ms Rina Cronje for her skillfulness in typing this thesis.
o Ms Mari Ferreira for her patience and excellence in the technical finishing of
this thesis.
o My dear friend and colleague, Daniella Coetzee, for her precious time in the
editing of the language.
o My parents for giving me unlimited opportunities in life.
o All my wonderful friends, who never stopped believing in me and supported
me during tough times. A special word of thanks to my friends and
colleagues Steve, Rita, Adré, Johan, Daniella and Johann for never giving up
on me.
o My exceptional three children, Johan, Sulene and Marcel, for sacrificing so
much in helping and supporting me in finishing this thesis.
El My dearest friend, Japie, without whom the completion of this thesis would
never have been possible.
o The Almighty without whom I am nothing.
Opsomming
Summary
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Addendums
CHAPTER 1
ORIENTATiON AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 4
1.3 GOALS OF THE STUDY 7
1.4 METHOD OF RESEARCH 7
1.4.1 Literature study 8
1.4.2 Empirical investigation 8
1.4.2.1 Qualitative method 8
1.4.2.2Survey 9
1.5 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY 9
1.6 EXPOSITION OF THE STUDY 10
1.7 CONCLUSION 11
CHAPTER 2
CREATING A CULTURE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
2.1 INTRODUCTION 12
2.2 DEFINING LEARNING 13
2.3 LEARNING OUTCOMES 14
·2.4 A CULTURE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING 16
2.5 CAUSES OF THE COLLAPSE OF THE CULTURE OF
TEACHING AND LEARNING IN SOUTH AFRICA 18
2.5.1 Infrastructure: School buildings, facilities and resources 18
2.5.2 Discipline 20
2.5.3 Relationships between principals, student and teachers 21
2.5.4 Leadership, management and administration 22
2.5.5 The schools and the department 23
2.6 RESTORING OF A CULTURE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING 24
2.6.1 The learning environment 25
2.6.2 The learner 30
2.6.2.1 Social class 30
2.6.2.2 Learning styles and strategies 31
2.6.2.3 Cognitive abilities 33
2.6.2.4 Motivation 34
2.6.2.5 Developing of the self 35
2.6.2.6 Curriculum 38
2.6.2.7 Expectations 39
2.6.3 The teacher 42
2.6.3.1 Characteristics of the effective teacher 42
2.6.3.2 The effective teachers' alertness of learners' behaviour 42
2.6.3.3 Creating a "learning climate" through teachers 44
2.6.3.4 Teaching approaches 45
2.6.3.5 The relevance of the teacher 46
2.6.4 Teaching methods conducive to effective learning 47
2.6.4.1 Lesson planning 48
2.6.4.2 The relationship between learners and teachers 49
2.7 CONCLUSION 50
CHAPTER 3
iNVITATIONAl EDUCATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION 51
3.2 WHAT IS INVITATIONAL EDUCATION? 52
3.3 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF INVITATIONAL EDUCATION 53
3.4 THE THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF INVITATIONAL
EDUCATION 54
3.4.1 The perceptual tradition 55
3.4.2 Self-concept theory 58
3.4.2.1 Organised 59
3.4.2.2 .Dynamic 60
3.4.2.3 Consistent 60
3.4.2.4 Modifiable 61
3.4.2.5 Learned 61
3.5 THE FOUR BASIC ELEMENTS OF INVITATIONAL TEACHING 62
3.5.1 Trust 62
3.5.2 Respect 63
3.5.3 Optimism 65
3.5.4 Intentionality 66
3.6 TEACHER BEHAVIOURS 68
3.6.1 Intentionally disinviting 68
3.6.2 Unintentionally disinviting 69
3.6.3 Unintentionally inviting 69
3.6.4 Intentionally inviting. 70
3.7 THE FOUR CORNER PRESS 71
3.7.1 Being personally inviting to the self 72
3.7.2 Being personally inviting to others 74
3.7.3 Being professionally inviting with oneself 75
3.7.4 Being professionally inviting with others 75
3.8 DISCIPLINE 77
3.8.1 Concern 78
3.8.2 Confer 78
3.8.3 Consult 79
3.8.4 Confront 80
3.8.5 Combat 81
3.9 THE POWERFUL P'S 82
3.9.1 Places 82
3.9.2 People 83
3.9.3 Policies 84
3.9.4 Procedures 85
·3.9.5 Programme 86
3.10 CONCLUSION 86
CHAPTER4
A QUALITATIVE INVESTIGATION INTO EFFECTIVE lEARNING AND
TEACHING: AN iNVITATIONAL APPROACH
4.1 BACKGROUND 88
4.2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: A THEORETICAL
PERSPECTIVE 89
4.2.1 What is qualitative research? 89
4.2.2 Objectivity 91
4.2.3 Reliability 91
4.2.4 Validity 93
4.2.5 Data collecting methods 94
4.2.5.1 Non-interactive methods 95
4.2.5.2 Interactive methods 95
4.3 RATIONALE FOR THE USE OF A QUALITATIVE
METHODOLOGY IN THIS RESEARCH 97
4.4 RESEARCH FOCUS, SCOPE AND METHODS 99
4.5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND THE INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE
RESEARCH 102
4.6 METHODOLOGY 103
4.6.1 Data sources 103
4.6.2 Data collection 104
4.6.3 Limitations 106
4.6.4 Data analysis 107
4.7 REPORTING OF RESULTS 108
4.7.1 Results of the wider project "Access to learning and teaching" 108
4.7.2 Learning styles, teaching strategies and teachers' knowledge 112
4.7.3 Teacher support and development 114
4.7.4 Learner's background 115
4.7.5 Physical facilities, materials and transport 117
4.7.6 Teachers' attitudes 119
4.7.7 Support schools receive from institutional structures and
Communities 120
4.7.7.1 Support from the Department of Education 120
4.7.7.2 Support from Governing bodies 121
4.7.8 Relevant curriculum 121
4.7.9 Stability and change 122
4.8 RESUL TS OF RELEVANT FACTORS INFLUENCING
EFFECTIVE LEARNING AND CREATING AN INVITATIONAL
CLIMATE AS REPORTED IN THIS STUDY 123
4.8.1 Factors relating to the educator 124
4.8.2 Factors relating to the learners 128
4.8.3 Factors relating to the process 133
4.9 FINDINGS 139
4.10 CONCLUSION 142
CHAPTER 5
LEGAL AND EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
LEARNING PROGRAMMES
5.1 INTRODUCTION 144
5.2 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LEARNING PROGRAMMES 145
5.2.1 The National Qualifications Framework 145
5.2.2 Assignments of levels to standards and qualifications 148
5.2.3 Registration of standards and qualifications on the National
Qualifications Framework . 149
5.2.4 Requirements for the registration of unit standards and standards 150
5.2.5 Requirements for the registration of qualifications 152
5.2.6 Additional requirements for the registration of qualifications .
at levels 1 to 4 and levels 5 to 8 154
5.2.7 Procedures for the registration of standards and qualifications 155
5.2.8 Interim registration of qualifications 156
5.3 EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS 157
5.3.1 Outcomes-Based Education: Background and definition 158
5.3.2 The nature of an outcomes-based approach in education (OBE) 160
5.3.3 Principles and features of outcomes-based education 162
5.3.3.1 Principles of outcomes-based education 162
5.3.3.2 Features of outcomes-based education 166
5.3.4 An outcomes-based curriculum development process 172
5.3.5 Outcomes-based learning process 177
5.3.6 What is expected of the teacher in this new role? 180
5.4 OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND INVITATIONAL
EDUCATION :.A SYNTHESIS 183
5.5 CONCLUSION 188
CHAPTER 6
PROGRAMME FOR TEACHERS: MODULE ON iNVITATIONAl EDUCATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION 189
6.2 PROGRAMMING PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT 191
6.3 MODULE ON INVITATIONAL EDUCATION: DEVISION
INTO UNITS 200
6.4 THE TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES 202
6.4.1 Knowledge 203
6.4.1.1 Knowledge of specifics 203
6.4.1.2 Knowledge of terminology 203
6.4.1.3 Knowledge of specific facts 203
6.4.1.4 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics 203
6.4.1.5 Knowledge of conventions 204
6.4.1.6 Knowledge of trends and sequences 204
.6.4.1.7 Knowledge of classifications and categories 204
6.4.1.8 Knowledge of criteria 204
6.4.1.9 Knowledge of methodology 204
6.4.1.10 Knowledge of the universal and abstractions in a field 204
6.4.1.11 Knowledge of principles and generalizations 204
6.4.1.12 Knowledge of theories and structures 205
6.4.2 Comprehension: intellectual abilities and skills 205
6.4.2.1 Comprehension 205
6.4.2.2 Translation 205
6.4.2.3 Interpretation 205
6.4.2.4 Extrapolation 205
6.4.3 Application 205
6.4.4 Analysis 206
. 6.4.4.1 Analysis of elements 206
6.4.4.2 Analysis of relationships 206
6.4.4.3 Analysis of organisational principles 206
6.4.5 Synthesis 206
6.4.5.1 Production of unique communication 206
6.4.5.2 Production of a plan or proposed set of operations 207
6.4.5.3 Derivation of a set of abstract relations 207
6.4.6 Evaluation 207
6.4.6.1 Judgements in terms of internal evidence 207
6.4.6.2 Judgements in terms of external criteria 207
6.5 STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE: INVITATIONAL EDUCATION 208
6.6 CONCLUSION 244
CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY, IFINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION 245
7.2 SUMMARY 245
7.3 FINDINGS 250
7.3.1 Factors with regards to the first goal in this thesis: What
entails effective learning? 250
7.3.2 Factors with regards to the second goal in this thesis: What
are the fundamentals of Invitational Education? 251
7.3.3 Factors with regards to the third goal in this thesis: What
are the criteria for a training programme for teachers in the
new South African context according to the National
Qualifications Framework? 253
7.3.3.1 Legal requirements 253
7.3.3.2 Educational requirements 254
7.3.4 Factors with regards to the final aim of this thesis: What
would a programme look like which is directed at the training
of teachers in the necessary skills to create a culture of learning
and to facilitate effective learning? 254
7.3.4.1 Factors determined through empirical research relating to
effective learning. 255
7.3.4.2 Factors determined through a literature investigation
on factors influencing learning as well as principles in
Invitational Education which enhances the learning
Process. 256
7.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 257
7.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS 259
BIBLIOGRAPHY 260
Suid-Afrika het verskeie verandering ondergaan sedert 1991. Onderwys was
geen uitsondering nie, Verandering bring ongelukkig onsekerheid mee, wat
presies is wat die onderwys-owerhede ervaar het by aanskoue van die swak
matriek-uitslae. Sedert verskeie staat-gesubsidieerde skole hul deure
oopgemaak het vir alle bevolkingsgroepe is elke jaar se matriek-uitslae meer
kommerwekkend as die vorige. In 1997 is entaakgroep aangewys om die saak
indringend te ondersoek. Wat is die oorsaak vir die ineenstorting van enkultuur
van leer en onderrig?
Alle betrokkenes blyk skuldig te wees! Leerders, onderwysers, hoofde, ouers,
beheerrade and owerhede moet gesamentlik verantwoordelikheid aanvaar vir die
. gebrek aan enkultuur van leer en onderrig. In enpoging om die situasie te
verbeter, moet die owerhede nie net kyk na en beter onderwyser-leerder
verhouding nie, maar ook onderwysers oplei wat meer sensitief is vir die
behoeftes van die leerders. Hierdie behoeftes wissel van (sosiale)
klasseverskille tot individuele kognitiewe vermoëns. Onderwysers behoort
opgelei te word om hulle eie potensiaal te ontwikkel. Op hierdie wyse kan hulle
meer vriendelik en toeganklik wees vir leerders se behoeftes. AI hierdie faktore
sal lei tot die daarstelling van enmeer positiewe leeromgewing wat beter leer sal
fasiliteer.
Die beginsels van Uitnodigende onderwys dek die tafel vir die daarstelling van en
uitnodigende leeromgewing waar leerders as waardevol, verantwoordelik en
bekwaam beskou word. Onderwysers se gedrag moet daarop gemik wees om
uitnodigend van aard te wees. Hierdeur sal hulle vir die leerders wys dat hulle
optimisties en doelgerig is ten opsigte van hul roeping as onderwysers. Deur
uitnodigende gedrag, sal leerders se selfvertroue toeneem. Deur leerders trots
op hulle self en spesiaal te laat voel, word leerders gemotiveer om hul
potensiaal te bereik. Konflik word op konstruktiewe wyse hanteer. Selfs
programme en beleidsdokumente word met inagneming van die leerders se
behoeftes, sowel as die beginsels van Uitnodigende onderwys, ontwerp. Deur
middel van empiriese ondersoek is faktore wat effektiewe leer beïnvloed,
nagevors. Hierdie faktore hou verband met die leerder, die onderwyser asook
die leerproses.
Die wetlike asook opvoedkundige vereistes vir 'n opleidingsprogram is
ondersoek. Die vereistes wat die Nasionale Kwalifikasie Raamwerk vir die
registrasie van 'n kwalifikasie daarstel is bespreek, asook die nuwe voorgestelde
onderwysmodel, naamlik Uitkoms-gebasseerde Leer. 'n Sintese is gemaak
tussen die beginsels wat beide Uitnodigende onderwys en Uitkoms-gebasserde
leer daarstel. Die sintese dui daarop dat Uitnodigende onderwys 'n ideale
benadering tot onderwys is wat goed inskakel by die nuut voorgestelde
onderwysmodel.
Laastens is 'n program opgestel wat gebruik kan word in die opleiding van
onderwysers in die Uitnodigende benadering, wat uiteindelik effektiewe leer kan
fasiliteer.
South Africa has been going through various changes since 1991. Education
was no exception. Unfortunately, change also brings about uncertainties, which
is exactly what the poor matric results brought to the minds of educators. Since
many state-aided schools opened their doors to disadvantaged learners, poor
matric results prevailed year after year. In 1997 a task-group was set up to
examine the situation and find reasons for the complete collapse of a culture of
learning and teaching.
All stake-holders are responsible for the collapse of the culture of learning and
teaching. Learners, teachers, parents, principal, governing bodies as well as
departmental officials should accept joint responsibility for the present situation.
In order to restore the culture of learning and teaching the Department of
Education should not only try to improve the teacher-learner ratio, but should
train teachers to become sensitive to the individual needs of learners, whether it
may be social class differences or their individual cognitive abilities. Teachers
should be guided towards developing their own potential in order to be optimistic,
friendly and open to the needs of learners and the educative process. All of these
mentioned factors would then lead to the creation of an inviting, positive learning
environment which is conducive to facilitate effective learning.
The principles of Invitational Education sets the scene for creating an inviting
learning atmosphere through viewing learners as able, responsible and valuable.
Teachers' behaviour is aimed at being intentionally inviting. Through this stance,
they show their optimism and affirmative attitude towards teaching which in
return brings forth more positive attitudes from the learners. Building learners
self-confidence by making them feel special and proud, motivate them to
reaching their full potential. Conflict is resolved in a constructive manner and
policies and programmes are tailored to the learners' needs and to the principles
of Invitational education. Through empirical investigation factors are identified
which might influence effective learning. Factors relating to the learner, teacher
and learning process were identified and analysed.
The legal and educational requirements for a training programme was
examined. The requirements of the National Qualifications Framework for the
registration of units and qualifications were explored as well as Outcomes-based
Education as proposed educational model in South Africa. A synthesis is
proposed between principles of Outcomes-based Education and Invitational
education in order to show that the invitational approach to teaching fits in well
with the new educational model.
Finally, a programme is structured according to which teachers in South Africa
could be trained in the principles of Invitational Education in order to facilitate
effective learning.
FIGURE 3.1 Theoretical Foundations of
Invitational Education
FIGURE 3.2 Four Corner Press
TABLE 1.1 Matric Results 1997/1999
'TABLE 4.1 Data Collection
TABLE 4.2 Grades Observed
TABLE 4.3 . Teachers' Attitudes (I)
TABLE 4.4 Teachers' Attitudes (ii)
TABLE 4.5 Teachers' Time Distribution
TABLE 4.6 Teachers' Qualifications
TABLE 4.7 Teacher/learner Ratio
TABLE 4.8 Teachers Understanding the Learners
TABLE 4.9 Socio-economic Class of the Learners
TABLE 4.10 Education Levels and Home
Environment
TABLE 5:1 NQF Levels and General, Further and
Higher Education and Training Bands
TABLE 5.2 Curriculum Design
TABLE 5.3 Synthesis
·ADDENDUM A Access to Learning: Theoretical
Background
ADDENDUM B Interview-Observation Schedule
ADDENDUM C Schools' Questionnaire for
Completion by Principals and
Head of Departments
~~~~
OR~ENTAT~ONAND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.~ INTRODUCTION
Political initiatives and demographic trends in South Africa have since 1991
influenced the change in the structure of education. This implies that legal
constraints have been removed, since many state-aided schools opened their
doors to pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds. In 1992, 7 923 pupils from
other races were admitted and in 1993 there were approximately 85 000 learners
in these schools (Du Toit,1995:213). In 1995, the Gauteng province alone, had
more than 80 000 pupils from previously disadvantaged groups enrolled in Model
C schools (Edusource,1995a:9). It has been stated by Meyer (1996:2) that
education reforms succeed or fail at classroom level. Currently at the end of
1999, this seems to be the case since the education system in South Africa
experiences serious probtems.
If one considers the matric end results of 1997 (this was when the authorities
became aware of the serious problems regarding the success-rate at schools in
South Africa) and then again the results of 1999 (two years later), the following
shocking pass-rates prevail:
In the Free State Province only 42,3% of 41 673 matrics passed the final exams
in 1997, opposed to the 51,1% in 1996 (Die Volksblad, 5 Jan.1998:1). Only
42,1% of matric pupils passed at the end of 1999 (Die Volksblad, 29
Dec.1999:2). The results of the rest of the provinces are as follows:
2
TABLE 1.1: MATRIC RESULTS 1997/1999
These results are poor, but even more distressful are the implications of these
matric final exam results. According to Die Volksblad (6 Jan.1998:1), the 90 000
failing pupils will need 2 457 additional classrooms, when calculating 35 pupils
per class. This implies 80 additional schools and an additional 2 000 teachers.
This is something that South African education cannot afford at present In the
Free State Province in 1999, three out of 300 schools had a 100% failure rate,
while in 20 schools less than 10% of the candidates passed and in 54 schools
less than 20% passed and 94 schools had a less than 50% pass (Die Volksblad,
29 Dec. 1999 : 2).
The question which immediately arises, is: what could be the possible reasons
for the current situation? Reasons given by education leaders (Die Volksblad, 6
Jan. 1998:1), as well as other researchers (Nxumalo,1993:55; Smith &
Pacheco,1996:158; Klopper,1996:12), are insecurity of teachers with regard to
their jobs, lack of books and the absence of a culture of teaching and learning.
3
These opinions are confirmed by Jonathan Paton, previous head of English
Methodology at the University of the Witwatersrand (Rapport, 11 Jan. 1998:6).
He adds to these reasons: teachers who do not respect timetables and sillabi,
teachers who spend more time outside classrooms than inside, unmotivated
pupils who walk long distances to school and reach school late only to leave
early. Prof. Trumpelmann from Rand Afrikaans University (Rapport, 11 Jan.
1998: 1) argues that the present poor results of matriculants can be attributed to
the lack of basic elements - from lack of books to poor administration and
problems with teachers. Prof. Colin Bundy, Rector of the University of the
Witwatersrand and Prof. Tamsanqa Kabuie in Gauteng, share the concern that
teachers need re-education. People have to realise that the biggest problem is
the teachers. They need to create a teaching culture, even more than a learning
culture. The teachers still stick to the "struggle era" and keep their rebellious
attitude (Rapport, 11 Jan. 1998:6). Mr. Papi Kgnare, Member of Parliament,
indicated the poor 1999 results were due to the teachers' strike which occurred
during the same year. Prof. Johan Beckman of the University of Pretoria,
blames poor management in the schools, teachers' unprofessional behaviour
and high absenteeism (Die Volksblad, 29 Dec. 1999: 1).
Adding to the above-mentioned, Meyer (1996:3) identified the following factors
causing a decline of quality in large parts of the South African education system:
o Unequal allocation of resources.
o Stratification of schools (separate schools according to race, gender,
religion).
o Politicisation of schools.
o Leadership, management and school governance styles.
o Resistance to change.
o Climate of the school (hidden curriculum, subtle exclusion).
o . Institutions not having the ability to change (resources, skills, knowledqe).
o Extra curricular activities (balance between Euro-centric and Afro-centric
approach to sport and cultural activities).
4
A challen~e thus faces post-election South African 'society and specifically
education to attempt to solve these problems, and also to address the above-
mentioned issues. The White Paper on Education and Training (1995) defines
education and training as a basic human right. It also suggests a need to protect
and advance these rights, so that all the citizens, irrespective of race, class,
gender, creed, disability or age have the opportunity to develop their capacities
and potential to enable them to make their full contribution to society. To achieve
. this, the White paper emphasises that the education system must increasingly
open access to education and training opportunity of good quality, to all children,
youth and adults (Maja, 1997: 1).
~.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) launched a project in 1997 that
was inspired by the vision of the White Paper on Education and Training (1995)
to focus on learning and the different fragments of the learning context and to
attempt to ascertain what this learning entails. And also, what within an
environment would enable learning to take place, what conditions are necessary
for such learning to take place, what processes are necessary to enhance such
learning, and what outcomes might ensure that learning has taken place. Thus,
central to these questions is how to ensure that the enabling conditions for
successful learning environments become the norm.
The detail of the HSRC project, the observations which were made and the
findings of the project will be dealt with in chapter four of this research. It is
however at this stage necessary to mention a few of the findings that referred to
the teachers as "successful, and thus enhancing effective learning". Some of
these findings were:
e The key to building positive and realistic self-images in pupils lies largely in
what the teacher believes about him/herself and his/her students. These
5
beliefs not only determine the teacher's behaviour, but are transmitted to the
pupils and also influence their performance.
o Teachers realised that every child wants to be known as a unique person and
that by holding the pupil in esteem, the teacher is establishing a learning
climate that facilitates growth.
o The successful teachers conveyed their expectations and confidence that the
students could accomplish work, were able to learn and that they were
competent individuals.
o The teachers also communicated with their pupils on different matters,
private, as well as matters relating to the school.
o Positive reinforcement of pupils was part of these teachers' approach
throughout (Du Plooy & Swanepoel, 1997:4-8).
The question which arose from these above-mentioned findings, is which
educational model encompasses some, or all of these factors that are common
amongst teachers who successfully facilitate learning? Research seemed to
indicate towards Invitational Education, which as a theory of practice is
commended by the majority of those who have adopted and put the theory into
practice as a solution to some of the problems of. modern-day education (Kok,
1992:87).
Invitational Education is based upon the self-concept theory of Purkey. Not
many School of Thought in psychology contradict this theory, and Kok
(1992:87,89) goes further in identifying six invitational actions of intervention:
o Involvement in assignments
e Conversations
6
o Showing, or expression of appreciation
oRewarding
o Remediation
o Taking of sustained interest in the person
From the above, similarities in the findings of the project of the HSRC, regarding
successful teachers facilitating effective learning, and the interventions of the
Invitational Education Model, seem evident. This seemed sufficient evidence to
proceed to a critical investigation into the phenomenon of Invitational Education
as a possible solution to the current educational crisis in South Africa.
By assigning to education an invitational character, it may receive the recognition
in the community it deserves. The invitation to explore the full potential of a pupil
would thus not only benefit the pupil, but would also be to the advantage of the
broader community, which lacks educated manpower. It seems that establishing
of an invitational classroom where all those involved could respect, understand
trust and support one another, could only be a positive step in a climate that is
characterised by fear and uncertainty. This is endorsed by the The White Paper
. of Education and Training (1995:3) mentions the following: Motivating learners by
providing them with positive learning experiences, affirming their worth and
demonstrating respect for their various languages, cultures and personal
circumstances, is a prerequisite for all forms of learning and development. This
should be combined with the regular acknowledgement of learners'
achievements at all levels of education and training and the development of their
ability and will to work, both co-operatively and independently.
Thus, a problem that seems evident, is that South Africa lacks a culture of
teaching and learning as teachers are not adequately trained in strategies to
facilitate a climate where effective learning could take place.
From the above-mentioned problem statement, the following questions arise:
e What entails effective learning?
7
o What are the fundamentals of Invitational Education?
o What are the criteria for a training program for teachers in the new South
African context, according to the National Qualifications Framework?
o What would a program look like which is directed-at the training of teachers in
the necessary skills to create a culture of learning and teaching and facilitate
effective learning?
1.3 GOALS OF THE STUDY
Deriving from the statement of the problem, the goal of this study would be to
create a development program for teachers which would equip them with the
skills to facilitate effective learning through the model of Invitational Education.
The specific aims of the study would then be the following:
o To determine the fundamental characteristics of effective learning.
o To provide an exposition of the principles of Invitational Education.
o To stipulate the criteria of a development program for teachers, according to
the National Qualifications Framework.
o To develop a program for teachers which would equip them with the
necessary skills to facilitate a climate that would enhance effective learning.
1.4 METHOD OF RESEARCH
Research is defined as a process of systematically collecting and logically
analysing information for a particular purpose (McMil!an & Schumacher,1993:8).
Marshal! and Rossman (1989:21) point out that, for the social scientist, "research
is a process of trying to gain better understanding of the complexity of human
interactions". Through systematic means, the researcher gathers information
about those interactions, reflects on their meaning, arrives at and evaluates
conclusions, and eventually puts forward an interpretation of those interactions.
This research product aims to produce knowledge regarding factors influencing
8
effective learning and teaching, as well as possible models in education through
which this process could be facilitated. The following methods will be applied in
this thesis to accrue the information:
1.4.1 literature study
A literature study of appropriate primary and secondary sources
containing authoritative publications, books, journals, newspapers and
research reports will be conducted to gather relevant information on:
o factors determining a climate which facilitates effective learning;
o Invitational Education as a phenomena in which effective learning and
teaching could take place;
o legislative and educational criteria to which a training program for
teachers should adhere, according to the National Qualifications
Framework; and
o a program to train teachers according to the principles of Invitational
Education.
1.4.2 Empirical Investigation
Because "effective teaching" is a sensitive issue for most teachers and
principals in schools, qualitative methods seem to be appropriate to "get
under the skin" (Duff, 1992:87) of the participants.
1.4.2. 1 Qualitative method
A full report on the project "access to learning," initiated bythe HSRC, and
conducted by the researcher and another field worker, will be given. The
background and results of the broader project will first be reported.
Because the full report covered a vast amount of factors relating to
"access to learning", the results of the wider project will be viewed as a
9
data base from which only those factors relevant to this study will be
selected.
Data was collected from three primary sources, namely
o semi-structured interviews with the teachers by means of interview
schedules; and
e observations made in the classrooms.
1.4.2.2 Survey
In this study, a survey was conducted by means of a questionnaire which
was completed by the principal or head of department of each of the
targeted schools.
1.5 DELIMITATION OF THE FIELD OF STUDY
The study will provide a critical investigation into Invitational Education as basis
for effective learning and teaching.
The study will be directed at new teachers in training, as well as present teachers
who had inadequate training and would benefit from a program which would
enable them to further themselves to the level of teaching where they could
enhance a culture of learning.
For the research project in conjunction with the HSRC, the research was initiated
in order to determine the aspects within an environment that would allow for
effective learning to take place. Research was done at six pre-selected schools
in four of the nine provinces in South Africa. The schools were selected
according to the needs-register in three categories, namely; highly resoureed
schools, moderately and poorly resourced schools. The researcher of this study
10
was one of the field workers in the Free State region, and also one of the two
researchers that completed a full report on the study done in the Free State.
The proposed study is in the ·field of Psychology of Education, since Invitational
Education is based upon psychological principles of acceptance, respect and
development of human potential. These principles are then applied to the
territory of education, with specific reference to the training of teachers. In
addition to the field of Psychology of Education, the study also touches on some
.applicable aspects (eg. The management role of the principal and legal
requirements of learning programmes) of Education Management.
1.6 EXPOSITION OF THE STUDY
The study will be presented as follows:
Chapter one deals with the introduction, statement of the problem, as well as the
method of research.
Chapter two will focus upon the fundamentals of effective learning and teaching.
In Chapter three a critical investigation into Invitational Education will be
conducted.
Chapter four will entail the full report of the empirical study that formed part of the
research project done in collaboration with the HSRC.
Chapter five will deal with the legislative and educational criteria of a teacher's
training programme according to the National Qualification Framework.
Chapter six will propose a program for the training of teachers in the
interventions of Invitational Education.
11
Chapter seven will entail a summary, conclusions as well as recommendations.
1.7 CONCLUSION
This chapter has provided evidence of the need for research into factors
influencing effective learning and teaching - an issue which seems to receive
attention yearly when the matric results come out. Attention was focussed not
only on what will be investigated and why it will be investigated, but also on ways
in which the investigation will be conducted. The parameters within the research
project were drawn, and the following chapters will attempt to pose answers to
the problems highlighted in this chapter.
In chapter two attention will be focused upon the fundamentals of effective
learning and teaching.
~=====~2
CREATING A CULTURE OF TEACHING AND lEARNING
2.1 INTRODUCTION
To suggest that for schools to do more of what they have always done, is to
prepare learners for a world which is rapidly disappearing. "If you always do
what you have always done, you will always get what you have always got"
(Stall & Fink, 1996:118). Until currently political, social and economic
conditions had a profound impact on the development of education in South
Africa. Educators however came to realise that it is unacceptable for societies
to limit the purpose of education to those learnings which meet the agenda of
political and economic élites (Mashile & Mellett, 1996:223; Stall & Fink,
1996:118). Educators should therefore try to ensure that reform efforts are
consistent with our best knowledge about teaching and learning and their
best insights into their people's needs in a postmodern age.
A significant ongoing challenge for teachers is the necessity to move from a
teaching-learning paradigm or model, which has served many teachers and
learners, to a different conception that is compatible with the emerging issues
of the new millennium. Just as society had its social order and the economy
divided people into managers and workers, schools too became agencies to
sort people into their appropriate places in the social and economic worlds
according to their intelligence. This led to school systems, which in the words
of Purkey and Novak (1984:11), "labeled, libeled, sorted and grouped"
children. The nature of what learners are expected to learn, that is getting the
correct answer, seems more important than understanding the concepts
behind the problem. This leads to a student learning at a surface level, from
13
which he rarely gains the real understanding which comes through
contextualised learning (Gardner, 1985:119; Entwistle, 1985:374).
Before focussing on the way in which and where "real understanding" takes
place, learning as a concept needs to be defined.
2.2 DEFININGLEARNING
The concern for learning focuses on the way in which people acquire new
knowledge and skills, as well as on modification of existing knowledge and
skills. General agreement appears between behavioural and cognitive
conceptions. Gagné (1977:3) indicates that the change in human
dispositions or capabilities which persist over a period of time, is not simply
ascribable to processes of growth, but to learning. Hiemstra (1991:8)
suggests that learning is more than just the accumulation of new knowledge,
added on to existing knowledge; it is a process where many basic values and
assumptions by which we operate are changed through our learning process.
Common to these definitions is change. According to the Langman
Dictionary (Goldenson, .1984:54) and Kimbie (1961:2), learning is defined as
a more or less permanent change in behaviour which occurs as a result of
practice. Psychologists generally agree with this in saying that learning
brings about a more or less permanent change in behaviour which results
from activity, observation or training ( Shuell 1988:278).
Other authors (Behr, 1988:45; Withers, 1994:185) go even further by saying
that the improvement in behaviour must be cumulative, and it forms an
important feature of learning. This learning involves the acquisition of skills,
knowledge and retention. Weinstein (1989:55) add to the definition of
learning as a change in behaviour by saying that learning not only involves
affective and motor activities, but also cognitive change.
14
These definitions emphasise the end result of learning, namely the behaviour
that is manifested after the learning has taken place. New patterns of
behaviour are learnt as a means of attaining goals. Stall and Fink
(1996: 120) seems to be correct in saying that learning at all levels involves
sustained performances of thought and collaborative interactions of multiple
minds and tools as much as individual possession of information.
The outcomes-based approach regards learning as the process in which
learners gain knowledge, skills and attitudes which they must be able to
demonstrate through applying this knowledge, skills and attitudes in real-life
situations (Lubisi, Parker & Wedekind, 1998:24)
It is also possible to approach learning from a biological starting point and to
take note of the different viewpoints of the different learning theorists on
process-information, memory and retention processes. For the purpose of
this study, however, attention will be focused on what is expected from
learners as they leave school to enter into the broader society, and the way in
which this goal is attained.
2.3 LEARNING OUTCOMES
In the past, a curriculum was defined in terms of what teachers wanted to
cover and not what learners were expected to learn. Teachers alone were
accountable to address the learning of all the learners (Stall & Fink,
1996:122).
This posed a problem for employers. According to the Conference Board of
Canada ( Stall & Fink, 1996: 121) a cursory analysis of present educational
practices suggests that schools are out of step with the needs of the larger
society in the nineties and learners have to be prepared for changing
employability needs.
15
The traditional school paradigm came to mean the imparting of "approved"
knowledge through government guidelines, state authorised textbooks and
standardised tests. Since learners are the inputs in the educative process,
the teacher's job is to mould them in accordance with specifications (courses,
hours, texts, tests) designed by educational experts to achieve the proper
outputs measured by test scores (Stall & Fink, 1996: 119).
A new paradigm views the development of the learner towards somebody
who is equipped with conventional skills, which include critical thinking,
problem solving and technological literacy. Basic skills also include personal
management skills such as positive attitudes, responsibility and adaptability
(Stall & Fink, 1996: 121). This is more in line with the needs of employers in
the bigger society.
Compatibility with the needs of individuals to develop as fully functioning
human beings is particularly appealing about this new paradigm. This is
accentuated by Purkey (1992:48) who regard a democratic society as
ethically committed to seeing all people as able, valuable and responsible; to
valuing cooperation and collaboration; to viewing process as product in the
making; and to develop the untapped possibilities in all worthwhile areas of
human endeavour.
As educators, the immediate need arises for a model which would form the
basis for the development of outcomes (skills). Drake (Stall & Fink,
1996:122) provides such a model. Based on Spady's (Spady, 1994:122)
"demonstration mountain", Drake identifies three types of outcomes. At the
top of the mountain are the "being" outcomes: being tolerant, being daring,
being responsible. In the middle, the "doing" level, are the cross-disciplinary
or interdisciplinary outcomes such, as critical thinking, problem solving,
utilising technology and communicating effectively. At the base are "knowing"
aspects of learning found in subject disciplines. It is easier to access the
base, more difficult to measure the "doing" level; and exceedingly difficult to
16
determine the "being" level. It is therefore tempting to ignore the middle and
the top and focus only on the knowing level. Drake's advice to teachers is to
focus upbut design down (Stall & Fink, 1996:123). Only then would it in any
way be possible to develop the full potential of the child. The similarity
between Drake's model and the already mentioned Outcomes-based
approach (OBE) is evident since Drake's "being", "doing" and "knowing"
aspects are synonymous with OBE's "attitudes", "skills" and "knowledge"
terminology. A detailed discussion of the Outcomes-based approach will be
presented in Chapter 5.
Drake's model, as well as that of the Outcomes-based approach, leads the
way to what it is that should take place in the classroom in order to facilitate.
effective learning. It appears that before focusing on the learner, the teacher
and the learning process which takes place in the classroom, the pre-
requisites for all of the above-mentioned is a culture of teaching and
learning.
2.4 A CULTURE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
The Gauteng Committee on the Culture of learning and Teaching (CCOl T)
was established by the Gauteng MEC for Education, Mary Metcalfe, in early
1995. At that stage it was apparent that many schools in Gauteng (currently
in all the provinces) appeared to have broken down. This phenomenon was
referred to as the "collapse of a culture of learning and teaching".
Attendance was sporadic, the principals had given up attending to the
problems of the school, teachers lost their desire to teach and there were
tension between rival organisations and all elements of the school
community, thus a complete degraded status of education (Chisholm & Vally,
1996:1; Pager, 1996:7). This decline of the learning environment is part of
the history of education in South African schools. Active political
discrimination as well as the more indirect effects of economic discrimination,
caused students and teachers to lose faith in the value and legitimacy of the
17
education system. Instead of serving as places of learning, schools became
sites of resistance and opposition to state repression, as part of the political
struggle which proceeded until 27 April 1994 (pager, 1996:28; Klopper,
1996:12; Nxumalo, 1993:55; Van Eeden, 1997:38).
The question arises: What would the restoring of a "culture of learning"
imply? Mary Metcalfe (Chisholm & Vally, 1996:3) indicates that the aim of the
new "culture of learning and teaching" is to foster creative, critical and
independent thinkers with skills and competencies that are transferable, as
well as attitudes and values. that are compatible with the ongoing
transformation of society. It aims to develop new social relationships in
schools founded on new forms of discipline, commitment and accountability.
"Culture of learning" is the way in which school governing bodies and parent-
teacher and student associations devote their attention to the process of
learninq. This is further characterised by the learning programme that
consists of courses or units of learning, that is, learning materials combined
with methodology, through which learners can achieve agreed-upon learning
outcomes (Clarke, 1997:1). A good "culture of learning" should provide
opportunities for learners regardless of age, circumstances, gender and level
of education and training (Clarke, 1997:5).
"Culture of learning" further presupposes that teachers accept responsibility
for teaching and co-responsibility for the learning of the youth of the
community for which they are accountable (Clarke, 1997:6). The implications
are that the teachers should collectively discover their responsibility to
construct and defend a climate of safety and tolerance in schools, as a basic
condition for the maintenance of orderliness which is necessary for
systematic learning to take place. This can be attained through
encouragement and support from the community and the parents. Parents are
partners in education and must give whatever is necessary to ensure that
18
schools provide good education, and that they function properly in order to
create a positive culture of learning and teaching.
Since the "culture of learning" has disintegrated in South Africa, it seems
relevant to identify possible factors causing this collapse.
. 2.5 CAUSES OF THE COLLAPSE OF THE CULTURE OF TEACHING
AND LEARNING IN SOUTH AFRICA
When contemplating the "collapse of a culture of teaching and learning", the
absence of school-going habits and values, a set of anti-academic and
destructive attitudes and behaviour and a loss of faith in the benefits of
education, come to mind. According to various researchers (Chisholm &
Vally, 1996: 1; Pager, 1996:7-82; Smith & Pacheco, 1996: 158; Klopper,
1996: 12-15 and Nxumalo, 1993:55-60), it appears that the causes for such a
collapse can be grouped into five categories:
o infrastructure;
o discipline;
o relationships between principals, students and teachers;
Gl . leadership, management and administration; and
o education department.
2.5. ~ lnfrastructure: Schooi buildinqs, facilities and resources
According to Nxumalo (1993:55) material deprivation appears to be a major
course of the disintegration of learning in South African schools. The student
respondents in his study identified problems such as the lack or shortage of
resources such as textbooks, desks, windows, electricity, laboratory
equipment, libraries and sports facilities. This is confirmed by Klopper
(1996: 12) who adds that the lack of proper facilities is "frightening", whilst
19
Mashile and Mellett (1996:223) relate the high failure rates to schools that
are dirty, defaced and looted by the very same students they are meant for.
Not only students, but also teachers regard "equalisation of resources" as the
top priority in education (pager, 1996:51), and identify the lack of facilities as
a major impediment to the culture of learning. Chisholm and Vally (1996: 13)
add to this argument by saying that structural improvements and the provision
of facilities and equipment to schools remain an important element in the
establishment of a culture of learning and teaching in schools. Adequate and
decent facilities do create a positive environment, affect the working
conditions of staff and influence the learning environment.
The fact that infrastructural improvements do make a difference was evident
from the impact of the Department School Renovation programme, which
commenced in two Soweto schools, and in "minor improvements" such as the
building of school fences. Whether schools were dilapidated or sound,
modern constructions, all had common infrastructural concerns. These,
according to Chisholm and Vally (1996:13) and Nxumalo (1993:57), included
the provision of:
o electricity
o water
o decent ablution blocks with functioning sewerage systems
o telephones
o security fences
o photocopiers
c text books
o well-stocked libraries
o furniture
o the repair of broken windows
e laboratories
o classroom space
20
Recommendations made by researchers Chisholm and Vally (1996: 16-22)
and Nxumalo (1993:57), to address the infrastructure problems are the
following:
Either the department can provide improved facilities, or schools can raise
funds for this purpose. Districts, in collaboration with schools, could also
conduct an audit of the various resources of their schools and plan the
sharing and exchange of resources within the district. A cluster arrangement
with other better resourced schools in the area or other areas might also be
a useful innovation.
2.5.2 Discipline
A complete lack of discipline on the part of teachers and students, as well as
lack of teacher motivation are main concerns at the majority of schools. As
students who responded in research done by Nxumalo (1993:55) put it:
"teachers are poor or even bad role models as they are openly undisciplined
or even corrupt in schools". It seems that teachers do not have knowledge of
what a culture of teaching and learning might entail, having spent their entire
lives in disrupted schools (Chisholm & Vally, 1996:31; Pager, 1996:7; Smith &
Pacheco, 1996: 159).
The following unfortunate situations currently still prevail at most schools:
o absenteeism or irregular attendance - some students and teachers simply
stand outside the classroom, talking, playing dice and cards and smoking;
o late-coming of teachers and students still seems to be a major concern;
o vandalism, gangsterism, rape and drug abuse at schools. Both teachers
and students even come to school intoxicated or teachers leave school
early to join students for heavy bouts of drinking; and
21
o dropping out due to pregnancy, sexual abuse at the school whilst teachers
turn a blind eye, or even participate in sexual practices (Chisholm & Vally,
1996:31; Nxumalo, 1993:55-58; Mashile & Melett, 1996:223; Smith &
Pacheco, 1996:158; Pager, 1996:60-61; Van Eeden, 1997:38-39).
From the above it seems that there is a complete lack of job ethics amongst
teachers and an absence of respect between learners and teachers.
2.5.3 Relationships between principals, students and teachers
Over the past 10 years there has been a major deterioration in the
relationship between students and teachers (pager, 1996:61). The
conflictual nature of the relationship between principals, heads of
departments, teachers and students has a debilitating effect on all involved
and appears to affect the culture of learning and teaching in all schools.
Management blames teachers and students for being ill-disciplined, teachers
blame management for being weak or authoritarian and students blame
teachers for being incompetent. There is a sense of isolation, lack of
communication and fragmentation between the different components. A
relationship of interdependency based on trust and respect should be
encouraged between the community and the school. A code of conduct in
each school incorporating school and classroom rules as well as clear
sanctions against all transgressors (learners, staff, parents and principal) is
necessary (Chisholm & Vally, 1996:31).
According to research done by Pager (1996:61) and Nxumalo (1993:57)
principals felt that they had no control over teachers and students, and
teachers who are unable to control their students or to enforce schools
policies are left with little authority or legitimacy. As one interviewee
remarked: "...students bully the teachers - they want to tell the teachers what
to do..." (pager, 1996:61). Students felt that teachers come unprepared for
22
their lessons, and are more concerned with upgrading their own qualifications
at the expense of the students. Teachers have taken advantage of the
students 'and the chaotic conditions in the schools in order to pursue their
own studies (Nxumalo, 1993:56).
In addition to the above, it appears that parental involvement in the school is
a major problem and that teachers experience little support from parents.
This is also understood to be partly due to parents not living in areas
adjacent to the school. There are only a few genuinely skilled and
experienced parents who are able to assist in building stronger links between
the school and the community. The parents committee is not always building
an active parent constituency by tapping the various community experiences
and skills (Chisholm & Vally, 1996:40).
2.5.4 Leadership, management and administration
Leadership, management and administration of the school is crucial in
ensuring a tone and ethos conducive to learning and teaching. Principals are
engulfed by the social conflicts and problems in the school, which often spiral
way beyond their capacity to deal with them. The roots of these difficulties lie
in the history of education in South Africa where for example teachers were
promoted to principalship as a reward for their loyalty. A younger, more
militant generation of teachers emerged and grew impatient with the seeming
collusion and conservatism of older teachers and principals. This resulted in
generational, political and educational conflict between the majority of
teachers and principals. In the report of Chisholm and Vally (1996:25)
dissatisfaction with principals and their management was summarised in the
following manner: "...there is a lack of firmness on the part of the school's
management structures. This includes improper allocation of duties, poor
time-tabling, lack of consultation, classes being without teachers, no
specification of objectives, no prior indication of proposed agendas".
23
Principals felt that they had no control over teachers and students and that
they could not find a way to restore discipline. Problems such as student
truancy could not be kept track of, due to teachers who did not bother to
complete registers (Chisholm & Vally, 1996:27; Nxumalo, 1993:60).
The Education Department does not always clarify and issue clear guidelines
on grievances and disciplinary procedures. Basic roles, responsibilities and
powers of different role players (including district directors), and hours of
attendance for students and teachers are not always clearly defined.
Management training on financial and human resource development is also
critical.
The lack of upgrading programmes for management personnel catering for
organisational, communication and administration skills is evident.
Appointments of new principals and vice-principals are problematic and need
to be carefully handled by the Education Department to ensure that the new
leaders and/or managers who assume these positions are capable of leading,
managing and facilitating the reconstruction process (Chisholm & Vally,
1996:40).
2.5.5 The schools and the Department of Education
Historically, the Department of Education was regarded as a distant
bureaucracy rather than a supportive presence. Some schools were of the
opinion that there was a continuation of the top-down approach without the
consultation or involvement of schools (Chisholm & Vally,1996:44, 45). This
left management, teachers, parents and learners unsupported and
unaccountable. The schools who were involved in the research undertaken
by Chisholm and Vally (1996:44, 45) indicated that the Department does not
act timeously, whether it be compensation for teachers hurt at school during
violence or for obtaining new books.
24
According to Chisholm and Vally (1996:46,47) as well as Nxumalo (1993:60),
the Education Department regards its own reconstruction process, (of which
changing. its ethos and culture as well as its capacity to deliver are vital
components), as in need of ongoing review. The following aspects which
could be regarded as a serious problem, should be attended to:
o the clarification of the roles and powers of the various stakeholders in the
school;
o admission policies;
o learner-teacher ratios;
o subject allocation per school;
o staff duty hours;
o break time (to retain learners' attention throughout the day and prevent
them from leaving the premises);
o organising of the timetable to include both curricula and extra curricula
activities;
o coordinating sporting and cultural codes; and
o clarification of the difference between school fees and school funds
(Chisholm & Vally 1996:46, 47; Nxumalo 1993:60).
Against the background of the above exposition of the creation of a culture of
teaching and learning and the collapse thereof subsequent paragraphs will
focus on the restoring of a culture of teaching and learning in South African
schools.
2.6 RESTORING OF A CULTURE OF TEACHING AND LEARNING
As an integral part of learning, the school should be viewed as a center of
social upliftment, skills sharing and knowledge. However, in order to secure
their commitment to achieve this, one should accept such values as non-
racialism, non-sexism, honesty, reliability, respect for others, fairness,
compassion or caring and tolerance (Badat, 1995: 151). To create an
environment (school), which is conducive to teaching and learning, the
25
participants or factors that play a part in the process, should be considered.
These participants or factors are:
o the learning environment (school);
o the learners;
o the teachers; and
o the teaching methods.
. 2.6.1 The learning environment
When attempting to define the term "learning environment", Hiemstra
(1991 :7) give different definitions taken from different authors. These include
the following:
o White (1972 in Hiemstra, 1991 :7) developed several criteria for assessing
physical environments, and Vosko (1984 in Hiemstra, 1991 :7) considered
several microcomponents of physical spaces, such as seating
arrangements and distance zones.
o Hiemstra and Sisco (1990 in Hiemstra, 1991 :7) developed a checklist of
items for analysing the appropriateness of various physical environmental
climate components, that are centered on sensory concerns, seating, and
furnishings.
o Galbraith (1990 in Hiemstra, 1991 :7) suggested that the educational
climate consists of both the physical environment and the psychological or
emotional climate (for example, what takes place during the first session
to establish a supportive, challenging, friendly, informal, and open
atmosphere) .
o Pappas (1990 in Hiemstra, 1991 :7) identified four key elements of (what
he calls) the so-called psychological environment, which includes spatial
behaviour, physical characteristics (light, temperature, noise, decor, and
26
furniture arrangements), the role of tradition, and the affective experience
(the way in which a person anticipates and responds to a learning
situation).
From the above-mentioned definitions, it appears that the "learning
environment" includes social, cultural and psychological elements as well as
physical features. Chrispeels (1992:161) is convinced that the "learning
environment" is responsible for a specific ethos in a school. When viewed in
this way, the ethos of the school would be influenced by the following:
o high expectations of both teachers and learners;
o discipline and order;
o recognition;
o positive home-school relations; and
o clear vision for the school.
It therefore seems that "learning environment" encompasses more than
merely the physical classroom, and could be defined in terms of a "classroom
climate". This view is endorsed by Cooper and Mclntyre (1996:90) who
clearly state that both cognitive and affective considerations are important for
teachers. Affective considerations deal with the establishment of a particular
social climate in the classroom. This means that teachers have to focus on
understanding theories about students' emotionality and the dynamics of
interpersonal and social interaction. Cognitive considerations, however,
focus on the aspects of the formal curriculum. Creating a learning
environment which is based upon both cognitive and affective considerations,
would therefore not only enable teachers to perform as effective teachers, but
would also enable students to perform as effective learners.
Better performance by learners were also identified in research done by
Ames ( Ames, 1992:261) who mention that learning environments influence
students' processing of information and cognition about their performance.
27
They indicated that learning environments could make different goals salient
and consequently affect the way in which students think about themselves,
their tasks and that of others.
Creating a classroom with such a nurturing climate, appears to be complex
when keeping in mind that a number of individual learners, each with their
own needs, are assembled in the classroom. Cushner, McClelland and
Safford (1992:311) endorse this view by regarding the classroom as a
complex environment that considers the individual, as well as the range of
abilities, experiences, knowledge attitudes and values the particular
individual brings into the classroom.
For the purpose of this research, the focus is primarily on the psychological
aspects of the learning environment. From the definitions and views given
above, the researcher regards the classroom as a nurturing environment
within which the learner could reach his/her full potential. Green (1997: 18)
supports this view when identifying 13 characteristics of a nurturing school:
(i) Students experience a sense of self-worth and acceptance.
(ii) Students feel safe and involved in their education.
(iii) There is mutual trust and positive interaction between teachers and
students.
(iv). A sense of community, family, and collaboration exists in the school.
(v) Individual difference and the self that is brought into the environment
are valued by all.
(vi) There is a sense of caring among individuals and a collective sense of
responsibility for student success.
(vii) The need for self-actualisation is respected.
(viii) There is recognition of a wide range of talents and the need for
empowering all individuals.
(ix) Teachers have an in-depth knowledge of students.
28
(x) The school models the values of the community and involves the
community in the education of students.
(xi) Teachers model caring attitudes for students.
(xii) Teachers demonstrate a love for their subject matter and continuously
pursue competence.
(xiii) Students value themselves and others.
The question is if this is really what learners want in the classroom? Through
research Fraser (1984:337) proved the question to be affirmative when he
found that learners preferred a more favourable classroom environment than
that which they perceived as actually being present. They preferred more
cohesiveness, more satisfaction, less friction, and less competitiveness.
Teachers also preferred a more positive classroom environment than that
which they experience at the time. Although this ideal in teaching is
influenced by various aspects, one of the determining factors is the learner-
teacher ratio.
* Learners per classroom (learner-teacher ratio)
According to the World Bank (1995:15) learning is enhanced in classes with
less than 25 learners, while there appears to be very little difference in
learning outcomes in classes with 25 to 40 learners. Where there are over 40
learners per classroom, however, achievement fails. According to a study
done by Pager (1996:52) in the Western Cape, the situation in South Africa is
as follows:
o Eight of the 23 teachers interviewed (35%) specifically referred to the
learner-teacher ratio as a major problem. While the learner-teacher ratio
has steadily improved over the past ten years, classrooms in African
schools remain unacceptably full. Compared to the overall Western Cape
average learner-teacher ratio for secondary schools of 19:1, African
29
this size was unmanageable. (In Chapter 4 of this thesis, the learner-
teacher ratio in the Free State Province is described in detail, cf. 4.7.1.1)
o Respondents in the Western Cape (Pager, 1996:52) indicated that class
size had a profound impact on the nature of instruction and discipline. In
terms of teaching styles, most teachers employed a system of straight
lecturing, dictation and memorisation. While this was often the result of
teachers' own experiences and training, attempts to intervene with more
innovative techniques were largely hindered by the number of learners.
Teachers were being encouraged (through training in an outcomes-based
approach) to use interactive styles of teaching, whereby students were to
discuss ideas and actively participate in the lesson. With a class of 50
students, however, it was extremely difficult for teachers to encourage
participation, much less offer individual attention. One teacher
commented that in some of her classes, the number of students was so
high that by the end of the year she still did not know some of her
students' names.
o The nature of discipline was also affected by the high learner-teacher
ratios. Although corporal punishment had been (officially) abolished in
schools since the Constitutional Court ruling of June 1995 (Mail &
. Guardian, 8/95 in Pager, 1996:52), in all four schools, Pager's research
indicated the contrary involved in this study, corporal punishment was still
in effect, though slightly more regulated. Teachers maintained that
corporal punishment was an essential means of control and discipline,
given the large class sizes. If teachers were assigned more manageable
numbers of learners, it was thought that other strategies to maintain
discipline might have been more effective. Cooper and Mclntyre
(1996: 18) agree with this view by stating that there are limits to the
number of different groups of distinctive individuals with whom a teacher
could cope at one time.
30
Chisholm and Vally (1996:23) regard the ideal learner-teacher ratio in all
primary schools as 40: 1 and in all secondary school classrooms as 35: 1.
Although redeployment offer a possible solution, this mechanism is likely to
increase tensions that already exist in schools. In order to address Grade 12
overcrowding, districts need to fix an upper limit for Grade 12 classrooms and
set up separate second chance learning programmes or institutions to cater
for Grade 12 repeaters. In this way, repeaters and first time learners in
Grade 12, are not grouped in the same class, which would decrease the
numbers of learners per classroom. Student admissions should not be done
at school level but at a district level in consultation with the particular schools.
This would imply that people who make the decisions at a district level, would
become aware of what is happening in schools. The districts should thus
develop a medium term plan of ways in which to alleviate the gross
overcrowding in some schools through analysing the student flow,· inter-
school mobility and student choice of subjects, identifying feeder schools,
and exploring possibilities for evening classes.
Since the learner is the central figure in the process of effective learning, it is
necessary to focus on the world of the learner.
2.6.2 The learner
Learners from all walks of life enter the same classroom, and are taught by
the same teacher. The question arises whether social class makes a
difference in the process of learning?
2.6.2.1 Social class
A study investigating the influence of the social class of the school on the
interactions and learning experiences going on was undertaken by Duffield
(1998:7). It was found that there were very little discussions about school
work in the low socio- economic class, both amongst the learners as well as
31
teachers. It seemed that they were not aware of the value of discussions or of
individual help. In the low socio-economic class, teachers appeared to be
more concerned about control and learner autonomy. This lack of discussion
may be a missed opportunity to motivate learners and to assist them in
aquiring something that is not only a tool for developing autonomy in
learning, but also an important life skill.
A related theme was researched by Ward and Herzag (1977: 101) who were
concerned whether learners from different social class preferred different
classroom settings. It was reported that culturally and economically
disadvantaged school children benefited more from structured classroom
settings than advantaged children. These results were motivated by the
observation that disadvantaged children had more freedom outside the
school than they could successfully cope with, while by contrast advantaged
children lived within a more structured environment. The significance of this
observation is that although sufficient structure is needed to provide a
learning experience, the need for more or less structure is related to socio-
economic factors and learning styles. The implication is therefore that the
educator must consider these aspects of his/her class when planning the
learning environment, pedagogical styles and media.
2.6.2.2 Learning styles and strategies
Learning styles are generally described as the way in which an individual
approaches and masters subject content. It is thus the manner in which a
person perceives and processes information in a learning situation (Loesch &
Foley, 1988:224, Korhohen & McCall, 1986:21). To this can be added the
broader definition of Lemmer and Squelch (1993:58): "Learning style is that
consistent pattern of behaviour in which a learner approaches and masters
learning content, discovers his or her world and forms concepts. It is formed
in the deep structure of neural organizations and personality which mould
and is moulded by human development and the cultural experiences at home,
32
school and society". From the definition it is apparent that although a
learning style is largely determined by inherited characteristics, it is also
influenced by the way a child socialises at home, within the community and at
the school (Chickering 1981:237). Chickering (1981:237) further maintains
that individual hereditary equipment, the particular past life experience and
the demands of the present environment, develop preferred learning abilities
over others. Each individual develops a unique learning style, which has
both strong and weak points. This view is supported by Pask (1976:368),
Nkamba (1995:2) as well as Lemmer and Squelch (1993:58).
Learning strategies refer to the immediate tactics that a learner uses to deal
with a specific learning situation. While learning strategies may be grounded
in the student's basic learning style, they incorporate adjustments for various
situational factors. Each student therefore uses distinctive ways in which to
tackle a problem-solving task. This strategy is then used constantly (Conti &
Welbourn, 1986:22; Pask, 1976:130; Moelwyn-Hughes & Sayed, 1993:14).
Various researchers (Entwistle, 1985:374; Ford, 1985:66) differentiate
between two main approaches of learning, namely the deep (holistic) and a
surface (serialistic) approach. In the deep approach the student starts with
the intention to extract meaning from the text. This leads to an active process
of learning during which the student challenges ideas, and also attempts to
see interrelationships amongst ideas. This is a holistic approach. The
person who takes this deep approach to learning has a qualitative conception
of the process, including the interpretation and reinterpretation of experience
ultimately leading to self-actualisation. Holists thus use a global approach
concentrating first on building broad descriptions into which details may be
fitted. They also make use of analogies in relating different aspects of the
subject.
With regard to the surface approach, the focus of attention in reading a text is
on the text itself. The student is concerned with the verbatim recall of either
33
the whole text or the facts and ideas presented in it. There is little or no
personal engagement in the act of learning. A surface approach to learning
thus leads to an outcome that is essentially a literal reproducing of the words
of textbooks, "authors" or instructors.
Students who follow a surface approach to learning, use the serialist strategy
to build understanding out of the component details, logical steps and
operations in a linear sequence. The serialist focuses on small chunks of
information, low. in hierarchical structure and with narrow focus. The
implication is that theoretical and practical aspects of a subject are typically
learnt as separate strands. From the above it appears that instructional
procedures in general and especially the materials for given procedures must
be designed in such a way as to relate to the cognitive characteristics of
learners: even within one culture, differences in learning style should be
accommodated to increase the effectiveness of the learning (Ward & Herzag,
1988:86). It is thus important to remember that learning is determined by the
learners' different cognitive abilities.
2.6.2.3 Cognitive abilities
Research on school effectiveness indicates that a learner's ability is not fixed
(Stall & Fink, 1996: 120), but can be modified by effective instruction.
Learning is also far more effective when dealing with the content in context.
It is important to note that there are multiple intelligences. According to
Gardner (1985: 120) people are more proficient in some areas than others. In
addition to logical mathematical intelligence, he describes linguistic, musical,
spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, and two kinds of personal intelligences; i.e.
interpersonal and intra-personal. The challenge is not one of sorting the fit
and the less fit, but rather of developing all of these kinds of intelligence.
Simpson (in Cooper & Mclntyre, 1996: 18) concluded that:
34
o It is in the interest of both teachers and learners to group children into
classes according to ability.
o The learner with lower ability needs more attention because his/her need
for teaching assistance is greater.
o The more able children in the class might be a helpful resource because
they could assist the other children to learn effectively and to solve
problems.
2.6.2.4 Motivation
Regardless of the ability of the learner, he/she has to be motivated by
something to learn.
A survey undertaken by 8rembeck's (1965 in Ward & Herzag, 1977:97),
interviewing 125 parents, teachers, headmasters and school inspectors,
concluded that there were four sources of educational aspirations:
o A dominant parent or another person of the learner's kin group who was
illiterate or had little schooling.
o A person who serves as an educated model.
o A drive for economic betterment.
o An anticipation of respect.
The negative side of this "motivating picture" is illustrated by the report by
Pager (1996:64), who found that, given the prior socio-economic situation of
South Africa, most skilled jobs were inaccessible to African applicants. The
incentives for dedicated learning and the completion of school were thus
limited. According to one teacher, lithe culture of learning and student-
teacher relations have deteriorated due to the learners' lack of prospects in
the world of work" (Pager,1996:64). Similarly, the then ANC Director of
Education, John Samuel, indicated that the turbulent history of South Africa,
35
"has destroyed the will to learn in many students because, (in addition to the
many other harmful effects), the system of education does not ensure access
to a job" .(Pager,1996:64). It has meant a whole generation of the youth of
this country has grown up believing that education and learning are of "no
value". It is consequently not surprising that the attendance and achievement
levels of those students who see little connection between education and
their financial future is low. This may result in the development of a poor self-
concept amongst the particular learners - a situation which negatively impacts
on effective learning,
2.6.2.5 Developing of the Self
To build self-esteem, schools must recognise individual differences.
"Children must be treated as whole people with many needs (social, physical,
affective, ethical and intellectual) and many ways to learn. Teachers must
know, understand, and develop appreciation and respect for students as
individuals" (Green,1997:19). This uniqueness must be nurtured in the
school. Stall and Fink (1996:126) argue that there is a direct connection
between how learners feel about themselves and their achievement in school.
The study of self-concept and its relationship to learning has been a
persistent and controversial theme in educational literature. In more recent
years, as more behaviouristic reforms have been mandated and fallen short
of improving learning, scholars have returned to the study of self-concept as
a key to improving learners' learning (Purkey, 1990:2; Beane, 1991:27).
School effectiveness research has also reported that school membership can
have an important impact upon the development of a child's self-concept
(Stall & Fink, 1996:127).
In the study of Cooper and Mclntyre (1996:99), the importance of the
students' affective states was emphasised. Both teachers and learners often
referred to student enjoyment or the experience of fun as an important
outcome, which could lead to effective learning. Underlying all good teaching
36
are certain goals and objectives that transcend specific disciplines. Often
more process-orientated than content-orientated, many of these objectives
are directly relevant to creating a classroom environment that promotes
effective interaction and learning. According to Cushner et al., (1992:296)
these goals should be directed at creating classrooms where the following
aspects of learners are nurtured:
. 0 Self-image, self-concept and self-esteem
Students need to develop a positive self-image, which can be defined as "a
complex set of beliefs that an individual holds true about him/herself'
(Cushner et al. 1992:296). A self-image may reflect a view about the total
self, or it may be specific, reflecting beliefs about one's academic ability,
physical attractiveness or ability to get along with others. Research reveals
that the relationship between self-image and school success is somewhat
unbalanced (Cushner et aI.1992:296). While individuals with low self-esteem
rarely achieve well in school, the opposite is not necessarily true. Cushner et
al. (1992:296) explains: "when a student with low self-esteem enters a
classroom, self-concept becomes one of the most challenging individual
differences in how he or she will learn". Because students with a negative
self-image are not fully able to learn, the school becomes the arena for failure
which prevents them from achieving the success needed for high self-esteem.
Nurturance of self-esteem in the classroom is possible and does not require a
lowering of standards or inattention to subject matter. It should rather be one
of the overriding goals of good teaching. Environments which invite student
participation and where involvement is highly encouraged send the message
to students that their experiences are respected and valued and that their
contributions are important. Cushner et.al. (1992:297) believe that some
teachers too often expect a certain proportion of learners to fail. They also
give up on children with behavioural problems (Gordon, Duke & Meckel,
1984:25).
37
o Personal identity
A healthy classroom climate helps the student to develop a sense of identity,
which is related to the need to belong. The child arrives at the school
belonging to a home/family and needs to feel that he/she belongs at the
school - in the school cultural differences are especially important. All
people need to feel they belong in order to reduce their anxiety and to
perform well. It is the teacher's responsibility to encourage learners to enter
the classroom, and also to create an atmosphere that recognises individuals
and rewards their contributions to the school environment.
o Sense of pride
To develop a sense of pride is especially difficult in multicultural situations
since many learners don't feel that they are being recognised as viable
entities, but rather experience discrimination and exclusion and consequently
become withdrawn and even hostile. What is needed is a more inclusive
curriculum and greater emphasis on discussion, debate and knowledge about
the actual role of different groups (Cushner et al., 1992:299). (Curriculum
and content will be addressed later in a following subsection of this chapter).
o Sense of connectedness
This is problematic in an environment where children are taught to compete,
since they should reach towards "we're all in this together". A more valid
question to create a sense of connectedness would rather be: How are we
similar/different or how do we affect one another with regards to interpersonal
relationships?
38
o Sense of confidence
Learners need to develop confidence in their ability to act in the face of
injustice and discrimination. Amongst objectives of schooling is the
developing of citizenship, of creating decision-makers who are able to act in
their community.
From the above it can be concluded that teachers do make a difference to
many students. They can either make students feel extremely special or
cause them to feel incompetent and worthless. At this point the question
arises: What are the qualities of teachers who make positive differences in
the lives of their students? Students repeatedly emphasise that the ability to
establish a democratic classroom where all students are treated equitably, is
vitally important (Sadker & Sadker, 1982:2).
The role of the Curriculum in effective learning will now be briefly focussed
upon.
2.6.2.6 Curriculum
When commenting on curriculum issues, the teachers interviewed in the
research of Pager (1996:56) indicated that the existing biases which pervade
the curriculum have serious impact on the culture of learning. If the
information given is incorrect, students don't feel as if school provides for
their future.
Cooper and Mclntyre (1996: 13) also underline the necessity of transforming
the cumcuturn for the purpose of. teaching. This entails a process. of
transformation which is divided into three sub-processes:
39
o Alternative ways of representing the subject matter (metaphors, analogies,
illustrations, activities and assignments to transform the content for
instruction).
o Adaptation to the characteristics of the learners.
o Tailoring the materials to the specific students in the class.
It appears that, .in the presence of student resistance, teachers sometimes
tend to water content down in order to maintain authority.
According to McNeil (1985:190) it appeared that teachers deliberately.
adapted .thelr teaching styles to accommodate top-down administrative
strategies, for example to call for little or no student writing, only reading or
discussion. These teachers consequently developed a teacher culture
around the need for authority and efficiency in an institution that did not
provide either. Teachers thus preferred authority over content.
The last aspect of learners that influence effective learning is the concept of
expectations which could have a major effect on academic achievement, as
will be related in the following paragraph.
2.6.2.7 Expectations
Cooper & Mclntyre (1996:22) suggest that the amount of effort that students
are willing to put into a learning activity as well as their degree of persistence
is determined by their expectations with regard to success and failure, the
value they give the activity, and the extent to which they believe that their
own strategic efforts influence outcomes. These expectations are largely
determined by teachers who frequently influence the academic outcome of
the learners, where failure often results in cynicism and low self-esteem
40
(Gordon, Duke & Meckel, 1984:25; Stall & Fink, 1996:127; Laslett & Smith,
1985:21-22).
Laslett and Smith (1985:2) also maintain that differential expectations are
reflected in the way in which teachers talk to different learners, ask questions
and by the amount of time they spend with them. Other actions such as
looking at stance and posture are non-verbal indications of a teacher's
attitude which can convey to learners that although some are capable, others
are dull, incapable and irresponsible. In this way the teacher's attitude and
behaviour could also contribute to the student's failure in school.
Laslett and Smith (1985:21-22) reveal that teachers behave differently
towards groups of whom they have high expectations, than towards those of
whom they expect little. It is not possible or desirable to expect the same
performance from all learners, nor is it possible to treat them all in exactly the
same way, since they all have different abilities and individual needs. It is
therefore important that a teacher should be aware of expectations and to be
flexible in their approach. When responding to learners, of whom they hold
either low or high expectations, teachers can be over-reactive, reactive or
proactive. Over-reactive teachers have rigid and stereotyped perceptions,
dismissing the slow learner's capacity to improve or the troublemaker's
potential for reform. These teachers underestimate what some children are
able to give up easily when the particular children perform poorly. Reactive
teachers are less likely to aggravate perceived differences by an inflexible
approach. They tend to be passive in their acceptance of low achievers,
rather than being active in trying to compensate for differences. Proactive
teachers more readily take the initiative in overcoming learning problems.
Realistic perceptions of difficulties will be used to plan individual instruction,
and intervention will be made to preserve a balanced participation in class
activities for both high and low achievers. This indicates that teachers
generally vary in their expectations of success or failure.
41
Teachers should however always bear in mind that their expectations have
an effect on students' ability or achievement. All expectations may serve as
self-fulfilljng prophecies. One would have to conclude that teachers should
refrain from holding expectations of students and that they should not have
access to the results of tests measuring ability or achievement, or any other
information about students that might produce expectations, either inaccurate
or accurate, positive or negative ( Dubcis. 1977:52).
Lemmer and Squelch (1993: 71-72) are of the opinion that teachers
frequently form expectations of the behaviour of whole classes of learners.
A certain class thus comes to be regarded as particularly bright, noisy or well-
behaved. In addition to reacting to stereotypes, factors such as gender,
socio-economic status, appearance and cultural background determine a
person's perception. Lemmer and Squelch (1993:71-72) also indicate that
expectations of other people's behaviour are either based upon fact and
perceptions or on interpretations of another person's behaviour. When
teachers thus communicate their beliefs about students in a positive way,
learners begin to believe in themselves and do their best to achieve success.
This is referred to as the Pygmalion effect, which has particular implications
'for the teacher in the multicultural classroom. Multiculturalism can however
also lead to negative attitudes based upon the socio-economic status or
cultural background of the learners. For this reason it is important that
teachers in a multicultural classroom have an understanding of the role that
expectations play in determining the motivation of learners. With this
understanding teachers can establish effective relationships with learners
from a variety of backgrounds and cultures.
Since the processes of learning and teaching are interrelated, it seems
relevant at this stage of the research to focus upon the teacher as an
imperative role-player in effective learning.
42
2.6.3 The teacher
In a country such as South Africa, where a culture of learning and teaching is
lacking, one would have to agree with Lynn (1994: 16) that it is important that
teachers set a good example for students. A courteous, prompt, patient and
self-controlled teacher will probably succeed in producing students with
similar behaviour patterns than his/her own. If a teacher is able to change
behaviour patterns in learners, one wonders what characteristics such an
effective teacher would possess.
2.6.3.1 Characteristics of the effective teacher
Banks (1981: 197) suggests that the first and most important characteristic of
an effective teacher is the ability to create a climate of emotional warmth that
dissipates students' fears in the classroom and fulfils their expectations of
highly personalised relationships. This view is also valued by Weinstein
(1989:55) and Mahlios and Maxon (1995: 195), who found that student
teachers value teacher attributes which promote strong relationships with
students, including compassion, friendliness, warmth, concern, the ability to
relate to children, the capacity to communicate well and patience. They also
reported that student teachers primarily emphasise teacher effectiveness in
terms of teacher caring, nurturing and imagination. In addition to warmth and
compassion, Perrot (1982: 1) indicates that effective teachers should be
organised and business-like, stimulating, imaginative and enthusiastic.
2.6.3.2 The effective teacher's awareness of learners' behaviour
Teachers have to move from a "teacher centred" to a "learner centred" view
of effective instruction. Wilson and Cameron (1996: 194) emphasise that
teachers need to be personal committed to children in order to translate their
caring and commitment into worthwhile instructional outcomes. This means
43
that the teacher shall be on the look-out for differences in behaviour amongst
learners.
o Teachers must specifically be able to distinguish between different forms
of behaviour that may influence learning, such as children being bored,
fidgety, hesitant, unmotivated, fussy, and noisy (Cooper & Mclntyre,
1996:15,16).
Key issues in teachers' notions of differences amongst learners are listed by
Cooper & Mclntyre (1996: 142) as the following:
o They need to make judgements about learners' abilities in order to plan
appropriate differentiated work;
e They have to make judgements on learner performance and behaviour in
order to determine to what degree they (the learners) can hinder the
process, or do not alert the teacher with regard to their state of
understanding.
o They need to identify learners whose behavioral characteristics require
particular attention regarding the design of learning tasks and lesson
activities.
o They need to identify learners whose personal characteristics are a
source of personal interest or stimulation to teachers.
Caring for children to such a degree, necessitates a certain "climate" in the
classroom as discussed in 2.6.1. In the following section emphasis will be on
the teacher's role of creating this climate.
44
2.6.3.3 Teachers creating a "learning climate"
Although Wilson and Cameron (1996:182) suggest that experienced
teachers tend to focus on the organisational and structural aspects of
teaching, other studies indicate differently. Wilson and Cameron (1996:182)
have found that even experienced teachers place student centred elements
such as classroom climate and positive student-teacher interaction at the
centre of their constructions of effective teaching. Hughes (1994:200)
indicates that in Australia teachers are perceived by themselves and their
students as effective in terms of their interpersonal skills, rather than their
management or content expertise. Reid, Hopkins and Holly (1987:85)
accentuates relationships by saying that successful management occurs in
conditions where warm relationships; liking and understanding learners are
apparent; and being consistent and fair are at the order of the day. In other
words, teachers have to be aware of the child's world. (Duffield,1998:7)
endorses this by indicating that the work of a teacher is to build
t understanding of how, in varied circumstances, but particularly those
I associated with low achievement and low self-esteem, learners perceive their
lives in school with regard to learning. This is a vital area for promoting
opportunities for achievement.
Teachers are also viewed as actors, their effect on learners' achievements
being mediated by their influence on the learners' thinking. The latter
specifically refers to the effect on student perceptions, expectations,
motivations, attentional processes, attributions, memories,· understanding,
beliefs, attitudes, learning strategies and metacognitive processes ( Cooper &
Mclntyre, 1996:20). These "acting" styles of teachers could be perceived as
different teaching approaches in an attempt to arrive at effective learning.
45
2.6.3.4 Teaching approaches
The teacher is expected to be knowledgeable about, and apply different
teaching approaches. The most important feature of a teaching approach is
the degree to which a teacher adapts to a student or group of students,
implying degrees of reading and flexing. The most suitable teaching
approach for a particular situation cannot be specified in advance since its
central feature lies in its flexibility.
Teachers should view their current range of teaching styles as a base from
which they can develop a wider repertory. The teacher can be in a position
to "read" a student to discover what the student requires, but may not be able
to provide the required approach. He/she should attempt new teaching
approaches with specific teaching skills. The acquiring of new teaching skills
through in-service development enhances the range of learners with whom a
teacher can work effectively (Dubois, 1977:51-53).
Dubais (1977:51-53) also researched differences in teaching styles in relation
to difference in temperament and personality types. He reported that
temperament and personality type theories allow teachers to evaluate
themselves, as well as their students in ways that lead to effective learning
experiences that could contribute to meeting the needs of everyone.
According to these theories, people learn and teach differently, because they
are different. By learning the necessary techniques, teachers will be able to
recognise the strengths that their particular style brings to the teaching
process, and will also learn how to communicate with people with other
teaching styles. Although this might be useful information, it is not relevant to
the purpose of this study and will not be elaborated on.
The relevance of the teacher in the process of effective learning, however, is
an issue which needs to be addressed.
46
2.6.3.5 The relevance of the teacher
Learning can take place, or fail to take place independently of teaching. This
means that a learner can learn a great deal without a teacher through
individual study, or can learn very little despite the most intensive attention
from a teacher, depending on internal variables, such as interest, purpose,
attitude and attention to task. Learners are agents of their own learning.
Teachers cannot do the learning for them. They can of course 'match' to
internal variables, that is, to make learning possible, not guarantee it.
Teachers therefore, have to be facilitators in the sense that they have to
make learning possible. Once they have done this, the success of their efforts
depends most crucially on what the learner decides to do next. Once we
accept that learning is something learners 'do' for themselves, for their own
reasons, rather than being the product of something which is done 'to' them,
then we realise that this is the point where the teacher's responsibility ends.
It is nevertheless important that the teacher still takes responsibility for
making learning possible by presenting. material appropriate to the cognitive
requirements of the learner (Silcock, 1993: 17).
Researchers such as Reid et al. (1987:352) and Sanday (1990:32) claim that
teachers not only make a difference, but they do so in ways that can be
altered to justify the work of trainers and advisers.
Sanday (1990: 32 ) indicated that despite the fact that at some schools
improvement projects do not work, they can succeed when teachers are
sufficiently interested to make the improvements happen. The quality of
teaching staff is perhaps the single most important factor. Schools with weak
staff will never be as effective as schools with strong staff (Reid et.al.,
1987:358)
47
Since the teacher is a key element in the process of effective learning, a brief
exposition of teaching methods that could facilitate effective learning, will now
be give..
2.6.4 Teaching methods conducive to effective learning
The importance of teacher behaviour in the classroom has been the theme of
considerable research over the past 20 years, focusing on predictably
successful teaching practices. The findings primarily outline fundamental or
basic skills necessary to create a climate for effective learning (Stall & Fink,
1996:127). Effective learning takes place when the learner is actively
involved in the process of learning. More emphasis is placed on social
interactions amongst learners than on one-way communication.
"Effectiveness" depends as much on the independent actions and
responsibilities of the learners as on the behaviour of the teacher (Cooper &
Mclntyre, 1996:5; Silcock, 1993:18; Cushner et.al., 1992:113; Claxton,
1990:8; Smith & Pacheco, 1996:159).
A teaching method is also said to be effective when the learner is met on
'his/her level of development. Learning situations should also be created in
which learners draw on what they already know as a vehicle for reaching new
learning. This implies that the content and learning objectives are adjusted to
accommodate students' interest and existing knowledge (Cooper & Mclntyre,
1996:127; Claxton, 1990:7; Smith & Pacheco, 1996:159).
The learner is able to form relations between existing and new acquired
knowledge. This means that new information should not be memorised as
bits and pieces of informati.on, but as part of a structured whole (Smith &
Pacheco, 1996:159). When effective learning has taken place, the learner
must be able to integrate new knowledge as part of his/her own frame of
reference. Only then can knowledge become useful to solve problems
(Smith & Pacheco, 1996:159; Stall & Fink, 1996:128).
48
To achieve the above-mentioned objective, lessons will have to be planned
carefully.
2.6.4.1 Lesson planning
According to the study of Cooper and Mclntyre (1996: 113) effective teaching
and learning can take place when the lesson relates to the following:
o the learners' interest;
o the learners' knowledge and understanding;
o the learners' motivation;
e the learners' preferred ways of working;
e the learners' preferred style of learning;
o the learners' expectations; and
G a choice of learning activities and teaching strategies, for example:
making the agenda for the lesson explicit;
recapping on previous lessons;
story telling techniques;
oral explanations combined with questions, and answers as well
as notes, diagrams and pictures (visual stimuli); and
use of drama/role play.
Emphasis is also placed on group work (cooperative learning) as part of the
lesson presentation. Various researchers (Stall & Fink, 1996: 128; Cushner
et. al., 1992:30; Cooper & Mclntyre, 1996:109) regard this strategy to be a
powerful alternative to traditional instructional models since it has the
potential to assist learners to experience success. When learners help each
other to learn what they need to know, they contribute to the reaching of
affective goals such as cooperation, teamwork, tolerance of others and
positive self-esteem.
49
There seems to be a strong conviction amongst learners and teachers that
effective learning and teaching is a transactional process. To conclude this
chapter, attention will subsequently be focussed upon interrelationships
between learners and teachers as being part of the teaching of effective
learning.
2.6.4.2 The relationship between learners and teachers
Teaching and learning is a dynamic and interactive process. The teacher's
behaviour in the classroom is a key factor in assisting all students to reach
their potential regardless of sex, ethnicity, age, religion, language or
exeptionality (Cushner et ai., 1992:311; Gollnick & Chinn, 1983:310). The
way in which the teacher interacts with the learners is a major determinant of
the quality of education that the child receives. The teacher is expected to
take major responsibility for the nature of this relationship of which
communication forms an integral part (US Commission on Civil rights, 1973:3;
Gordon, Duke & Meckel, 1984:35).
This relationship between learners and teachers often does has the potential
to develop into a conflict situation, especially in the present cultural and
economical climate in South Africa. This problem is evident since the
learners don't visualise economic welfare and employment as part of their
future. This view is supported by Carlson (1985:177), who comments on the
fact that learners seem to have the power to determine the work-rate as well
as the standards, especially in schools in a working-class neighbourhood,
where they regard school as necessary only to become literate. Schools thus
become a site of overt work conflict, and the learners unburden much of their
general discontent upon teachers as the human representatives of the
curriculum and school routine. Students however also unburden their hostility
upon one another, especially along racial, ethnic and gender lines. This is
also why classroom control or management, as it is known currently, are
more of a concern while encounters with the subject matters seem secondary.
50
Often the engagement between teachers and learners resembles a pitched
battle without any winners. To gain student compliance, the teachers will give
up of their expectations of the quality of student's work and the pace at which
it should be. Students thus use their individual and collaborative power to
slow down the flow of work and alter the goals of production. By not pushing
the learners too hard, conflict is avoided. In a study of delinquents, Altbach,
Kelly and Weiss (1978: 67) found that very little was expected of them in
terms of serious work, as teachers allowed them to get away with non-work
behaviour as long as they kept classroom disruptions to the minimum.
Refusal to take work seriously and refusal to compete for rewards and
credentials have left the system in a state of a crisis. However, to gain the
compliance of learners through the use of more authoritarian methods would
only exacerbate conflict.
Glasser (1985:92) believes that even conflict can be dealt with by involving
both teachers and learners. In this way learners will be involved in the
process, and rewards and punishment will be replaced by cooperation.
Teachers will also realise the needs of students. Since the students will be
part of the process they will continuously try to improve it.
2.7 CONCLUSION
This chapter dealt with the creating of a culture of teaching and learning. The
nature of a culture of teaching and learning was defined as well as a
description of the causes of the collapse thereof.
Factors which influenced the restoring of a culture of teaching and learning
were discussed, including the learning environment, the learner, the teacher
and teaching methods inducive to effective learning.
The following chapter will focus upon the concept "Invitational Education".
INVITATIONAL EDUCATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
According to a 1990 survey conducted by the Carnegie Foundation (Purkey &
Stanley, 1991: 13) many, if not most, teachers in the United States of America would
choose a different career if they were given a second chance. Counselors report
"compassionate fatique", principals express "disillusionment" and learners are
viewed as apathetic, passive and uninterested.
The implication is that learners are on the receiving end of education. Little attention
is given to the nature of these individuals who attend the school, the structure of the
school environment and the way learners feel about the school and classroom,
which are often perceived as dull and interesting for learners, who are not coping
with what is expected of them (Green, 1997:17). According to Purkey and Novak
(1984:13) both positive and negative teacher behaviour have a powerful impact in
shaping the child's self-concept (this will be dealt with in more detail in a subsequent
paragraph, cf. 3.4.2). The question which arises is why some teachers behave in
productive ways in terms of their learners, while others adopt destructive behaviour?
Purkey and Novak (1984:13) believe it is true to teacher expectations - specifically
to what is known as the "pygmalion effect". Hutslar (1981:13) echoes this: "the
basic tenet of the pygmalion effect is that one gets what one expects." In other
words, the implication of the pygmalion effect is that high expectations may lead to
good results. Purkey and Novak (1984:13) specify that the perceived productive or
destructive teacher behaviour results from both intentional and unintentional
"invitations" transmitted to learners, which affect their success or failure in school.
The findings of these studies indicate that inviting teachers are also effective
52
teachers. This concept of "inviting teachers" subsequently developed into a model of
education which will now be dealt with in the following section:
3.2 WHAT IS INVITATIONAL EDUCATION?
Although Invitational Education is a developing approach, it has already provided a
fresh conception of education - it is forming a new image of what teachers can do
and what schools can become. Invitational education is a general framework for
thinking and acting about what is believed to be worthwhile in schools (Purkey &
Novak, 1996:2). According to Purkey and Stanley (1991: 15), unlike any other model,
invitational education, addresses the global nature of schools. William Stafford
(Purkey & Stanley, 1991: 15) captured the essence of invitational education by
indicating that "invitational education has a much wider focus of application than is
typically discussed in other self-theories. It is deliberately aimed at broader goals
than learners and their achievement alone. It is geared to the total development of
all who interact within the school. It is concerned with more than grades, attendance
and even perceptions of self. It is concerned with the skills of becoming". In other
words, invitational education is a democratically oriented, perceptually anchored,
self-concept approach to the educative process (Purkey & Novak, 1996:3).
Invitational Education as a theory of practice is cammended by the majority of those
who have put it into practice as a possible solution to many modern-day problems of
education. Claims are being made about the success some educationists have
experienced. Success in this regard means the improvement of the spiritual,
psychological and physical well-being of those who have been treated invitingly - the
learners. References are being made by educationists who have put this theory into
practice, with regard to the beneficial effect invitational education has on the
learners' selfconcept, selfperceptions, levels of achievement - in essence to the
improved realisation of the learners' human potential. Those who subscribe to this
theory also testify about the personal and professional benefits they have reaped
from putting the theory into practice and from actually living in according to the
principles and guidelines óf invitational education. In fact, there is overwhelming
evidence that Invitational Education works, that it does what it intends to do, that it is
better to invite and to be invited than not to be (Kok, 1992: 87).
53
Invitational education is that part of education that specifically addresses the vital
role of the teacher in the education/learning process. It picks up where countless
other programs and models left off by providing an overarching guide for education.
This guide makes explicit what has previously been implicit that the primary goal of
education is to cordially summon individuals to see themselves as able, valuable,
and responsible and to behave accordingly. Invitational education provides a
guiding framework for a variety of educational processes, programmes, policies,
places, and human activities that accord with the four basic elements of invitational
education (purkey & Stanley, 1991:16; Purkey & Novak, 1996:2).
In order to understand invitational education and teaching, one has to become
familiar with its basic assumptions.
3.3 BASIC ASSUMPTIONSOF INVITATiONAl EDUCATiON
Invitational Education is an approach to the education-learning process that is
centered on interconnected assumptions offered to understand these myriad positive
and negative signal systems that exist within the total educational environment (Kok
& Swart, 1988:260).
It is a theory of practice aimed at communicating caring and appropriate messages,
intended to summon forth the realisation of humanpotential, as well as for identifying
and changing those forces in schools that could defeat and destroy potential.
Invitational Education asserts that every person and everything in and around
schools either adds positive elements to, or substracts negative elements from, the
process of being a beneficial presence in the lives of learners. Ideally, the aspects of
people, places, policies, programs and processes should be so intentionally inviting
as to create an environment in which every person is cordially summoned to develop
intellectually, socially, physically, psychologically, and spiritually to his/her fullest
potential (Steyn, 1993a:121; Russel, 1984:355; Kok & Swart, 1988:260)
54
Invitational Education is based upon the following four assumptions:
o All individuals are able, valuable and responsible and should be treated
accordingly.
o Education is a cooperative activity in which process is as important as product.
o Individuals possess relatively untapped potential in all areas of human
development.
o This potential can be realised through places, policies, procedures and programs
that are specifically designed to facilitate human development, and through
people who are intentionally inviting with themselves and others, personally and
professionally ( Steyn 1993a:107; Steyn 1994:54; Kok, Smith & Swart, 1992:8;
Purkey & Novak 1996:3).
Since any new model of education should stem from a solid theoretical background,
Invitational Education is no exception. The theories from which it was developed will
now be discussed.
3.4 THE THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF INViTATIONAl EDUCATION
According to Purkey and Stanley (1991 :30) and Kok and Swart (1988:262),
Invitational Education is based on two successive foundations, providing an
overarching logical framework. These two foundations, the perceptual tradition and
self-concept theory, is illustrated in figure 3.1, thus indicating the way in which the
two theories support Invitational Education.
55
Education
Self-concept theory
The perceptual tradition
Figure 3.1 Theoretical Foundations of lnvltational EducatioD1l
3.4.~ The perceptual tradition
One's perceptions of oneself and the world are so real that an individual seldom
pauses to doubt them. Since persons behave in terms of their personal perceptions,
effective helping should start with the helper's understanding of the nature and
dynamics of perceiving (Purkey & Stanley 1991:30).
At the base of Invitational Education is the perceptual tradition. This tradition
maintains that human behaviour is the product of the way in which individuals view
the world, themselves and others. The term perceptual refers not only to the senses,
but also to meanings - the personal significance of events for the experiencing
person. This perceptual process transcends sensations to include feelings, desires,
purposes, explanations and aspirations.
The perceptual tradition stands in contrast to other theoretical viewpoints that depict
human behaviour as basically a complex bundle of stimuli and. responses or the
product of a host of unconscious urges and suppressed desires. Rather than
"objective" reality or "unconscious" forces, the perceptual tradition gives primary
importance to each individual's perceived world. None of us live from the paradigm
of objective facts, but rather according to the way in which each one of us perceive
the facts, and what these facts mean to us (Purkey & Stanley 1991:31; Kok, Smith &
Swart, 1992:6; Kok & Swart 1988:262).
56
A number of basic assumptions of the perceptual tradition have been identified by
Purkey and Schmidt (1987:30 ).
o There may be a pre-existent reality, but each individual can only know the
part of which comprises his or her perceptual world, the world of
awareness.
o All experiences are phenomenal in character: The fact that two individuals
share the same physical environment does not mean that they have the
same experiences.
o Perceptions at any given moment exist at countless levels of awareness,
from the vaguest to the sharpest.
" Because people are limited in what they can perceive, they are highly
selective in what they choose to perceive.
Cl) What individuals choose to perceive is determined by past experiences as
mediated by present purposes, perceptions, expectations, and aspirations.
o Individuals tend to perceive only that which is relevant to their purposes
and make their choices accordingly.
o Choices are determined by perceptions, not facts. How a person acts is a
function of his or her perceptual field at the moment of acting.
(il No perception can ever be fully shared or totally communicated because it
is embedded in the life of the individual.
e. "Phenomenal absolutism", which means that people tend to assuf!1e that
others perceive as they do. If others perceive differently, it is often thought
to be because others are mistaken or because they lie.
57
o The perceptual field, including the perceived self, is internally organised
and personally meaningful. When this organisation and rneaninq are
threatened, emotional problems are likely to result.
o People not only perceive the world of the present, they also reflect on past
experiences and imagine future ones to guide their behaviour.
o Beliefs can and do create their own social reality. People respond with
feelings not only to "reality", but to their perceptions of reality.
o Reality can exist for an individual only when he or she is conscious of it
and has some relationship with it.
Cl Communication depends on the process of acquiring greater mutual
understanding of one another's phenomenal field.
These fourteen assumptions are based upon the premise that all behaviour is a
function of the individual's perceptual field. A learner's (or teacher's) behaviour may
make little or no sense when observed from an external viewpoint, but the same
behaviour makes perfect sense when understood through the eyes of the perceiving,
behaving individual.
The basic contents of the perceptual theory is thus that people behave according to
the way in which they see themselves and according to the situation in which they
find themselves. Every person therefore behaves in a manner that makes the most
sense to him/her at a given time or a particular situation (Kok, Smith & Swart,
1992:7; Purkey & Novak '1996: 22 - 23).
The second theory upon which Invitational Education is based, namely the self-
concept theory, will now be focussed upon ..
58
3.4.2 Self-concept theory
The second corner stone of Invitational Education is the self-concept theory. After
decades of neglect, self-concept is currently enjoying renewed attention from
researchers. Scientists from many disciplines are discovering that self-concept gives
consistency and predictability to the entire human personality.
One major figure who consistently kept sight of the importance of self-concept was
Carl Rogers. In Rogers's view, the self-concept is the central ingredient in human
personality and personal adjustment. . Rogers described the self as a social product
developing out of interpersonal relationships. He maintained that the self strives for
consistency and proposed that there is a basic human need for positive regard, both
from others and from oneself. A major contribution of Rogers was his vision that in
every human being there is a tendency towards self-actualisation as long as it is
allowed by the environment (Hall & Lindzey,1978: 281; Purkey & Stanley, 1991:
34).
Of all perceptions, the perception of the self is the most powerful. It acts as the
basic motive for human behaviour. The self-concept can be described as the sum
total of all· the perceptions that a person has of him/herself, where perception
indicates what the person experiences and hears what other people say about
him/her. Nobody is born with it. It is learned and perceived through the ways in
which a person is treated by others. Other people "create" the belief one has in
oneself. If somebody else believes in a person, he/she would possibly believe the
same about him/herself. If a person perceives him/herself as valueless,
irresponsible and unworthy, that is what he/she will believe about him/herself. What
other people believe about us, is what we believe about ourselves (Kok, Smith &
Swart, 1992:8; Kok & Swart,1988:262; Purkey & Novak, 1996: 26 - 27).
The vital role of self-concept as a possible causal agent in academic achievement
was presented by Midkiff, Burke, Hunt and Ellison (Purkey & Stanley, 1991:35) in
their research on the role of self-concept in academic attainment. They concluded
that learners' post-performance self-concepts of academic attainment were
59
influenced primarily by their initial self-concepts of academic attainment and, to a
lesser extent, by their actual academic achievement and performance.
Helmke (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :35), in a study of children's self-concept of ability
and mathematical achievement, found that learners with high self-concepts had
expectations of success, rather than a fear of failure. They persisted longer at a
task, despite boredom, lack of interest in assigned work, and mistakes made.
Learners with low self-concepts were more likely to have task-irrelevant cognitions
during tests that negatively influenced with their ability to perform well. Purkey and
Stanley (1991: 35) reported that the connection between the self-concept of the
learner and school achievement is formed as early as the first grade.
To conclude: Self-concept may be defined as the totality of a complex and dynamic
system of learned beliefs that each individual holds to be true about his or her
personal existence. This self-concept comes from influences at home, school and in
circumstances where we have continuous feedback about themselves from others.
This belief-system provides consistency in personality and predictability in
behaviour. Self-concept has at least five characteristics: It is (1) organised, (2)
dynamic, (3) consistent, (4) modifiable, and (5) learned. These characteristics are
now discussed.
3.4.2.1 Organised
Self-concept researchers (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :36; Purkey, 1970:7; Maslow,
1956: 127) agree that the self is characterised by internal harmony and orderliness.
Anyone who has ever said, "Oh, I could never do that," can understand how each
person strives to maintain an organisation of internal beliefs and external behaviour.
Individual personality is a road map for living. Without this internal organisation and
direction, human personality would be difficult to imagine. This is where people tell
themselves that they are good learners, or loyal colleagues (Purkey, 1978:7; Purkey
& Stanley, 1991 :36).
60
3.4.2.2 Dynamic
A second quality of self-concept is that it is dynamic. Combs (1949:30) maintained
that the maintenance, protection, and enhancement of the perceived self (one's own
personal existence as viewed by the perceiving individual) are the basic conditions
behind all human behaviour. For example, suppose a learner sees him- or herself
as incapable of learning algebra. Because of the dynamic. nature of the self, the
learner creates the facts that make his or her perceptions come true. The learner
does not study because he or she believes one cannot learn algebra, and
subsequently fails. Paradoxically, being right, even about being a poor learner, has
reward value: "See, I told you I was no good at algebra!" (Purkey & Stanley, 1991:
36; Purkey, 1978:10).
3.4.2.3 Consistent
Individuals require a certain amount of internal consistency. Without this
consistency, a stable personality would be difficult to imagine. From a lifetime of
analysing one's own behaviour and the reactions of others to that behaviour, each
person acquires expectations about what actions are appropriate. When an
individual behaves in a manner that appears inconsistent with the self, a state of
discomfort develops. This .discomfort, according to Festinger ( Purkey & Stanley,
1991 :36), occurs when one behaves in a way that is not in keeping with one's self-
concept. To avoid discomfort, learners cling to their perceptions of themselves, no
matter how detrimental these perceptions might be.
An example of self-concept consistency in action was provided by one of the
Festinger's junior high school learners who thought of himself as a very poor learner
(Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :36). He insisted on seeing himself as such in spite of ample
evidence to the contrary. He would even sabotage his own good work to maintain
his self-image as a poor learner.
61
3.4.2.4 Modifiable
As noted earlier, the self-concept can be described as the sum total of perceptions.
It is an active and continuous flow of thoughts and feelings. In every reasonably
healthy person new ideas filter into the self-concept throughout the life span, while
old ideas drift away. This constant flow allows for infinite modifiability of the
perceived self and relatively boundless potential for the realisation of human
potential (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :37).
Sometimes the self resists change as much as possible in order to enjoy a
consistent and organised world. The self will, however, change if conditions are
favourable, for example if a child perceives the educative process to be meaningful
and enhancing, and the degree of threat provided by school experience is not
overpowering, helshe is likely to grow in self-esteem and in academic achievement
(Purkey, 1970: 12)
3.4.2.5 Learned
An overarching assumption of self-concept theory is that people become the ways
they perceive themselves as being treated. If persons feel loved, it is because they
perceive the love of others. If learners feel neglected, it is because they perceive
themselves as being neglected. If learners feel able or unable in the classroom, it is
because of perceived classroom experiences. Learners develop confidence when
they perceive their efforts to be successful whether it be answering a question
correctly, or making a small step toward understanding some concept or idea, or
working productively and cooperatively with others (Purkey & Novak, 1996:26 - 28;
Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :37).
From the above-mentioned theories, it seems that one could conclude that the basic
drive of man is to get to know oneself, as well as the maintenance and enhancement
of the self in order to develop to one's full potential. The development of the full
potential of the individual is one of the basic assumptions of life, (cf. 3.3) which is
imperative for the invitational model (Steyn 1992:21). Purkey and Strahan (1986:2)
together with other researchers (Purkey & Schmidt, 1987:6; Kok, Smith &. Swart,
62
1992:38) define four elements (in the classroom) that could be seen as the
theoretical position or "stance", and creates the "route" from which a positive and
productive climate could be created (Purkey & Schmidt, 1987:6, Kok, Smith & Swart
1992:38), and which enhances the self-concept.
3.5 THE FOUR BASIC ELEMENTS OF INVITATIONAL TEACHING
The four basic elements of Invitational Teaching are trust, respect, optimism and
intentionality.
3.5.1 Trust
From the invitational viewpoint, teaching is a cooperative, collaborative activity, in
which process is as important as product. Therefore, a basic ingredient of Invitational
Education is a recognition of the interdependence of human beings. Attempting to
get learners to learn subject matter without involving them in the process is a lost
cause. Even if the effort to teach learners without their collaboration is successful,
the energy expended is disproportionate to what is accomplished. Each learner is
ultimately responsible for his or her learning (Purkey & Stanley, 1991: 16,
Steyn, 1992:21; Purkey & Novak, 1996: 50). Each learner can learn, wants to
learn, and when given an optimally inviting environment, will learn. Given an
optimally inviting world, each learner will find his or her own best way of being and
becoming.
A study concerning teacher effectiveness by Bergman and Gaitskill (1990:35) found
that learners ranked teachers' relationships with learners first, above professional
competence and personal attributes. Teachers who show that they trust learners
also help underachievers to perform better in school. Galbo (1989: 151) found that
teachers who had the most significant influence on learners, developed personal
relationships with them, communicated at the learners' level, were understanding,
. . .
showed interest and interacted frequently. He found trust to be the critical factor in
learner/teacher interaction. This is underwritten by Green (1997: 19) who found that
in the most nurturing schools positive relationships exist between learners and
teachers. Without caring relationships teachers have to rely on discipline and
63
classroom management techniques. However, when there is a positive relationship
between the teachers and learners, learners have a reason to commit to the
instructional activities and attach meaning to what happens' in the classroom.
When Invitational Education is present, indications of trust are everywhere. Learners
are allowed to use equipment and assist with responsibilities, supervision is low-key,
and rules are few and simple. Directions inform learners what they are expected to
do, not what they are forbidden to do. Teachers who practice Invitational Education
give learners many opportunities to demonstrate their trustworthiness (Purkey &
Stanley, 1991:17, Kok, 1993:152; Purkey & Novak, 1996:51).
3.5.2 Respect
Rogers (1969:69) focusses on respect as a basic element of invitational teaching by
explaining that learners can be trusted to learn and that they enjoy learning when the
teacher creates and maintains a classroom environment that communicates respect
through participation in selecting and education goals. This is the case because
people are regarded as able, valuable and responsible and should be treated
accordingly.
An indispensable ingredient in Invitational Education is shared responsibility based
on mutual respect. This respect is manifested by the teacher's caring and
appropriate behavior, as well as by places, policies, programs and processes
created and maintained by teachers. Respect for people and respect for property
are basic elements of invitational teaching (Purkey & Stanley, 1991: 18, Kok, 1993:
152; Purkey & Novak, 1996:52).
The importance of respect is also underscored by educational research. In a series
of research studies, involving more than 2000 secondary and post-secondary
learners, a consistently high correlation was reported amongst indicators of
invitational teaching (such as trust, respect, optimism, and intentionality) and learner
affective outcomes (such as attitudes toward the course, subject matter, teacher and
self-as-Iearner). Creating a classroom environment based on mutual respect
appears to be a highly effective way of encouraging learner achievement (Purkey &
64
Stanley, 1991: 19). In their study of nonverbal behaviour of teachers, Purkey and
Stanley (1991: 19) found that teachers who exhibited respectfor learners by starting
and ending classes on time tended to have learners who viewed the class as
important and therefore studied more.
On the other hand they found that nonverbal teacher behaviour that indicate lack of
respect for learners (as perceived by learners) include being late for class; making
little or no eye contact; speaking without expression when lecturing; looking at
one's watch; and staring at books, notes, the floor, or the chalkboard. This
behaviour convey a message to the learners that the teacher does not know the
subject matter, does not like education, and does not care if learners learn anything.
It is important in Invitational Education to communicate that learners and learning are
respected.
Purkey and Stanley (1991 :20) and Steyn (1992:22) suggested that teachers show
respect for learners by developing an appreciation for each learner's uniqueness and
intelligence. Steyn (1992:22) also emphasised the importance of using discipline,
not as punishment, but as an opportunity to explore alternative behaviors that show
respect for others. Bergman and Gaitskill ( 1990:33), in a study of characteristics of
effective teachers, also found that effective teachers maintained realistic
expectations, offered helpful feedback, and encouraged learners to ask questions.
The same approach was advocated by Purkey and Strahan (1986:.113) in their work
with "disconnected" learners.
Contrary to the above, Landfried (1989: 80) described the behaviour of teachers that
demonstrated lack of respect and encouraged learners to behave irresponsibly. This
behaviour included: not holding learners accountable for academic performance,
giving assignments that were "too easy", allowing learners to show disrespect for the
teacher and others in the classroom, and doing things for learners that they could do
for themselves. Landfried (1989:80) proposed that this teacher behaviour teach
learners that they can neglect deadlines, demand good grades with little effort,
expect others to solve their problems, believe mediocrity is a worthwhile goal, and
create low goals for themselves. Practising Invitational Education does not mean
that the teacher gives up high expectations for every learner. Respect in action is
65
exhibited by one high school teacher who has a full-length mirror in the classroom
with the caption: "Please act as good as you look."
A corollary of respecting others is asking for respect in turn. The teacher has the
perfect right to expect respect from learners. When the teacher neglects to assert
his or her own value and ability, it is difficult for learners not to take advantage of the
situation. A major component of Invitational Education is respect for self as well as
respect for others. It is firstly important to have respect for oneself, then only can
one have respect for the child. Only if that happens, the child will have respect for
the teacher in return.
3.5.3 Optimism
The third basic element of Invitational Teaching is that of optimism. According to this
element, people possess untapped potential in all areas of human endeavour.
Invitational education could not be seriously considered if optimism did not exist. No
one in a school - not a teacher, learner, principal, counselor, supervisor - can
choose a beneficial direction in life without hope that change for the better is
possible. Optimism pre-supposes the ability to have a positive outlook on things
even in the worst situation. Optimism is therefore critical in Invitational Education
because teachers create the facts that make their hypotheses come true. If the
teacher believes that some learners don't want to learn, they will not learn. The
axiom of Invitational Education is that learners live up, or down, to the teacher's
expectations. Sometimes the learner of which the teacher would least expect to be
receptive can, when given the right invitation, be the most receptive one in the
classroom (Purkey & Stanley,1991:22)
Research indicates that the more learners believe they will succeed if they practise
and the more they sense positive regard from significant others, the higher their self-
esteem is and the more they are likely to practise (Purkey, 1970: 7 - 24).
Brophy and Good (1974:23) reported that teachers tend to treat low and high
achievers differently, based on their expectations of these learners' likelihood of
success. Teachers give low achievers less time to answer a question and more
66
often criticise low achievers for failure. Teachers tend to give low achievers less eye
contact, are less friendly, smile less, and give them fewer non-verbal signals of
support. This teacher behavior is important since it is an indication of the teacher's
level of optimism for learner achievement.
An important corollary of optimism is that everything counts. No place, policy,
programme, process, or person is neutral. Everything a teacher does, as well as the
way in which he or she does it, adds or detracts from success. The classroom
appearance, the discipline policy, the academic programme, the organisation, the
process and the actions of people all contribute to success or failure in the
classroom - all of these telegraph optimism or pessimism regarding learners and
their abilities (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :22).
Invitational education furthermore assumes that every learner is the world's greatest
authority on something and that every learner is an expert on a number of things. It
also assumes that every learner can learn, and wants to learn, and that every learner
can be taught. When teachers look at nonreaders and see readers, look at
nonscientists and see scientists, look at non-artists and see artists, then success is
likely to be realised (Purkey & Stanley,1991 :22).
The uniqueness of human beings is that no clear limits to potential have been
discovered. The optimistic view of seeing people as possessing untapped potential
in all areas of human endeavour determines the curricula devised, the policies
established, the programmes supported, the processes encouraged, and the
physical environments created and maintained.
3.5.4 Intentionality
By definition, an invitation is an intentional act designed to offer something beneficial
for consideration. The more intentional the teacher is, the more accurate his or her
judgments and the more decisive his or her behaviour. As Peck noted (1978:78), the
person who truly loves does so because of a decision to love. Intentionality leads to
direction and control in one's personal and professional life. An invitation is defined
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as an intentional act designed to offer something beneficial for consideration (Kok,
1993: 153).
Kok (1993: 154) further found a significant relationship between the teacher's
deliberate actions and learners' on-task behaviour. Learners were more likely to
become involved and show attention during learning activities when they perceived
teachers as clearly communicating caring about learners' success in learning, and
clearly providing classroom structure and responsibility.
One additional reason for intentionality is that it helps teachers to generate alternate
choices and approaches to given situations. Intentional individuals are able to
develop plans, act on many possible opportunities, and evaluate the effect of these
actions. It takes intentionally to consistently and dependably offer something
beneficial for consideration, particularly in the face of major difficulties and apparent
rejection. Intentionality thus enables people to create and maintain total
environments that consistently and dependably invite the realisation of human
potensial (Kok, 1993:153).
The invitation of the re-vitalisation of human potential could be conveyed in either a
professional inviting manner or a disinviting manner. Kok and Swart (1988:260)
defined these two mentioned modes of behaviour as part of the four different levels
of functioning, namely intentionally disinviting, unintentionally disinviting,
unintentionally inviting and intentionally inviting. These tour levels provide an
informal monitoring system for personal and professional education, learning and
living. Everyone functions at each level from time to time, but it is the level at which
one typically functions that determines one's life style and success or failure in one's
personal and professional education, learning and living. Kok, Smith and Swart
(1992: 15) further points out that two of these levels of functioning could be
destructive, while the other two could be supportive and encouraging.
Purkey and Stanley (1991 :40) warn however, that Invitational Education is a
somewhat complex: many teachers think that they already understand the concept of
"inviting". They see it as simply doing nice things - sharing a smile, giving a hug,
saying something nice, or buying a gift. But invitational education is far more than
68
giving "warm fuzzies", sharing "strokes", forming "hug stations". While these are
worthwhile activities when used caringly and appropriately, they are only
manifestations of a theoretical "stance" one takes. This stance for invitational
education (trust, respect, optimism, and intentionality as presented in par. 3.5)
determines the level of personal and professional functioning.
3.6 TEACHERBEHAVIOUR
As pointed out earlier, there are many ways to categorise teacher behaviour, but
invitational education identifies four categories:
o intentionally disinviting;
o unintentionally disinviting;
e unintentionally inviting; and
o intentionally inviting;
Each of these will subsequently be discussed in more detail.
3.6.1 Intentionally disirwiting
The most negative and toxic level of human functioning involves those actions,
policies, programmes, places and processes that are designed to demean, dissuade,
discourage, defeat, and destroy. People who function at this bottom level
deliberately send messages to themselves and others that they are unworthy,
incapable and irresponsible. Examples of intentionally disinviting functioning might
be a teacher who is intentionally insulting, for example "you are too stupid, you won't
make it in any case", or a policy that is deliberately discrimatory, friends mocking a
learner who obtained high marks, or an environment that is intentionally unpleasant
and unattractive (Purkey & Stanley,1991 :41; Kok & Swart,1988:261; Purkey &
Novak, 1996:55).
From the perspective of invitational education, there could be no excuse for people,
places, procedures or programmes being driven from the intentionally disinviting
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level. Very often intentionally disinviting teachers behave as they do due to low self-
esteem, inadequacy or unfulfilment. Perhaps they are miserable and seek to make
the lives of others miserable as well. They may have lost all hope in the value of
human compassion or in their ability to affect others and situations positively. These
teachers may need counselling or other assistance to deal with their hurtful
existence. But irregardless whether this is due to racial prejudice, sadistic impulse,
basic distrust, feelings of worthlessness, or unrequited love, there is no justification
for teachers to function at the intentionally disinviting level (Purkey & Stanley,
1"991:41; Kok & Swart, 1988:261; Kok, Smith & Swart, 1992: 16; Purkey & Novak,
1996:56).
3.6.2 Unintentionally disinviting
People, places, policies, programmes and processes that are intentionally disinviting
are rare when compared to those at the unintentionally disinviting level. Most
unintentionally disinviting factors in and around classrooms are the result of a lack of
stance, because there is no philosophy of trust, respect, optimism and intentionality.
Policies are established, programmes designed, places arranged, and behaviour
exhibited that are clearly disinviting, although such is not the intent. The teachers
who typically function at the unintentionally disinviting level spend a lot of time
wondering: "Why do I have such a low attendance rate?" and "Why are our
achievement scores so low?" or "Why don't I enjoy my education more?" The
answers may lie in the teacher's unintentionally disinviting behaviour. It might be
that other people experience this behaviour as insensitive, chauvenistic or
condescending. It may be the result of a simple observation such as, "anybody
could do that" or "I don't have the time to explain it again", which is not intented to
be harmful, yet it is (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :42; Kok & Swart, 1988:260; Purkey &
Novak, 1996:57).
3.6.3 Unintentionally invitirng
Teachers who typically function at the unintentionally inviting level have fallen into
the habit of functioning in ways that are often effective. However, when asked to
explain their philosophy of education, they find it difficult to do so. They can
70
describe in detail what they do, but not why. "Natural born" teachers are an example
of this. They are successful in education because they exhibit many of the trusting,
respecting and optimistic qualities associated with invitational education. But
because they lack the fourth critical element, intentionality, they lack consistency and
dependability in the actions they exhibit, the policies and programmes they establish,
the processes they employ and the places where they create and maintain.
Young teachers often fall into the unintentionally inviting trap. While they are
likeable, entertaining and enthusiastic, and they graduated just in time to save
education, they lack intentionality regarding why they are doing what they do. The
basic weakness in functioning at the unintentionally inviting level lies in the inability
to identify the reasons for success or failure (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :43; Kok &
Swart, 1988:261; Purkey & Novak, 1996:58). Teachers can usually tell whether
something is working or not, but when something stops working, some of them are
puzzled about how to start working again. Those who function at the unintentionally
inviting level lack a consistent stance - a dependable position from which to operate.
This need for dependability leads us to the fourth category of behaviour, namely
intentionally inviting.
3.6.4 Intentionally inviting
Teachers should strive to intentionally seek an invitational character in their
education. In order to reach this goal, one has to develop an understanding of the
reasons for and consequences of one's own behaviour. There has to be a desire to
function on a reliably invitational manner. Sometimes, teachers might strive to be
intentionally invitational, but are not sure how to go about it. They might find
themselves in a transitional period. Purkey and Novak (1996:58) noted that teachers
who are intentionally inviting are more likely to be responsive to their learners and
therefore are more readily accepted by learners. Teachers who are intentionally
inviting, read "learners cues and characteristics and flex to individual learners or
groups by adjusting communication accordingly. What seems to distinguish the
highly adaptive teacher is the capacity to see beneath the external behavioural cues
and to recognise the unique psychological qualities of each interaction" (Purkey &
Novak, 1996:58). In addition to the above, the research of Wigington, Tollefson and
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Rodrigues (1989:336) indicates a bonus aspect of intentionally inviting behaviour:
Teachers who received higher ratings from learners were those who carefully and
deliberately encouraged active learning and class participation.
In Invitational Education, everybody and everything positively adds to, or negatively
subtracts from the connecting with learners. Ideally, the aspects of people, places,
policies, programmes and processes should be so intentionally inviting as to create a
classroom where each individual is cordially invited to develop physically,
intellectually and psychologically. Those who accept the basic assumptions of
invitational education not only strive to be intentionally inviting, but once there, also
continue to grow and develop (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :46; Kok & Swart, 1988:261;
Purkey & Novak, 1996:59).
In addition to the four types of teacher behaviour discussed, there has to be a
strategy to help teachers to learn this behaviour. In invitational education, this plan
of action to develop the self, is called the Four Corner Press.
3.7 THIE FOUR CORNER PRESS
According to Purkey and Stanley, (1991 :51) what teachers accomplish in their
profession is a function of the persons they are. The highly successful teacher has
learned to use himself/herself in healthy and creative ways. Invitational education
offers a blueprint for optimal personhood, called the four corner press.
The term press is used in the psychological sense of events and activities that have
significance for the individual (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :51). Each corner represents
a vital dimension of personal and professional functioning and offers classroom
teachers a realistic way of increasing their IQ (invitational quotient). The four corners
are illustrated in Figure 3.2.
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Being personally inviting Being personally inviting
with oneself with others
Being professionally Bei~g professionally
inviting with oneself inviting with others
Source: Purkey and Stanley 1991:51
Figure 3.2 Four Corner Press
Invitational education reminds teachers to orchestrate their lives in each of the four
corners to seek harmony and balance in education, learning, and living. Like pistons
in a finely tuned automobile engine, the four corners work together to give power to
the whole movement. While there are times when one of the four corners may
demand special attention, the overall goal is synchronisation. Each area is vital in
invitational education because each contributes to a balance between personal and
professional functioning (Purkey & Stanley,1991:51). These four areas will now be
discussed in more detail.
3.7.1 Bei rogpersonally invlti 019 with oneself
Educators are often overlooking their own welfare by being hardworking, dedicated
and also sacrificing themselves for their "calling" as teachers. According to Purkey
and Novak (1996:104) these "over-worked" teachers are more prone to stress-
induced illness. To maintain an inviting stance, they have to avoid boredom and
isolation as well as the principal components of burnout.
When teachers constantly sacrifice their own wants and needs to meet the demands
of others, the sacrifice gradually builds resentment. Teachers have a moral
obligation to their learners to take care of themselves. It is difficult to invite others, if
one neglects oneself. In order to be personally inviting with oneself, one has to keep
in mind that the principles of respect, optimism, trust and intentionality that are
useful to invite others, also directly apply to inviting oneself. It is of the utmost
importance to respect oneself and one's feelings. By doing this and by varying self-
73
invitiations the probability of success is increased (Purkey & Novak, 1996: 105).
Invitations to the self could be the following:
o Seek silence. You require time to think, meditate, evaluate, plan - without
any pressure of time.
o Take religion seriously.
o Take care of yourself physically. It is important to be physically active as this
reduces stress.
o Plan ahead. Take responsibility for your systems of personal support, make
medium-term to long-term family, career, financial and holiday plans.
o Spoil yourself regularly. At times you should do something pleasurable -
something that you like.
o Recharge your batteries. Intimate interactions with a family member, a
trusted colleague, or a good friend on a topical or contentious issue or
something that bothers you, may make you feel better and allow you to gain
a better perspective and prevent burnout.
o Live with flair. Create time for a hobby, take a number of risks, visit
interesting places. The purpose is to avoid falling into a rut, and to avoid
experiencing boredom.
o Avoid blame and accusations. Try to forgive and forget as soon as possible
(Purkey & Novak, 1996:104; Kok et al, 1992:76).
Another kind of personal invitation that has to be noted is that which one says about
oneself. Many teachers undermine themselves by engaging in too frequent
assessment and too severe judgements of themselves. What one believes about
oneself, one tends to say about oneself. Self-depreciating, self-judging language
that one directs at oneself will weaken us. One has to persist in believing in oneself,
in one's own untapped potential.
Negative inner dialogue has a negative impact on the selfhood. One has to feed
one's self-understanding with quality messages (Kok et al., 1992:76; Purkey &
Stanley, 1991 :52).
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3.7.2 Being personally inviting with others
Invitational education places a high priority on personal relationships. There is no
point in being successful professionally and not succeeding in personal relationships
(Purkey & Novak, 1996: 106). Aspects which are important in inviting others are
. being geniune self-disclosure in interpersonal relationships and to develop and
maintain unconditional regard for other human beings. Practical ways to be
personally inviting with others are:
o Promote politeness / civility. Basic polite language and behaviour are self-
explanatory. Be punctual for meetings; arrive on time. Do what you
undertake to do. Care for others' time and feelings.
o Signal to others that you care. Send a card, sympathise, extend
congratulations; engage in personal enquiries; offer your services where
possible.
o Create a positive atmosphere. At the start of a meeting or a class - make an
announcement, use light humour, refer to something important that will
happen on that particular day; lodge an enquiry about someone or something.
o Enjoy refreshments with others. Create a positive atmosphere, break the
tension, provide opportunities for the informal exchange of ideas, and create
warmth.
o Keep things simple and relevant. Try not to exaggerate an issue, avoid
adding on other issues. Listen attentively, do not interrupt; do not respond too
quickly.
o Remain up to date. Make an effort to know what is the fashion, the heroes of
the day, the movies, the music, the motor-cars, the colour schemes of the
day( Kok et a/., 1992:75 ; Purkey & Novak, 1996: 108).
Another way of being personally inviting to others is to find ways to remember
people's names. Where at all possible, work on a first-name basis: If one uses
people's names, they become more accessible, and one is able more easily to win
their trust and to demonstrate genuine appreciation ( Purkey & Stanley 1991: 57)
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3.7.3 Being professionally inviting with oneself
The educator who does not invite himself/herself to grow professionally runs the risk
of becoming obsolete. Teachers should continually upgrade their skills and
knowledge to sustain their professional standards as well as enthusiasm (Purkey &
Novak, 1996:108)
One can easily fall into the rut of using the same teaching style for years since it
proved to be successful. This however narrows perspective and diminishes
professional vitality. Purkey and Novak (1996:108); Kok et.al (1992:78) and Purkey
and Stanley (1991 :60) agree on the following suggestions to how to be
professionally inviting with oneself:
o The improvement of formal qualifications through further study.
o Conferences and symposiums.
o Read. Every teacher should regularly receive at least one educational or
education-orientated journal.
o Membership of a professional organisation.
o Personal projects. Experiment continuously with your classes and learners -
so that you may initiate and experience renewal.
o Write. It is extremely stimulating to make contributions on the basis of your
own. experience.
o Make appointments. There may be persons or experts in your professional
field whom you would like to meet, or with whom you would like to establish
contact so that you may talk to this person about a topic of interest.
o Look for feedback. At the end of a term, or year, or once an activity or
function has been concluded - seek feedback.
3.7.4 Being protesslonally inviting with others
When the first three areas are accomplished, then functioning on the level of being
professionally inviting to others becomes second nature. Being professionally
inviting actually means to invite success at school (Purkey & Novak, 1996: 118).
These authors, together with Kok et.al. (1992:76) indicate that teachers and
principals should take note of the following, in order to invite others professionally:
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o Communication. In communication, it is extremely important to devote attention
to the following aspects: Give your undivided attention when a colleague, learner
or parent has something to convey to you. Concentrate so that you may note
exactly what happens, or what has ceased happening, what the feelings are, how
the participants argue, and the needs that are expressed. Also note what has not
been said. What message is hidden behind the words? If he or she asks for
advice, is recognition or approval sought, rs a decision required, or is the
response one of distress, despair, doubt, victory or joy? Check to see if you
understand the message correctly. Provide a brief paraphrase of what you heard,
or summarise the content to ensure that you received the correct message. Pose
open-ended questions. These are questions that do not entail judgement, but
which encourage the participant to make additional disclosures until they are
certain of the full picture or the essence thereof.
o Association. It is necessary for school management that their colleagues and
learners know that there is unity in the school. Speak in the plural, for example,
our staff, our parents, our class, our team, our offices, our premises, our
achievements, our rules, our efforts, and the like. Remove obstacles that make
communication and relationships difficult: be available, be accessible, forget
about your status, and your authority; take a stance of solidarity with your
colleagues and learners - they will then accept you and recognise your status
.and authority with greater ease.
o Assertiveness. Create space for colleagues' and learners so that they may
express their ideas, views, feelings and values. Provide opportunities to all as far
as possible so that they may accept responsibility for their behaviour and
obligations.
Q Investments. Invite colleagues, learners and parents to invest their talents,
creativity and energy in common efforts that will be to the advantage of everyone
who are involved with the school and in education. Pose challenges. Pose
problems. Give time so that solutions may be found.
e Competence. Success leads to success. When you assist a colleague or learner
to achieve success, you have succeeded in prompting him/her to believe in his
/her own ability, value, and selfhood (Kok et aI., 1992:76; Purkey & Stanley,
1991: 62, Purkey & Novak, 1996: 118).
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To conclude: a healthy balance among the four corners is needed. Purkey and
Stanley (1991:52) indicate that it is common for teachers to feel exhausted,
estranged, fatigued, powerless and burnt out and to find work meaningless.
Teachers who practice invitational education can, by attending to all four corners,
find ways to be enlivened in their education, learning and living.
Teachers can change their behaviour in the ways which are expected from them
through invitational education (cf. 3.7) However, things do not always go the way
one expects or wants it to happen. To aquire respect, trust, optimism and
intentionality takes a special challenge in schools today. These challenges include
the need to maintain good classroom discipline.
3.8 DISCIPLINE
Teachers who practice invitational education face the need to resolve vexing
conflicts, handle difficult situations, and maintain discipline, similarly to anyone else
in schools or within society. The purpose of invitational education is to resolve these
situations with respect for the dignity and worth of everyone involved. Invitational
education has a specific approach on how to resolve conflicts at the lowest possible
level and with the least amount of energy. To do this, the rule of the five so-called
C's is employed. The rule is to play, whenever possible, the lowest C level first, and
move upward through higher C's only when necessary. The five C's are concern,
confer, consult, confront and combat. In any situation where there may be
differences of opinion, where rules may be broken, or where discipline may be
needed, the first thought should be: "How can I resolve this situation at the lowest
possible C level?" Any teacher can escalate a situation into a conflict. It takes
knowledge, effort, and intentionality to resolve a situation with the lowest C,
beginning with concern (Purkey & Stanley, 1991:79; Purkey & Novak, 1996:92).
Disciplinary problems which could arise, might lead to such conflict. The following
are strategies to handle conflict.
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3.8.1 Concern
In any situation where there is the potential for conflict, the teacher who practices
invitational education asks him- or herself:
o Is this situation really a concern? Can it safely and wisely be overlooked?
o Will this situation solve. itself without intervention?
o Does this situation involve a matter of fairness, principles or values?
o Is this situation a concern because of personal biases, prejudices or hand-ups?
€I Is this the proper time to be concerned with this situation?
o Is there anything that can possibly be done about this situation?
o Are there sufficient resources, support and information available to successfully
address the situation?
Et Will ignoring it bring stress or create greater concern? (Purkey & Novak, 1996:92;
Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :79)
Often situations can be successfully addressed at this lowest level by changing the
concept concerned. A silly wisecrack offered by a learner in response to a question
might rather be an occasion for mutual laughter than for confrontation. When a
situation is of sufficient concern, the teacher proceeds to the second C: confer.
3.8.2 Confer
To confer means to initiate an informal conversation with the learner or other person
in private. The teacher could by signaling the desire for a positive interaction (a
smile, using the person's name, eye contact, a handshake, some small expression of
pleasure). Then state, in a non-threatening and respectful way, what the concern is,
why it is a concern, and what is proposed to resolve the concern. For example,
"Mary, running in the hall is dangerous. You might injure someone running. Please
walk rather than run in the hallway." Or "John, coming late to class is distracting. It
interrupts the class lesson. I will appreciate your promptness in coming to class".
After the statement is made, follow it up immediately by asking: "Will you do this for
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me?" It is important to ask for what is wanted. No one can read minds (Purkey &
Novak, 1996:93).
At the conferring level, it is important to consider these questions: .
o Do both parties clearly understand what the concern is?
o Do both parties know why the situation is a concern?
o Is it clear what is wanted?
o Does the concern relate to mutually established classroom goals?
o Is there room for compromise or joint reconceptualisation of the situation?
o Is there time to allow the parties to reflect on the concern before further actions
are taken?
o Is the concern important enough to move to a higher C, and is this necessary?
(Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :81 - 82; Purkey & Novak, 1996: 93).
In most situations, a one-on-one, non-threatening informal conference will
successfully eliminate the concern. When conferring does not work, the third C -
consult - is appropriate.
3.8.3 Consult
Consultation requires a formal discussion with the parties involved. Because this
consultation usually involves talking about what has already been discussed, it
requires firmness and directness. For example, "John, last week you said that you
would hand in the prescribed project, yet this morning you did not. This is creating
problems for you and for me". In consultation, the focus is on abiding by
commitments that were made in the previous conference: "You promised me that
you would hand in your project on time and I expect you to keep your word."
Questions that should be considered at the consultation stage include:
& It is clear to all parties what is expected? Are all cards on the table?
e Are there ways to assist the parties in abiding by previous decisions?
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o Have the consequences of not resolving the situation been considered?
While a direct and deliberate discussion may not resolve the situation, it gives clear
notice of its significance. If the situation persists, then it is time for the fourth C:
confront (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :83; Purkey & Novak, 1996:95).
3.8.4 Confront
Confronting is a no-nonsense attempt to work out a difficult situation that is of major
concern. At this fourth stage, it is important again to spell out in careful detail the
continuing situation. Describe what the situation is and why it is of major concern.
Point out that this situation has been addressed previously and repeatedly, and that
progress has been insufficient. Now is the time to speak of unavoidable penalties.
For example: "John, if you do not hand in your project on time, I will contact your
parents." By spelling out logical consequences, everyone understands the rules of
the game (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :83 ; Purkey & Novak, 1996:95) The same
authors suggest that the following questions might be asked during this fourth stage:
o Have sincere efforts been made to resolve the situation at each of the lower
levels?
o Is there documented evidence to show earlier efforts to resolve the situation at
lower levels?
o Is there sufficient authority and power to follow through with stated penalties?
o Will confronting help to solve the situation?
When consequences involving penalties occur, and when the rule of the five C's has
been followed.' all parties are likely to know that the consequences were fair and
impartial - which leads to the final C: combat.
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3.8.5 Combat
As used here, the word combat, is defined as struggling against, in order to reduce
or eliminate the concern, as to combat inflation, to combat racism, and to combat
misbehaviour. It is used as a verb rather than a noun, as in the sense of active
fighting or warfare. The goal is to combat the situation, not the person (Purkey &
Stanley, 1991: 84 ; Purkey & Novak, 1996:96).
The use of the word combat emphasises the seriousness of the situation. It also
means that because the situation has not been resolved at lower levels, it is now
time to move into the highest C.
For obvious reasons, combat is to be avoided wherever possible. At the combat
level, there are likely to be winners and losers. In significant contests it is often
unpredictable who will win and who will lose. Moreover, combat requires a great
deal of energy that might be better used in more productive endeavours. Yet when
all else fails, and the situation is of sufficient concern, then it is time to enter the
arena. In preparing for combat, it is helpful to consider the following:
o Is there clear documentation that avenues other than combat were sought?
o Even at this late date, is there a way to avoid combat?
c Are sufficient support and resources available to win the contest?
o How can the winner demonstrate compassion for the loser?
At the successful conclusion of the contest, the educator should end things up with
as much fairness and sympathy as possible (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :84 ; Purkey &
Novak, 1996·:96).
As pointed out earlier (cf. 3.5.2), respect is a basic ingredient of invitational
education. Even when the most serious penalties must be leveled against a learner,
the feeling should be of sadness rather than vengeful joy. It is sad when teacher and
learners reach the combat stage, and any penalties are to be administered with as
much respect and compassion as possible.
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By solving concerns at the lowest possible level, teachers who employ invitational
education save energy, reduce conflict, and avoid acrimony. Again, any teacher can
go from persuasion to coercion; all it takes is raw power. The teacher who practices
invitational education understands that everyone has power, no matter how little they
are or what position they hold. Because power is shared, the inviting teacher always
uses the lowest possible C to resolve concerns (Purkey & Stanley, 1991:84; Purkey
& Novak, 1996:95).
In 1984 Purkey and Novak (1996:6) extended the scope of invitational education.
Although they emphasised the fact that education was basically an inviting process,
everyone and everything in and around schools were identified as signal systems
that invite or disinvite success in schools. Schools were seen as functional wholes in
which the parts influence the whole and the whole affects the parts. In practice,
invitational education addresses the five powerful "P's" that constitute any school:
Places, People, Policies, Programs and Procedures. This will now be discussed in
more detail.
3.9 THEPOWERFUL"P'S"
3.9.1 Places
The word "places" denotes physical environment. Moreover, the Invitational Model
places man's physical environment in the focal point. Man cannot be divorced from
his physical environment; in fact, the physical environment, or "educational setting",
impacts on people because these settings invariably convey a "message". They
embody a statement on how much care is taken of the visitors or users who decide
to visit the setting. Educational settings offer an excellent starting-point for the
implementation of Invitational Education because they are so conspicuous. This is a
highly noticeable aspect of any school - and anyone who visits a school will
immediately notice this conspicuousness. This aspect can also be modified with the
greatest of ease. It is important to continuously remain acutely aware of educational
settings for purposes of making improvements so that the school may become a
pleasant, invitational living and work space. Compare the difference between
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neglected gardens, dusty classrooms, dirty windows, peeling paint, the absence of
curtains, and broken door handles on the one hand, and neat school premises, clean
passages and classrooms, clean or painted walls, well-fitting curtains, clean
windows, flowers in offices and staff rooms, an eye-catching main entrance, and
clear directions (sign-boards), which invite visitors to the office, and indicate, in
invitationallanguage, where they should park. It is pleasant for any person to be in a
beautiful and neat environment. This makes one feel good, and promotes sound,
productive thinking (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :69; Kok, et al., 1992: 19).
3.9.2 People
Person-orientated organisations and schools are the easiest to identify. These are
schools where there is a high level of concern to meet the needs of everyone
involved in them, and these needs encompass the physical, psychological, social,
intellectual, and spiritual domains. These are schools where everyone who works
and learns there, is regarded as important. These are schools where politeness and
civility are the predominant norms - a setting where there is a general atmosphere of
warmth, respect and appreciation (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :70 ; Kok et al., 1992 : 20).
In an invitational school, there is a concerted effort to be sensitive to the existence of
each individual; indeed, an. attempt is made to create a space in which everyone is
allowed, as far as possible, to exercise control over himself or herself so that helshe
may take optimal responsibility for developing his/her own potential. For this reason,
it is important to recognise and engage everyone in the decisions that will affect
them. In this regard, Purkey and Schmidt (1987: 13) contend that "decisions that
have tremendous effect on people's lives are too often made by those in authority for
reasons of efficiency, -effectiveness and conformity. Moreover, these decisions are
often designed for the convenience of a few at the inconvenience of many". From
this statement, one may deduce that an authoritarian management style is
incompatible with a Model of Invitational Education. The interests of "the school"
may not be placed above the human dignity of the person. The school is for the
learners and the teachers who are present there. The reverse is never the case.
This is a most important point. Otherwise, learners and staff may be devalued to a
lesser role, compared to other interests.
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Several learners leave school with a feeling of inferiority, intellectual inhibition,
damaged self-confidence, low esteem of their own abilities, and with a feeling that no
one cares about them. Many teachers experience "burnout" in the course of their
education careers; in fact, the education profession is rated as the profession with
the third-highest stress level. The use of the model for Invitational Education in
schools may contribute significantly towards maintaining staff's and learners' the
psychological and physical health of staff and learners. In practice, the proposed
model accommodates each person's basic need for recognition, human dignity, self-
realisation and a sense of responsibility (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :68; Kok et a/.,
1992:20).
3.9.3 Policies
People and educational settings are also influenced by rules, codes, instructions,
authorisations and acts of delegating tasks that emanate from the governing body.
Policy on various matters is required, and is used to handle and administer everyday
matters related to the schools. Eventually, each aspect of policy - whether formal or
informal - communicates a message to everyone in the school about the way in
which things should be done and how each fits into the whole picture.
Sometimes a policy, however well-intentioned, may place improper limitations or
handicaps on individuals or groups. Insensitive, inappropriate policies that are
uncaring about people compromise their capacity to contribute either to their own
welfare and progress, or the welfare and progress of others. For example, a policy
stipulating that recognition is given only to certain learners, activities, teachers,
groups or standards' is non-invitational. For example, it is unacceptable if
achievements in certain sports are rated as more important than achievements in
others; or if achievements in sport are regarded as more important than
achievements in the cultural domain, because then there is indeed discrimination
against the value and competencies of a certain section of the learners and staff,
compared to others who have the talents that are favoured. If people are sensitive to
these issues, they generally find that these non-invitational policy stipulations may
85
without major difficulties be converted, into invitational policy stipulations that yield
significant gains for the school (Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :71; Kok et al., 1992:20).
3.9.4 Procedures
A procedure refers to the course of action that has to be taken for a specific action,
activity or process in an organisation. These procedures are devised by
management and prescribed to everyone who may be affected by them. Many
procedures have indeed become customs or habits, and often very little thought is
devoted to them. However, a procedure refers to the way in which people are
handled, or a framework for taking action. Procedures are generally judged only in
terms of whether they work or not.
Unfortunately, this cannot be the only measure. A procedure also conveys a
message, and provides an indication of the impact of the deviser's (devisers')
perception of the users of the procedure. Procedures that are insensitive to people's
time, privacy, human dignity, competencies and sense of responsibility are in conflict
with the core constructs of the Invitational Model. There are procedures that
communicate the following message: I trust you .. However, others seem to claim: I
don't trust you and I'm checking on you. There are yet others that communicate the
idea that you may make your own choice (within limits), and yet others that state: I
have already decided on your behalf, you have no choice, do as I prescribe to you.
Naturally, if users are allowed to provide an input or have access (or had access) to
the rationale of a procedure, it is much easier for them to accept the procedure, or to
manage the unavoidable, burdensome effect of the procedure. An example of such
behaviour is where a headmaster enters a staff-room, and in the presence of
everyone requests information about certain colleagues' ages,· qualifications, and
number of years experience, and then expects those members of staff to provide the
information in the public mode of the staff-room. A more invitational procedure is to
adopt a more personalised approach, requesting the information in private - or
asking the affected members of staff to submit the information in writing by a .certain
time. These may seem to be minor events; however, each of these is important.
Thoughtlessness, insensitivity or too much pressure are rarely acceptable excuses
or explanations for a non-invitational approach. This kind of behaviour also reflects
86
negatively on a manager's management style (Kok et al.,1992:21; Purkey & Stanley,
1991 :77).
3.9.5 Programme
Each programme, whether academic or non-academic, should be screened for non-
invitational elements that are present overtly or tacitly. Sometimes, well-intentioned
programmes may indeed be damaging or negative in their impact on certain persons
o'r groups because it may be that the objectives are formulated too narrowly and a
broader perspective. on human needs is lost. An example of a questionable
programme is when the only objective is to be victorious in inter-school competitions.
The obsession with winning can easily become a blind-spot in the development of
other important personal and human considerations because all resources are
mobilised exclusively to achieve victory. It is possible that in this context learners,
teachers and parents are compelled to make non-invitational sacrifices. Sometimes
the classification of people is unavoidable when a specific programme is initiated.
However, there is often great danger in programmes that label groups (Purkey &
Stanley, 1991 :79 ; Kok et al., 1992:22). Hobbs (Purkey & Schmidt, 1987: 15) sounds
the following warning: "Categories and labels are powerful instruments for social
regulation and control, and they often are employed for obscure, covert or hurtful
purposes: to degrade people, to deny them access to opportunity, to exclude
undesirables whose presence in society in some way offends, disturbs familiar
customs, or demands extraordinary efforts". These events take place so easily and
without their being intended or planned. However, whoever subscribes to the
Invitational Model of Education, and whose intention is to apply the model in
practice, will be sensitive to each and every facet of school so that nothing will
happen that has a negative impact on the participants in the process - because the
school is not intended to have a negative impact on anyone (Kok et a/.,1992:22;
Purkey & Stanley, 1991 :79).
3.10 CONCLUSION
This chapter dealt with the principles of Invitational Education. The basic
assumptions and theories on which Invitational Education is based, was discussed.
87
There are two basic theories, namely the perceptual tradition and self-concept
theory. The characteristics of the self-concept were dealt with, since it forms an
integral part of Invitational Education.
In addition, the four basic elements of Invitational Education were dealt with, as well
as the manner in which teachers should behave when involved in Invitational
Education. A brief look at helping teachers to aquire the necessary skills to become
inviting, was given. Ways in which to handle a conflict situation followed, and in
conclusion, the people, places, procedures, programmes and policies which form
part of Invitational Education were discussed.
The following chapter will deal with a qualitative investigation into effective learning
and teaching; an invitational approach.
~~====:;4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
A QUAlITA r~VE INVESTIGAT~ONINTO EFFECTIVE LEARNING AND
TEACHING: AN INVITATIONAL APPROACH
4.1. BACKGROUND
In August 1997 a research project was instructed by the Human Sciences Research
Council (HSRC) as part of a wider national project, "Access to learning and
teaching". The researcher was responsible for the Free State region and was
assisted by one field worker. The other provinces involved were the Northern
Province as well as the Western Cape.
The aim of the research project was to acquire information by means of qualitative
research on aspects of and factors playing a determining role in the identification of
effective teaching and learning situations which may be present at schools and would
contribute to successful learning. The enabling conditions for successful learning
environments vary and impact on learning in different ways. The need to identify
some criteria of the enabling conditions for successful teaching and learning
environments was central to the HSRC project. The theoretical background, which
was drawn up in order to describe these criteria and conditions is added to this thesis
as an addendum (see Addendum A). Since "effective learning and teaching" forms
the backbone. of this study, reference should be made to Chapter 2 where a
literature study on effective learning and teaching is reported.
At this point it is important to position this thesis within the context of the broader
HSRC project. The project covered an enormous amount of factors relating to
"access to learning", which would be irrelevant for the purposes of this study. The
complete results of the research project should therefore be regarded as a database
from which only those factors relevant to this study have been selected. Only the
89
particular factors relating to effective learning in an invitational setting will
consequently be reported on and interpreted for the purpose of this study.
The researcher will however report on the way in which the research was done and
then
o give an overview on the results of the wider project with specific focus on the
Free State Province (cf.4.7.1);
o report in detail the responses on the relevant items taken from the data
sources (d.4.8); and
o integrate and interpret these responses in relation to the topic of this study.
The research design was determined by the HSRC/Access to learning Project (cf.
4.5) and researchers were requested to make use of the qualitative approach. It is
therefore relevant to give a brief theoretical perspective of qualitative research.
4.2 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: A THEORETICAL
PERSPECTIVE
4.2.1 What is qualitative research?
When analysing a research method the nature of the study object should be
considered, as well as the methods of collecting data and data-analyses, and the
method used to conduct the research (Niemann, 1994: 154). In the case of qualitative
research, these aspects are the following:
* The study objective is the world as defined, experienced and viewed by the
participants. This means that the qualitative researcher does not necessarily
study the conscious knowledge or experiences of the individual since
perception forming is not a conscious activity.
* The method of data analysis does not provide a system where collected data
can be expressed in a numeric-mathematical way. This means that "natural
language" is used in order to prevent certain aspects of the data to be
emphasised at the expense of others.
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* During qualitative research there is constantly a reciprocal cyclical relationship
between the collection of data and the analysis thereof that continually
influence each other and therefore also work inter-changeable. With this
method it is possible to select data of value and stop data collection when no
new information with regard to the research problem can be obtained. On the
other hand the collected data can even provoke the analysis of the research
problem to be amended (Smaling 1994a:41 & 157; Maso 1989:158).
Qualitative research methodology is of an anti-positivistic nature whilst quantitative
research is rooted in positivism (Bogdan & Biklen 1982:31; Niemann 1994: 155). Anti-
positivism however attempts through empathy to understand the motives behind
human reactions (Niemann 1994:55).
A paradigm-shift occurred in the method and purpose of educational research
(Lincoln 1986:34) when Piaget came to the conclusion that non-quantifiable quests
for explanations can be valuable in the study of human development. His
development of a qualitative approach, known as "genetic epistemology" (Best
1981: 157), further strengthened the movement from positivism to anti-positivism or
qualitative concepts and techniques (Fetterman 1988:4). Thomas Kuhn (1962: 158)
argues that the acceptance of new paradigms is coupled with the belief that the new
ones will be able to overcome the problems of the old ones.
According to Neuman (1994:319) and Niemann (1994:155) every researcher follows
a "route" when a case is investigated. While quantitative researchers follow a more
linear route with specific successive steps, the route of the qualitative researcher is of
a more cyclic nature. This means that qualitative researchers move in a more cyclic
way through the various steps, in other words, they often move backwards or
sideways before moving forwards again. With each circle or repetition, the
researcher collects data, analyses it and in this way obtains new information
(Niemann 1994:156). Patton (1988:190) extends on this cyclic principle and is of the
opinion that the researcher can even move forwards and backwards between
paradigms.
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4.2.2 Objectivity
Although the interview has a number of advantages over other data collection tools,
Kruger (1997:143) warns that one of the limitations of the interview is that the very
adaptability gained by interpersonal situations can lead to subjectivity and possible
bias. A major difference between quantitative and qualitative research is that the
researcher's own subjectivity is necessary and forms a vital part of the research
process (Niemann 1994:159).
Quantitative researchers are of the opinion that objectivity should be achieved by
certain standardised methods (Niemann 1994:159; Smaling 1994a:49). The
implication is thus that the researcher operates totally unbiased and separated from
the research, which underlines the idea that the researcher can be replaced by a
robot. Qualitative researchers however believe that the above-mentioned methods
do not necessarily guarantee objectivity. In this regard Blumer (1969:50) states:
If the scholar wishes to understand the action of people, it is necessary for him to see
their objects as they see them. Failure to see their objects as they see them, or a
substitution of his meanings for the objects of their meanings, is the gravest kind of
error that the social scientist can commit.
The above discussion according to Niemann (1994:160), Smaling (1994a:54) and
Lotland (1971:4) implies that the researcher should apply the principle of "role taking"
to guard against the delusion of so-called objectivity. Role-taking is regarded as a
spiritual activity through which an individual imagines him/herself in the position of
another to enable him/her to understand, anticipate and interpret the behaviour or
experience of the other person.
4.2.3 Reliability
According to Niemann (1994: 160), in quantitative research reliability refers to the
accuracy, stability, constancy and repeatability of the research. Goetz and Le
Compte (1984:211) agree with this view when they define reliability as the degree to
which investigations can be repeated and the same methods produce similar results.
92
Niemann (1994:160) subsequently distinguishes between internal and external
reliability.
Internal reliability refers to the reliability during the research project. According to
Smaling (1994a:81 & 82) and Niemann (1994:160) a variety of measures can be
taken to facilitate reliability during qualitative research. These measures are:
Triangulation - the principle that a minimum of two methods should be applied in the
research of the object. Four types of triangulation can be applied:
Methodological triangulation: the use of more than one method to gather
information.
Theoretical triangulation: the use of more than one theoretical perspective to
interpret data.
Investigator triangulation: the use of more than one researcher or observer in
the investigation.
Data triangulation: a repetition of the investigation with the same person or
with others.
Cross-examining - a way in which to determine whether casual misinterpretations
infiltrated the findings of the research. This can be done by comparing the findings
with those of other researchers, orally or through their written work.
Control of members - the method by which contradictions in the findings are referred
back to the researchers for an explanation or a solution.
Consensus - the principle through which consensus of the findings is reached
through open discussion.
Selection and training - a method through which assistant researchers, observers
and interviewers are thoroughly selected and trained to ascertain that people who
assist the researcher are competent.
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Auditing - the process through which all information regarding the research, as well
as data, surveys and notes are kept, so that the findings can be verified by
independent persons.
Mechanisation - the use of audio-bands and videos to store information and
computers for the processing of data.
External reliability refers to verification of the findings of the research, when the same
research is undertaken by independent researchers, under the same circumstances
and with the same participants (Niemann 1994: 161). To increase external reliability
the following should be contained in the qualitative research (Niemann 1994: 162).
o A description of
the status of the researcher;
relevant characteristics of the participants;
concepts that have been used; and
methods of research.
o An exposition of the theoretical starting-points and arguments underlying the
'various' choices made in the research.
4.2.4 Validity
According to Goetz and Le Compte (1984:221) two questions can be asked to
determine validity, namely:
Are the researchers really measuring or observing that which they think they are?
To what degree are the findings also tested or refined by other research?
To accomplish validity it is essential to strive for the elimination of systematic
mistakes as well as mistakes made by chance.
94
According to Smaling (1994a:82-87), Campbell (1988:72), Goetz and Le Compte
(1984:222 - 228) and Miles and Huberman (1984:231-243) the following measures
could increase the validity of qualitative data:
striving towards a representative investigation, inter alia through making use of
participants who are able to supply the needed information, as well as through
the systematic analysis of data;
to search for so-called negative or extreme data - "theory driven data
collection";
to establish a comprehensive register of data, notes, relevant actions and
events, to be used during data-analysis;
to be wary of bias and perspectives that the researcher may instill in the
participants, as well as their prejudice that may influence their responses;
to indicate whether the researcher's attitude has changed through exposure to
the research;
to give an accurate description of the research process, reasons for the choice
of methods, the circumstances under which, and context within which the
research was conducted;
to indicate differences and similarities in the data; and
to gather data until the point of theoretical saturation has been reached.
4.2.5 Data collecting methods
Several methods could be used to collect data during a qualitative research
investigation. The methods could be divided into methods with interaction and
methods with no interaction.
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4.2.5. 1 Non-interactive methods
(a) Non participating observations
This type of observation, according to Niemann (1994:164) and also Goetz and Le
Compte (1984: 143), occurs when the researcher does not participate in the activities,
but merely observes what is happening from a distance and makes a note of it. The
observation may also take place with the aid of hidden cameras, tape recordings or
one-way mirrors.
(b) Artifact collection
This method refers to data that originates from people's sensations, experiences,
knowledge, opinions and feelings of certain periods of time or cultures. These may
include, inter alia, archival records, documents, memoirs, record books; minutes,
diaries and other similar sources (Niemann,1994:165).
4.2.5.2 Interactive methods
(a) Participant observation
During this type of observation, the researcher lives amongst the people to be
observed as far as possible. The researchers participate in the daily activities of the
concerned people and reconstruct their interactions and activities as soon as
possible with the aid of field notes (Goetz & Le Compte 1984: 109). The researcher
should therefore grow through his/her experiences in order to be able to understand
the social circumstances being studied (Jacobs, 1970:7).
(b) Interviews
The qualitative interview may take on several forms but the unstructured interview is
regarded as the most suitable type of interview in order to obtain valid and reliable
results (Niemann, 1994:166 and Smaling, 1994a:95).
96
Shurink (1988: 137 & 139) differentiates between the total unstructured interview,
which is not preceded by a literature study, and the unstructured interview where the
researcher has a loose schedule of categories based on the preceded literature
study in order to direct the interview. The unstructured interview is seldom executed
in isolation and mostly forms part of a broader investigating programme where the
researcher already possesses a certain amount of knowledge on the subject. It is
important in the latter case that no definite order of questioning should. exist, but that
the researcher stimulates the informer to participate spontaneously and directs the
conversation in such a way that the information is relevant to the research problem
(Burgess 1982: 106 & 107).
Niemann (1994: 166) and Smaling (1994a:95) however favours the hermeneutic
approach in unstructured interviewing. This implies that the response of the
informant against the background of the entirety be interpreted and reinterpreted and
that the entirety again in terms of fractions be interpreted and reinterpreted. This
forms the process of understanding and interpretation.
Niemann (1994:168), Smaling (1994b:34), Chadwick, Bahr and Albrecht (1984:208),
Burgess (1984:7), Goetz and Le Compte (1984:127-129) suggest the following
guidelines for conducting unstructured interviews:
o Each interview should be preceded by a short explanation of the purpose of the
interview, the way the interview will be conducted and, if necessary, the
assurance that the identity of the participant will be kept anonomous.
o The researcher should attempt to establish a good relationship with the
participant from the outset.
6) The questions should be expressed in a meaningful and clear way.
G) Leading questions should be avoided, because this could influence the informant
to answer questions in the way that the researcher expects it to be answered.
e Simple questions, in other words containing just one idea, should be used;
97
o Questions preceded with "why" should rather be avoided, because it can often be
experienced as ambiguous.
o Questions of a more complex and controversial nature should preferably be
asked in the middle of the interview, because by then the participant will be more
relaxed and his/her interest already stimulated.
o The researcher should be careful not to talk more than the participant.
o The researcher should continuously make notes of all relevant information and
reactions.
o The researcher should ensure that he/she attaches the same meaning to terms
and concepts as the participant.
o The interview should be taped.
4.3 RATIONALE FOR THE USE OF A QUALITATIVE METHODOLOGY IN THIS
RESEARCH
Several reasons for the use of the qualitative method are applicable. Kruger
(1997:37) gives six main reasons why this method should be used, but only those
applicable to this study are noted below:
o Qualitative research has the natural setting as the direct source of data. The
researcher is the key instrument.
According to Van Manen (1990:31) the researchers should visit the particular setting
under study, because they are concerned with the context. Bogdan and Biklen
(1982:30) are also of the opinion that the actions of the participants can best be
understood when they are observed in the setting in which they occur. In this study
the settings to be observed were the selected schools that were identified as
institutions where effective learning takes place.
98
o Qualitative research is descriptive
The data collected are in the form of words, rather than numbers (Mouton & Marais
1989:7). The interview transcripts make it possible to analyse the richness as closely
as possible to the form in which they are recorded and transcribed. The participants
can be chosen from a diverse cultural group and responses may vary from person to
person. The approach is that nothing can be trivial; that everything has the potential
of being a clue that might unlock a more comprehensive understanding of what is
being studied. In this study, different teachers from different cultures and economic
background were interviewed without being afraid that they would be victimised for
their straight answers, since misunderstandings could be eliminated during
interviews.
• Qualitative researchers are concerned with process rather than simply with
outcomes or products.
In this study it was imperative to rather observe the process of teaching in the
classroom rather than merely completing another questionnaire on why
principals/teachers thought their schools were successful.
o Small groups of respondents.
Qualitative researchers usually work with smaller samples of people in fever global
settings. Qualitative samples tend to be more purposive than random (Miles &
Huberman 1984:36). In this particular study, schools from different economic
backgrounds were chosen with the common characteristic of being effective schools.
This made it easy to search for common factors contributing to this success.
Against the background of the nature of qualitative research and its applicability to
this study, a detailed description of the way in which the research was conducted in
this project, will now be given.
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4.4 RESEARCH FOCUS, SCOPE AND METHODS
The research focus was on particular learning environments that enable learners to
learn more constructively and take control of the process of new knowledge
production. It was a proactive research project in the sense that its ultimate aim was
to indicate what is possible, rather than what cannot be done. The following criteria
were used as a framework for the analysis:
O' institutional and functional arrangements such as the availability of the school-
time-table, attendance levels, extra-mural activities, teacher - learner ratio,
teacher qualifications and management styles;
o learning styles, teaching strategies and teachers' knowledge;
o teacher support and development;
o learners' backgrounds;
e physical facilities, materials and transport;
o teachers' attitudes;
o support which schools receive from institutional structures and communities such
as the Department of Education and governing bodies;
o relevant curricula; and
o stability and the extent to which schools have and/or are adapting to change.
Whilst incorporating all the above objectives in the project, greater emphasis was
placed on the teaching and learning related aspects. These included learning styles,
teaching strategies and teachers' knowledge and attitudes.
The broader research project covered three of the nine South African provinces, that
is - Western Cape, Free State, and the Northern Province. In each of these
provinces six pre-selected schools, three primary and three secondary schools, were
to be visited over a three-week period between 25 August and 15 September 1997.
This meant that a minimum of two researchers were each to spend one week at each
school for research purposes. The fieldwork took three weeks and was aimed at
providing baseline information. The choice of six schools, with the research based in
one school per week was meant to ensure that, as much as this phase required
baseline information, which were largely to be superficial, this should not compromise
100
the validity of the findings. Thus each of the schools was subject to observations,
interviews, and a questionnaire, notwithstanding some of the preliminary findings
arising from the criteria used to select the schools. This kind of triangulation was
built into the research from the beginning to further enhance the validity and reliability
of the project. The extent to which the findings could be useful for a more in-depth
study, and to inform policy, was also enhanced through this approach.
Criteria for identifying successful learning environments included the use of a variety
of criteria and approaches to reinforce each other. Six schools per province were
selected. To ensure broader representation, the selection of schools was based
upon data such as exam results, drop out rates, whilst equally incorporating
information gathered from the School Register of Needs on physical facilities,
materials and resources. To ensure broader representation, two schools were finally
chosen from the well-resourced schools category, two average-resourced schools
and two poorly-resourced schools. This information was supplemented with
qualitative aspects such as expert opinion arising from research and theories about
quality education, and opinion which was sought from departmental district officials,
school principals, teachers, learners and parents, as well as from service providers
such as Non-government Organisations (NGO's). (The theoretical framework from
which these aspects for effective education were taken, is added to this study as an
addendum. See Addendum A) The selected schools in the Free State Province,
which formed the sample for this research were as follows:
o siAndrew's School - Bloemfontein (mainly English first language learners;
English medium of instruction)
Headmaster: Mr R Gordon
Secondary School - Boys only
Well-resourced school
287 learners
ct Eunice High School - Bloemfontein (mainly English first language learners;
English medium of instruction)
Headmaster: Mr P Cassar
Girls only
101
Well-resourced school
545 learners
o St Peter's Claver Primary - Kroonstad (mainly Sesotho first language learners;
Sesotho/English medium of instruction)
Headmistress: Sister Dorothy
Boys and Girls
Average resourced schools
886 learners
o Ekwaluseni Catholic School - Vrede (mainly Sesotho first language learners;
Sesotho/English medium of instruction)
Headmistress: Mrs Mathe
Primary School (Boys and Girls)
Poorly-resourced school
520 learners
oMokitlane Primary School - Ladybrand (mainly Sesotho first language learners;
Sesotho/English medium of instruction)
Headmaster: Mr Nomganga
(Boys and Girls)
Poorly-resourced schoo.l
1062 learners
o Tsoseletso High School - Bloemfontein (mainly Sesotho first language learners;
English medium of istruction)
Headmaster: Mr Khoarai
(Boys and Girls)
Average resourced school
1556 learners
The grades to be visited at the schools included grades three (std 1), five (std 3),
eight (std 6) and twelve (std 10). The rationale given for the selection of these
grades was that grade three is "the entry point", grade five is the beginning of
"English medium of instruction", grade eight is the "beginning of the secondary school
102
phase" and grade twelve is the "end of the school" phase (Access to Learning
research project proposal: 12). However, because of various constraints, researchers
were not always able to monitor these particular grades and sometimes had to make
use of whichever grades were available.
4.5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND THE INSTRUMENTS USED IN THE RESEARCH
The research design, conceptualisation and operationalisation were determined by
the HSRC/Access to Learning Project. The HSRC/Access to learning had drawn up a
questionnaire and a classroom observation and interview schedule. Both
quantitative and qualitative information had to be collected on each school.
For the sake of comparability, the same questionnaires, observation/interview
schedules were to be used at all six schools.
The task was to administer the questionnaire, interview teachers and observe
classes (using the schedules provided).
Initially the proposed programme for researchers was as follows:
On Day One, a Monday, the principal and heads of departments were asked to
complete the questionnaire for collection at the end of the week and for the
researchers then to shadow a specific class (std 1/grade 3, std 3/grade 5, std 6/grade
8 or std 1a/grade 12) as their various lessons proceeded. In doing so, expectations
were that the researchers would observe a variety of teachers and become familiar
with the learning environment and the teachers at the school. The aim was to
identify one teacher who was considered to be pro-active and likely to adapt to
recent educational changes. All the teachers observed had to be inte-rviewed.
Day Two entailed shadowing the teacher identified on Day One for the full day. If the
teacher taught two or more subjects then at least one observation schedule had to be
completed for two different subjects.
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Day Three entailed following the same procedure as Day One, but shadowing a class
at a different grade from which had already been shadowed (std 1, std 3, std 6 or std
10). One teacher was to be selected to be shadowed the following day. In addition
the teachers had to be interviewed.
Day Four entailed shadowing the teacher identified on Day Three for the full day. If
the teacher taught two or more subjects then one observation schedule was to be
completed for two different subjects.
Day Five, the last day, involved rounding up exercises such as follow-up interviews
as well as collecting and checking the questionnaires to ensure that all the questions
had been answered.
4.6 METHODOLOGY
4.6.1 Data Sources
Data was collected from three primary sources: the questionnaire, the interview
schedules and the observation schedule (see addendum B & C)
The Questionnaire
The questionnaire was completed by the principal or the head of department (HOD)
at each school. The researcher tried to informally complete the same questionnaire
at each school so that her impressions could be compared with the data collected
from school officials.
Aspects covered by the questionnaire are:
• the school time-table
• classroom attendance
• punctuality
• time on task (teachers and learners)
lil extra-curricular activities
C) teacher/pupil ratio
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0 teacher qualifications
0 teacher attitudes
0 principal's role
0 stability and change
0 teacher support and development
0 community involvement
0 learner's background
0 the relevant curriculum
The Interview Schedule
The interview schedule reflects the format of a semi-structured interview. The exact
words on the schedule were not necessarily adhered to since the researcher
sometimes had to use his/her own words to assist teachers who experienced
difficulty with the language used in the schedule or in understanding the questions.
The Observation Schedule
Some of the details required for this schedule needed to be completed through
interviews. It was noted on the schedules when data came from interviews as
opposed to observations.
As secondary sources or supporting data sources notes were made on any
observations on aspects not covered by the schedule which might also be of interest
or could assist the project in establishing what conditions did/did not contribute
towards the creation of a successful learning environment at the schools.
4.6.2 Data Collection
Data collection took place over three weeks as indicated in Table 4.1 below:
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Visits had been arranged at the schools by the researcher. None of the schools
refused to participate in the study, and in general school principals/heads of
departments and teachers were co-operative throughout the study.
Classroom Observation
On average at least three lessons were observed on Days One and Three and at
least two observation schedules were completed on Days Two and Four at each
school. Table 4.2 below provides a summary of the grades observed at each school:
St Andrew's School 4 x grade 8 classes
2 x grade 9 classes
2 x grade 11 classes
2 x rade 12 classes
Eunice High School 5 x grade 8 classes
1 x grade 9 classes
3 x grade 11 classes
1 x rade 12 class
St Peter's Claver Primary 3 x grade 5 classes
3 x grade·2 classes
2 x 1 classes
Ekwaluseni Catholic School 4 x grade 5 classes
3 x grade 3 classes
2 x 1 classes
Mokitlane Primary 3 x grade 5 classes
3 x grade 2 classes
2 x rade 1 classes
Tsoseletso High School 4 x grade 8 classes
2 x grade 9 classes
2 x grade 11 classes
2 x rade 12 classes
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Interviews
Interviews w~re conducted on a one - to - one basis. It took place during breaks and
free periods after school. At least three teachers were interviewed at five of the six
schools. The responses to the interview questions were noted on the schedules.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires were completed by principals and heads of departments at all six
schools. The researcher made use of her own observations to expand on the
questionnaires.
Other
During breaks teachers informally filled the researcher in on conditions and
circumstances in the schools.
4.6.3 limitations
The quality of data collection was limited by various constraints, in particular by the
fact that arrangements to visit schools were rushed.
Classroom observations
Data collection on lesson observations was also constrained since the researcher
was not always able to observe the intended grades and had to observe the grades
that were available, for example matriculation examinations were in progress at one
of the high schools.
Another constraint was language. Some of the Sesotho teachers, especially in the
primary schools were not fluent in English, which made communication difficult.
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Interviews
Language differences also hampered communication since a number of teachers
were unwilling to be interviewed.
Questionnaires
The sensitivity of some of the questions made complete honesty from the side of the
principals difficult.
In conclusion
Overall data collection was reasonably successful despite the fact that
o some teachers indicated that they felt insecure in the face of current
rationalisation; and
e there were indications that some of the schools were afraid of the possibility of
appearing badly.
4.6.4 Data analysis
A predominantly descriptive analysis of data was reported in order to
e make comparisons between the six settings;
o search for patterns emerging from the data;
e consider some of the effects of the teacher's behaviour and teaching methods on
the learners' learning style; and
Q search for factors that might facilitate effective learning.
As previously indicated (cf. 4.1) a summary of the findings of the wider project will
now be reported. The original questionnaire as well as the observation and interview
schedule will however be added as an addendum (see Addendum B & C) to this
thesis. The complete data base is also available should it be requested for the
purpose of further research.
The summary of findings of the HSRC project will subsequently be followed by a
detailed report on the findings of factors that are relevant for this research (cf. 4.8).
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4.7 REPORTINGOF RESULTS
The findings of the wider project, as applicable to the six schools in the Free State,
will be reported according to the criteria as determined by the HSRC (cf. 4.4).
4.7.1 Results of the wider project access to learning and teaching
The point of departure in this research was pro-active in the sense that it
concentrated on the positive and reachable instead of noting the negative, that which
was regarded as a shortcoming and generally regarded stood in the way of
successful teaching and learning.
A further possible point of departure was to draw a clear distinction between
"successful learning" and schools/classrooms where effective learning and teaching
situations were present. The rationale behind such a point of departure was that
"successful learning" is difficult to measure as well as result-bound (e.g. tests,
examinations), and that the researchers' assumption was that such "successful
learning" was not synonymous with "effective learning and teaching situations". As
an example it can be indicated that if all the learners in a class (e.g. in grade 3)
should pass, the perception exists that such results could be ascribed to a successful
teacher and that successful learning thus took place (which may well be true). The
possibility however also exists that the teacher has an authoritative teaching style,
which leaves no room for learner participation and that the results could be attributed
to rote learning. Only when this paradigm shift was made, it was easier, to explore
the enabling conditions enhancing a successful teaching/learning environment, as
objectively as possible.
In conclusion it has to be noted that the purpose of this project was to research
"access to teaching and learning" within a multicultural context, assuming that the
multicultural context can play a role in aspects such as infer alia learning styles/
strategies, support that schools receive, learners' backgrounds, tearning time and
attendance levels. The researchers were therefore disappointed that only two of the
six identified schools in the Free State were "rnulticultural schools", both of which
were also in the "well-resourced" secondary school category. The other four were
traditional "black schools", one of which was a moderately-resourced secondary
school situated in a town, while the other three were all primary schools situated in
rural areas.
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* Institutional and functional arrangement
Time-table
At all six the identified schools in the Free State there was a time-table available,
which implied an equal distribution of teaching time to all the subjects. At all the
schools the principals informed researchers that a single person or committee was
responsible for the drawing-up and verification of the time-tables.
Attendance of classes
The extent to which both learners and teachers attend their classes was said to be
important in contributing towards effective teaching. At all six the identified schools in
the Free State the willingness to learn and to enter the classrooms on the part of the
learners was noteworthy. Only at one poorly-resourced primary school it became
apparent from an interview with the headmistress that her only problem was (when
she was appointed at the school two years previously) to get teachers into the
classroom. She reported that it took her two years to get the teachers into the
classrooms, "but I don't know what goes on inside the class!'; All the other
headmasters of poorly and moderately-resourced schools testified that after the
political changes in the country their teachers were not as politically orientated as in
the past, which meant that they now spent more time inside their classes. A noted
grievance amongst these principals was however the extent to which teachers were
still influenced by solidarity with actions that had nothing to do with teaching, but
which resulted in stay-aways from school, thus wasting valuable teaching time. The
well-resourced schools seemed to have no trouble in this regard.
The principals' responses also indicate that teachers spend on average 1-2 hours
per day' on lesson preparation and 5-6' hours per day on teaching (in the 'class).
However only the principals of the well-resourced schools were convinced that the 5-
6 hours of teaching are effective. At all the identified schools the principals were
nevertheless convinced that their teachers are mostly punctual and they do' not leave
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the school grounds early without permission. All the principals however indicated
that they were aware of schools where such activities occur daily. They expressed
their concern that this would undermine the culture of learning, which they would like
to establish amongst their learners and teachers. At the one school where the
principal indicated that she experienced problems in getting teachers into classes. It
however became apparent that the previous principal was an active political figure in
the community and thus influenced learners to participate in matters that hampered
the establishment of a learning culture.
Extra-mural activities
Only the two well-resourced schools indicated that extramural activities take place on
an organised basis at their schools. At the moderately and poorly-resourced schools
there were no signs of any sports fields, and principals informed researchers during
the interviews that sporting activities mainly take place on an ad hoc basis between
schools, but that sports coaching is performed by clubs in the community. At the two
well-resourced schools where sporting activities are exercised intensively, the
principals' greatest objections were that it influences study time, since many of the
learners take part in two or more forms of sport and extramural activities.
Teacher/pupil ratio -
At all six the schools the principals indicated that the teacher-pupil ratio is
approximately 1/40. At both well-resourced schools the principals personally
perceived the ratio to be too high, thus impeding the task of the teachers. Although
the principals of the poorly and moderately-resourced schools were also convinced
that the ratio was -too high, they considered it an improvement on the past when the
ratio was as high as 1/651
Teacher qualifications
With regard to teacher qualifications, the difference between the categories of
schools was apparent. At both the two well-resourced schools, as well as at one
moderately-resourced school, there were no unqualified teachers. All the teachers
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therefore possessed at least a Matric + 3 year qualification, while the most common
was Matric + 4 years and increased to three Master's degrees. At one of the
moderately-resourced schools (in a rural area) and both of the selected poorly-
resourced schools the most common was a matric certificate and at most 2 years'
training. At one of the poorly-resourced schools the principal, who had a master's
degree, was the only educator with a qualification higher than matric + 2 years'
training. At the three schools (with well-qualified teachers) [all secondary schools], it
was noticeable that all the subject teachers were suitably qualified for their allocated
tasks. At the three primary schools (mostly staffed by unqualified teachers), it was
however apparent that the teachers that were shadowed (although inadequately
trained) were able to teach effectively, and that successful learning took place in their
classrooms.
Management styles of principals
The management styles of the specific principals appeared to play a determining role
in the creation of invitational teaching environments where effective learning could
take place. Judged subjectively, all six. principals displayed strong leadership
qualities. All of them indicated that they were strict but fair and believed in
democratically involving their staff in decision-making and associating with staff,
parents, learners and stakeholders in a transparent manner. From personal
interviews with the identified teachers it also became apparent that they were of the
opinion that the success of a school (in all areas) and the establishment of a learning
culture would depend primarily on the leadership and management style of the
principal. The fact that the identified principals were all well-qualified (M+5 and
higher) contributes largely to the teachers being motivated to improve their
qualifications. Lower qualified -teachers however indicated that since they had been
teaching for such a long time (up to 20 years), they did not see their way clear to
study again for one or two years, but that they were very poorly paid. It is ironic that
most of these established teachers mastered the didactic principles underlying
effective learning on a trial and error basis. Three of the school principals (two
poorly-resourced and one moderately-resourced) indicated that the support groups
on their staff assisted each other and exchanged ideas on aspects which they found
to contribute to effective teaching.
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4.7.2 Learning styles, teaching strategies and teachers' knowledge
The learning' styles, teaching strategies and teachers' knowledge of all six schools
were primarily judged on the basis of the observation schedules provided by the
HSRC, as well as objective observation of effective teachers through the process of
shadowing.
It' was consequently observed at schools and classes where a positive learning
situation prevailed, that the teachers followed the progressive approach to teaching,
which involved a learner-centred approach. Effective learning in all the observed
classes (except one) was enhanced by a positive atmosphere. The observed
teachers were particularly accessible, and a feeling of being "an askable teacher",
prevailed. By applying the principles of invitational teaching, researchers were
continually under the impression that these teachers, where an effective learning
situation prevailed, were in control. Through this type of teaching there were
continual differentiation in groups and reinforcement of right answers took place in
creative ways. (This varied from verbal praise such as "a good answer!", to three
quick claps to applaud a learner as an encore, or making positive comments on
excellent answers when marking exercises. In the feedback session, the teacher
would then ask the specific learner to answer a particular question, because "you
really had a superb answer"). This had a positive effect on the learners as well as
personalising teaching, thus making every learner feel special. When incorrect
responses were given by learners, these teachers continually created a new learning
situation through the reallocation of questions or redefining of wrong answers thus
continually involving learners in the lesson.
By alternation of high order and lower order questions (to more and less gifted
learners), all the learners were continually involved. Constant alternation was also
applied and song, rhythm and other sensory diversions were frequently used to keep
learners involved. The basic didactic principles of integration and the recognition of
relations were used in most instances since learning material was always presented
at the comprehension level of the learners and new learning material was linked to
their existing knowledge. In addition, relations were also established between the
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familiar world of experience of the child and the learning material, so that unfamiliar
concepts would not lead to discontinuity in learning.
Continuous individualisation prevailed in the classrooms where, according to
researchers, an effective learning situation was present. It is obvious that learning
took place in compliance with the individual/learner's particular goals, possibilities,
modus operandi, interests and potential. From personal interviews with the effective
teachers it always appeared that they regarded their teaching as a calling and their
learners as important. These teachers also indicated that they regarded the
personalisation of the individual as of utmost importance. They are also familiar with
every child and his/her circumstances and regard it as their responsibility to
individually address every learner's needs and demands.
These teachers also primarily used the inductive approach as the methodological
principle of divulging information to learners. They generally disclosed information by
progressing step by step, proceeding from the parts to the whole, from a particular
example to the generalisation, from the known to the unknown, and from the
concrete to the abstract. Although this method can be applied more successfully with
younger children, researchers found that it is also suitable for secondary schools.
Although this method has the disadvantage that instruction takes place at a slower
pace, it however appeared to guarantee lasting understanding.
Finally, with regard to teaching strategies, it was remarkable that in these effective
teachers' classes there was a high level of activity. Learners continuously worked in
groups and differentiation was applied throughout.
With regard to teachers! knowledge, it was noticeable that the teachers at the two
well-resourced schools (both secondary schools) had good subject knowledge. This
can possibly be ascribed to the fact that these teachers all have at least a M + 4 year
qualification (and higher) and are employed to teach the subjects in which they had
been qualified. It also appeared that without exception these teachers applied their
knowledge to guide the learners to the discovery of knowledge. Questions raised by
learners could thus be answered from that specific framework of knowledge.
However, at the moderately and poorly-resourced school the teachers, with whom an
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effective learning situation prevailed, mostly only had a matric qualification (or a
maximum of 2 years training). Although their lessons were well prepared, it
appeared to be generally based upon textbook knowledge. Although it was difficult
to ascertain, researchers were able to observe a definite difference in the true
knowledge and hand-on knowledge of these teachers. It could possibly best be
described as "one step ahead knowledge", supplemented by years of teaching
experience, which came to the aid of these teachers. Through trial and error some of
them realised what worked for their learners and what did not. They subsequently
adapted their methods accordingly. The researchers thus realised the need of these
teachers for a basic training course in subject didactic skills (and not content).
During personal interviews all of them also expressed the desire for such a training
course (not more than 3 weeks).
4.7.3 Teacher support and development
At the two well-resourced schools the teachers and the principals indicated that they
were well-qualified and well-grounded in their subjects, but they nevertheless
expressed the need for more guidance as well as in-service training from the Free
State Education Department. Especially with regard to Curriculum 2005, they
indicated that they were in need of guidance, since they had only attended a one day
seminar informing them about the new curriculum.
At poorly and moderately-resourced schools there appeared to be an urgent need for
in-service training. Most in-service training to which teachers had been exposed,
involved peer tutoring from older and more experienced teachers who assisted the
younger and new entrees to education. With regard to the personal development of
the teachers, it also appeared that peer support of teachers primarily involved the
sharing of expertise and problems - It involved assistance with th.e interpretation of
textbooks and prescribed books. The teachers also indicated that they knew little or
nothing about the Curriculum 2005 initiative and that they were in the dark on the
way in which it would be implemented and what implications it would have.
Summarily it can be stated that in-service teacher training is mostly initiated by the
Education Department and generally consists of 1 or 2-day courses, mainly focused
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on subject content. Two of the schools received additional support from the Roman
Catholic Church. This, however, entailed financial compensation and not guidance in
respect of in-service training.
At all six schools that were visited, the teachers indicated that they experienced no
problems with in-service training institutions. Although the teachers from these
schools had reasonable or easy access to training centres, two problems came to the
fore here. In the first instance, most of the unqualified or under-qualified teachers
(lower qualified than M+3) indicated that they were already advanced in years and
had an average of 1~20 years teaching experience. They therefore do not envisage
themselves returning to a training centre for two or more years to receive training.
They also indicated that they did not want to study through a correspondence college
for 2 or 3 years. They did however indicate that a qualification (whether a certificate
or something similar) would be of inestimable value to them, even if it was only to
improve on their matric qualifications.
The second problem related to the issue of no recognition for additional
qualifications. Teachers (M+3 and further qualified) expressed the lack of
encouragement to better their qualifications, since the Education Department no
longer recognises additional qualifications for the purpose of proceeding to a higher
category or for salary adjustments.
Researchers, however, found it interesting from personal interviews with teachers in
whose classes an effective learning situation existed, that well qualified teachers
(M+4 and higher qualifications) remain students in their subject' fields and read
intensively on new developments, tendencies and changes in their subject fields.
Unqualified and under-qualified teachers (M+3 and lower) however, generally only
read prescribed textbooks in their field of study. There is thus no question of
academic profundity in the case of the last group of teachers.
4.7.4 Learners' background
With regard to the learners' background and more specifically their socio-economic
status, researchers reported a discrepancy between well-resourced, moderately-
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resourced and poorly-resourced schools. At the two well-resourced schools the
principals indicated that approximately 80% of their learners come from middle class
and higher income groups, while the opposite was observed at poorly and
moderately-resourced schools. At these schools the principals indicated that
approximately 80% of their learners come from below average income groups. The
principals also indicated approximately the same tendency concerning the
educational level of their learners' parents. At the well-resourced schools it appeared
that approximately 75% of the learners' parents had higher education or post-
graduate qualifications, while at the moderately and poorly-resourced schools
approximately 80% Of the parents' qualifications were only basic schooling (not even
matric), and approximately 20% could be classified as uneducated. At the last group
of schools all four principals were in agreement that poor living conditions were not
conducive to learning.
The researchers also observed (from personal interviews and discussions with
principals and teachers) that at the well-resourced schools good role modelling (on
the part of parents for their children) take place in terms of obtaining knowledge.
Although most of these parents have high qualifications and naturally encourage and
assist their children in obtaining knowledge, this causes a decline of interest in the
school and its activities. The parents are therefore not as involved as the principals
would like them to be. At the moderately and poorly-resourced schools researchers
however experienced the opposite. Although little role modelling in respect of the
acquisition of knowledge was present (as a result of parents' low qualifications), it
appeared that there was an active interest in the school and its activities. Without
exception these principals indicated that they could depend on the co-operation of
their parents. The principals ascribed this to the need of parents that their children
should learn and obtain 'better qualifications. The teacher's role is thus regarded
highly by the parents because, on the one hand, parents do not have the knowledge
and skills to do this, and on the other hand, they project their educational role onto
the school. It can thus be concluded that despite the learners' background, teachers
play an important role in enhancing learning.
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4.7.5 Physical facilities, materials and transport
At the two well-resourced schools visited by the researchers, the physical facilities
and available material were naturally of a high standard. At these schools an
established infrastructure existed: well-equipped classrooms, laboratories,
administrative buildings, sport facilities, text books, exercise books and large well-
kept sports grounds were present. In addition to being traditional Model C schools,
these institutions had been long established and had rich traditions and ex-pupil
involvement at their disposal.
One of the moderately-resourced schools is a new school in 2-year old buildings,
situated in an urban area. Adequate physical facilities and textbooks were available.
Led by an energetic, motivated and well-trained principal, this school undertook the
task of laying out sports fields and gardens and is envisaged to be fully established
within two years. Computer equipment and a well-qualified (academically well-
grounded) staff contributed to this school's being regarded as one of the better
equipped "moderately-resourced schools". All three of the above-mentioned schools
are also secondary schools.
At the other moderately-resourced school and the two poorly-resourced schools,
however, different conditions prevailed. All three are primary schools and situated in
rural areas. Two of the schools are partially funded by the Roman Catholic Church,
and although they can be regarded as better than most schools, they merely comply
with minimum acceptable standards. At these schools the buildings were old, but
habitable. Classrooms were hot in summer and cold in winter, because there were
no ceilings. Teachers 'however had textbooks and stationery. Although these
classes were not equipped with luxuries such as overhead projectors and posters,
the basics such as adequate desks and chairs, as well as writing boards were
available and in some instances effective teaching therefore also took place, In the
cases where effective teaching did not take place, it could not be ascribed to the
physical facilities (or lack thereof); but rather to the presence of ineffective teaching.
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One of the poorly-resourced primary schools, however, did not meet the demands of
minimum acceptable standards. The buildings were old and no facilities (except a
telephone) existed. Many of the basic facilities, for example laboratory equipment,
were broken .. The fallen-down condition of the school was worsened by the fact that
it was broken into almost weekly, and even classroom chairs and tables were stolen.
The principal would even take the telephone home in the evenings for fear of it being
stolen! Although the principal described the situation as critical, even in these
conditions teachers attempted to make the best of a bad situation by continuing to
teach.
As far as transport is concerned, learners of the two well-resourced schools either
travel to the school with their parents, or in a small number of cases make use of
public transport to come to school, while the rest are boarders in the hostels on the
school premises. These schools experienced no problems with regard to the time
when school starts, because the learners were, without exception, punctual during
both winter and summer.
All four of the other schools were situated in traditionally "black" residential areas and
their population consisted primarily of children from the surrounding areas. The
majority of these children walk to school or make use of public transport (mostly
taxis). Learners using the latter mode of transport indicated that there was not a
shortage of transport to the schools, but that taxis are generally full and that they
have to wait since adults get preference to get to their various places of work. This
may result in them arriving late at their schools. At all four of these schools the
principals nevertheless indicated that, although learners who live very close to these
schools and only have to walk a short distance every morning, sometimes still arrive
late. These principals also indicated that a learning culture and willingness to learn
could only be created through an educational process. These principals all stated
that the problem becomes worse during winter when it sometimes happens that
learners only arrive at school at 10 o'clock!
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4.7.6 Teachers' attitudes
The attitude of teachers towards education in general (such as mastery of subject
knowledge and use of appropriate teaching skills), and towards their school, their
parent community, neighbouring schools and learners in particular, is indicative of the
standard of education that can be expected of a teacher.
At all six schools it was remarkable that the choice of a teacher to be shadowed on
the next day, after a class had been completed, showed a high correlation with the
principals' choice of effective teachers when researchers tested them about it. It thus
seemed that these teachers in whose classrooms an effective learning situation
prevailed had to have "something" that made them successful.
Without exception the researchers found that these teachers were very positive
towards their learners, the learning matter (and change which goes hand in hand with
this) and their school. All these teachers indicated that they regard teaching as a
"calling", and that they did not want to do any other job. These views were
continually reinforced by the learners' spontaneity towards particular teachers and
the positive atmosphere in all these classes. Regardless of whether they were well-
qualified or poorly-qualified, these teachers seemed to possess teaching skills
enabling them to make lessons interesting and entertaining. In personal interviews
the poorly qualified indicated that they acquired these skills through trial and error
and from observing teachers whom they regard as effective.
These effective teachers also constantly indicated that they maintain a positive
relationship with their parent- community. Especially in the poorly-resourced and
moderately-resourced schools the teachers indicated that their parent community
look up to them for assistance and guidance and expect them to play a leading role.
It was found that in these schools parents would like to work together with, and
support the teachers. This can possibly be attributed to the fact that the parents
themselves are poorly qualified and look up to teachers to give their children an
education. It also appears that the majority of parents of learners in the poorly and
moderately-resourced schools shift the total education of their children to the school,
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which naturally puts pressure on the teachers. Disciplinary problems are especially
referred to the school by the parents and they expect the principal and teachers to
assist them in finding solutions. These schools regularly have open house meetings
(announced by for example a newsletter) when parents come to the school to
discuss community problems and try to find solutions.
The identified effective teachers furthermore indicated that they were not positively
inclined towards the "bureaucrats" who presently control education in the Free State
Province. Because of problems in the Free State Education Department and
pending court cases investigating corruption, these teachers and principals indicated
in personal interviews they felt that the bureaucrats should concentrate on
"administrative tasks" and not interfere in educational matters.
To conclude: Positive attitudes towards learners, parents, the school community and
learning matters appear to determine the teachers' positive attitudes in general. The
opposite is however also true - where principals indicated that a negative
educational climate existed, there was a high correlation with teachers who were
negative towards all aspects of their profession, especially towards the learners.
4.7.7 Support schools receive from institutional structures and
communities
4.7.7.1 Support from the Department of Education
During personal interviews at all three categories of schools (well-resourced,
moderately-resourced and poorly-resourced) the teachers and principals indicated
that they received little support from the Education Department, and specifically with
regard to educational guidance. It was also said that things were much better during
the old dispensation. One principal expressed the opinion that subject advisers and
educational leaders do not come to the schools because they are afraid to do so
because they are incompetent for the positions that they hold. Although the
researchers cannot comment on this, the fact that support staff seldom visit schools
should be noted as a disturbing tendency. In most cases schools therefore feel that
they are left on their own to see to it that education does not collapse.
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4.7.7.2 Support from governing bodies
At the two well-resourced schools, which were both previously Model C schools,
governing bodies exist that look after the whole spectrum of school activities and
accept responsibility for it. These bodies consist of responsible and qualified
professional people from the community, each one playing a particular role in the
governing body, (such as legal aspects and finances). Although legally elected
governing bodies exist at all the other schools (poorly and moderately-resourced),
the principals indicated that without exception these governing bodies exist only in
name. The reason for this is that members are not trained and mostly do not know
what their roles in the governing bodies should be. At one of the moderately-
resourced schools, and also one of the poorly-resourced schools, the Roman
Catholic Church played a prominent role, although it was mostly a financial one.
It would thus appear as if governing bodies (especially at the poorly and moderately-
resourced schools) exist in name only, and has up to the present not exerted a
determining influence on the governance of these schools. At the well-resourced
schools, however, it seems that governing bodies form the basis of decision-making
and responsible school governance.
4.7.8 Relevant curriculum
At all six the schools represented in the research, the curricula of the Department of
Education were used. Only at the two well-resourced schools did the teachers use
initiative and move beyond the syllabus as often as possible. The teachers at the
moderately and poorly-resourced schools felt strongly that. the curriculum should be
more culture- and regionally orientated. For example, a teacher at one of the poorly-
resourced schools said that they would prefer to focus on the history and geography
of the Free State and its people. The learners could then identify with the content.
Two of the six schools (the poorly-resourced schools) felt that they would not know
what they had in common with Curriculum 2005, because they had no knowledge
about it. The other four schools pointed out that they have already implemented co-
122
operative learning, pupil involvement, thematic teaching and continuous assessment
on an ad hoc basis.
Formal examinations vary from two to four examinations per year at all six identified
schools.
4.7.9 Stability and change
Two of the six schools where research was done moved into new buildings in the
past five years (one well-resourced school and one moderately-resourced school).
Both well-resourced schools experienced major changes in terms of moving towards
multicultural education and accommodating more learners in the class. The other
four schools changed to be less politically inclined and more learning-centred.
All the schools were clear on the negative effect of the Department of Education on
teachers' morale, especially the paralysis in the Department due to the suspension of
senior executives. This brought about a pessimistic atmosphere about teaching in
general. Other common changes among the six schools were that of moving
towards a new form of governance, and allowing all involved at the school to
experience a sense of ownership. All six principals regarded proper management as
vitally important and felt that they had some kind of responsibility towards the school.
One poorly-resourced school indicated the major change in its history was to get the
teachers into their classrooms and to keep them there. The other poorly-resourced
as well as the two moderately-resourced schools regarded the creating of a culture of
learning and pride amongst learners and teachers as a major change.
All the schools seem to deal with the above-mentioned changes in a positive manner
and also appointed financial managers to deal with financial issues, which became a
new challenge at all schools.
The general feeling amongst principals and teachers was that they wished for a
move towards a more positive and committed work ethic. Teachers felt that the
"executives" (Department of Education) had to sort themselves and the problems in
123
the department out and stop interfering with teachers and their classrooms where
they (the "executives") did not know what it was about.
Against the background of the results of the wider project, the following section will
focus upon relevant factors chosen from the data base, specifically relating to factors
which influence effective learning and which create an invitational climate.
4.8 RESULTS OF RELEVANT FACTORS INFLUENCING EFFECTIVE
LEARNING AND CREATING AN INVITATIONAL CLIMATE AS REPORTED
IN THIS STUDY
It is imperative to validate the reasoning behind the choice of items from the
HSRC/Access to Learning questionnaires and observation/interview schedule to be
used in this thesis as criteria for effective learning and creating an invitational climate.
The factors were identified from the following information:
o the in-depth literature study reported in Chapters 2 and 3 on "effective learning
and teaching" and "invitational education";
o the results from the HSRC/Access to learning project as reported in this chapter;
and
o individual observations by the researcher when visiting the identified schools.
The criteria used to describe the results of this study are grouped in three sections
and will be reported as such (each criterium will be verified individually).
o FACTORS RELATING TO THE EDUCATOR
o the teacher's attitude (cf. 2.6.1; 2.6.3.2; 3.6);
o motivation to be a teacher (cf. 2.6.3.5; 3.7); and
Cl adequate subject knowledge (cf. 2.5.3; 2.6.2.6).
e FACTORS RELATING TO THE LEARNER
o continuous individualisation where the learner is supported and accepted
at all times (cf. 2.6.2.7; 2.6.3.2; 2.6.1);
e continuous learner involvement (cf. 2.6.4.2); and
o differentiation with regards to individual ability (cf. 2.6.2.3; 2.6.3.2).
124
o FACTORS RELATING TO THE TEACHING PROCESS
o positive reinforcement enhancing the learner's self-concept as part of the
process of applying discipline (cf. 2.6.1; 2.6.2.5; 3.3.2);
o par-ental involvement and support given to the learners (cf. 2.5.3);
o the use of teaching styles and strategies (cf. 2.6.3.4); and
o physical structure of the environment (cf. 2.5.1; 2.6.1).
Each of the factors will be reported and commented on individually since items for
each was selected either from the questionnaire or the observation/interview
schedule or from both.
4.8.1 Factors relating to the educator
Factor 1: Attitude of the teacher
QUESTIONNAIRE
Teacher attitudes: How wOII yOIUldescribe your teachers' overall attitude
towards ...
TABLE 4.3: Teachers' attitudes (I)
Subjects
Meth
Parents Positive Positive
Aca- Positive Positive Positive Positive
demics
Policy Moderately Negative Positive Moderately
ive
Great High expec-
demands tations given satisfaction
125
COMMENT
Table 4.3 reveals that overall the attitudes of teachers at all the schools towards the
subjects they teach, towards their own methods of teaching and knowledge are
broadly positive to moderately positive. With the exception of one school, all the
teachers indicated positive feelings towards parents and academics. It is however
apparent that teachers felt slightly more negative towards policy. Table 4.4 indicates
that not one reason in particular is responsible for the teachers' attitudes.
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
Of the 47 teachers' shadowed and observed, only two had a negative attitude
towards teaching. One of the two had angry feelings towards the teaching
circumstances and the other was only concerned about herself and intended to leave
teaching soon. The majority was happy, relaxed generally positive.
Factor 2: Motivation to be a teacher
QUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE4.5: Teachers' time distribution
How much time do teachers end .---
COMMENT
Table 4.5 reveals that teachers spend approximately 1-2 hours on lesson
preparation per day, with the exception of two schools where the principals felt that it
was not possible to give an indication of hours spent on preparation since it varies
too much. Teachers spend 5-6 hours on average in classrooms per day and 4-6
hours actually teaching. The one principal's response of 7 hours was omitted as it
was not congruent with the observation of the researcher.
126
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
How do you perceive your teaching role?
The majority of the teachers interviewed indicated that their main reason for teaching
was to convey knowledge. Examples are:
i) "I have to facilitate the learning process. Traditional teaching is still part of it,
but the emphasis is now on the learner's role."
ii) "A teacher should perform many roles. A supplier of new knowledge, more
importantly an interpreter of knowledge, a facilitator to acquire new
knowledge."
Some of the respondents also considered the guidance role as important. Examples
are:
i) "My role is above all to make learners feel that they have a contribution to
make."
ii) "My role is to teach and to guide."
iii) "I have to be a leader."
Factor 3 : Adequate subject knowledge
QUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE 4.6: Teachers' qualifications
Indicate the number of teachers 8111 your school whose qualification/s include ..
No matric
+ 2 yr 0. 0. 3 3 6 0.
di loma
Matric +
2 yr 0. 0. 1 3 20. 2
di loma
Matric +
3 yr 8 8 16 8 0. 15
di oma
Under-
Graduate 17 15 0. 1 3 20.
2 4 0. 0. 1 11
127
COMMENT
From Table 4.6 it appears that most of the teachers are professionally qualified.
Secondary school teachers are better qualified than their primary school colleagues.
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
All the teachers observed mastered their subjects well and had a broad knowledge.
Only one teacher was not qualified for the subject that she taught, but was so
dedicated to what she was doing, that she was a master at her subject. One of the
criteria on the observation schedule was to determine whether the teachers made a
conscious effort to draw concepts from different sources and subjects together. With
the exception of one teacher who was very negative, all the other did so
exceptionally well.
Summary of the factors related to educators
When considering the responses in general in relation to the observations made by
the researcher, the following was apparent with regard to the role of educators
facilitating effective learning in the teaching process:
o teachers are dedicated to their "calling", despite dreadful circumstances in some
instances;
o teachers' attitudes are positive and therefore are conveyed to the learners, thus
motivating them;
Q teachers are friendly and happy, which make them accessible to learners. The
presence of humour in the classroom thus creates a relaxing atmosphere;
Q' teachers "askabie" attitude makes open as well as private communication with
learners possible;
Cl being masters of their subjects give teachers sufficient self-confidence, which also
makes it possible for teachers to be flexible rather than rigid. Lesson content can
therefore be related to a much wider context. This is not dependable on
qualifications only; and
128
o teaching is more than merely conveying knowledge. It is about guiding learners
towards fulfilling their potential. This is reflected in the time and energy that go
into school activities, of which teaching is one aspect.
4.8.2 Factors relating to the learners
Factor 4: Continuous individualisation
QUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE 4.7: Teacher/learner ratio
Teacher/
Learner 1 - 25 1 - 30 1 -40 1 -40 1 - 35 1 -40
ratio
How do Moderate-
Teachers Moderate- Moderate- Moderate- Moderate-Ly Unsatis-
Feel ly unsatis- ly satis- ly satis- ly unsatis-unsatis- fied
about fied fied fied fied
The ratio Fied
TABLE 4.8: Teachers understandlnq the learners
To what extent would! ur teachers understand the learners? ===
large x n/a x x x
Extent x
less
Extent
Reasoll1:
School1: "There is generally a good teacher/learner rapport."
School 2: No comment.
School 3: "Too difficult to ascertain."
School 4: No comment.
School5: "They visit their homes and get to know their parents."
School 6: "Good relationships exist."
129
COMMENT
Table 4.7 reveals that the average teacher/learner ratio is 1-35. Four of the six
schools expressed their dissatisfaction with the situation. Table 4.8 however shows
that despite the unfavourable ratio, teachers still have a good relationship/rapport
with learners.
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
What do you perceive to be the effect of class size on learning and teaching in
your class?
Only one teacher indicated that she could handle larger classes. The following were
problems experienced by most of the interviewed teachers (13/15) due to the big
classes:
o discipline problems;
o heavy load for marking;
o cannot reach the individual child; and
o puts greater demands on the teacher.
Two of the teachers commented that the bigger classes forced the teacher to be well
prepared in order to keep the learners occupied.
OBSERVA TION SCHEDULE
During the observations of the researcher it was apparent that 30 of the 47 observed
teachers made a special effort to become familiar with the learners' names and
interests.
130
Factor 5 : Continuous learner involvement
INTER VIEW. SCHEDULE
Does learner participation or lack of it lead to increased learning? What do you
think should be the learner's role in the classroom in order to enhance
learninq?
Except for two teachers who responded vaguely on this question, the other 13 were
unanimous in their responses that the child ought to play an active role in the class,
whether through "voicing their opinions", or by taking responsibility for their learning.
Examples are:
i) "Full involvement and participation in the learning process. Taking
responsibility for their learning."
ii) "Some learners who read, might have information to share. The learner must
be involved with the learning process. She must feel comfortable in the scope
of the work as well as voice opinions."
iii) "The learners should take an active role in the classroom, either by introducing
new, related information, or by offering or seeking clarification."
One teacher felt strongly that learners would only be confident to take part in
discussions if teachers showed them acceptance.
OBSERVA TlON SCHEDULE
In response to the criteria on the observation schedule to observe whether teachers
do most of the talking and whether reasoning is expected of the learners, 10 teachers
fell into the trap of talking alone, but their lessons however did not allow them
otherwise. The majority nevertheless expected activity, response and reasoning
from the learners.
131
The researcher noted that in response to the question on the observation schedule,
whether learners merely sit back and listen, 38 teachers noted that the learners were
active in participating. In a number of primary school classes (6) learners "danced" or
"sang" as part of the learning process. In 5 of the classes learners were moving
around freely, to either obtain information or to assist fellow learners.
The exercises done by learners as part of the learning process ranged from
exercises from textbooks to creative tasks such as searching for news clips, to writing
speeches for politicians. To express this observation in numbers is difficult since it
varies from time to time in a class.
Factor 6: Differentiating according to the ability of the learner.
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
When observing the way in which the learners were grouped, it was observed that in
all the primary school classes, with the exception of one, the learners were grouped
according to ability. One of the teachers included one "clever" child in a group to
assist with peer tutoring. The secondary school classes were arranged randomly.
When observing whether learners were encouraged to solve problems individually or
with the help of the class, it was clear that all the teachers in secondary school
classes, with the exception of 7 (where group work was done in the particular
lessons), mastered the art of "relocating" questions answered wrongly by one
learner, to other learners. In the primary school classes, questions were most often
put to groups who then had to solve the problem.
132
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Every learner has certain strengths or talents. How can these be used to
promote learnlnq for his/her group or the whole class?
Thirteen of the fifteen teachers emphasised the fact that peer-tutoring is the most
important tool to promote learning. In this way the learners build self-confidence and
consequently become aware of their own strong points. Examples are:
i) "When groups are compiled, strengths, talents and weaknesses must be
distributed fairly. Every child has a support systemwithin which he/she learns.
By sharing knowledge, and by demanding assistance in some cases, this
process has tremendous educational value."
ii) "One must pin-point interest areas of learners - by extending these in groups
one can cover so much ground - learning will only take place once interest is
there."
iii) "Using their talenUknowledge to show that the teacher is not the sole font of
wisdom."
Summary of the factors relating to teamers
When considering the responses together with the observations made by the
researcher, the following factors seem relevant to assist learners to learn more
effectively:
o if teachers take the trouble of knowing the learners' names and interests, learners
would feel that the teacher is interested in them as unique human beings, which
would facilitate growth;
o the above-mentioned is much more important, though also more difficult, in bigger
classes where learners could easily feel themselves to be only "numbers";
o when learners are involved in the learning process, they remain actively
interested and are willing to participate, since their individual opinion is regarded
as valuable;
o it is important not to belittle the learner when he/she is not able to understand or
respond correctly. This could be done effectively in either relocating questions to
133
the rest of the class without saying "it is wrong". A question such as "what do you
think, class?", saves the situation for the weaker child; and
o peer-tutoring seems to work well with learners of different abilities in one class.
This contributes towards building self-confidence in all learners, since everyone
has a chance to explore his/her strengths and weaknesses. Success breeds
success, and the learner is willing to try again.
4.8.3 Factors relating to the process
Factor 7: Positive reinforcement enhancing the learner's self-concept as part of the
process of applying discipline
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
On the observation schedule, the criterium for discipline was to observe whether the
interaction between learners and teachers was formal or informal, and whether an
exciting and motivational atmosphere prevailed. It was also to be observed whether
learners were rewarded for good behaviour and if constructive methods of discipline
were used.
Of the 47 classes shadowed, the majority exercised the following characteristics:
o informal interaction between learner and teacher;
o learners knew exactly what was expected of them, which meant that strict control
was not necessary;
e good behaviour and performance was rewarded by positive reinforcement, for
example "excellent try" or "great answer";
o as a result of the relaxing and motivational atmosphere a situation prevailed
where the teachers never had to shout;
Q humour prevailed as a means of communication; and
o if a problem arose it was immediately taken care of in a constructive manner.
One teacher made use of specific heroes which related to the learner's interest, in
order to settle a difficult situation.
134
In six classes the atmosphere was that of strict control where no one dared to open
his/her mouth. In four classes where group work was done, discipline was difficult to
maintain, especially when group leaders were not certain what was expected of
them.
Factor 8 : Parental involvement and support to the learners.
QUESTIONNAIRE
TABLE 4.9: Socio-economic class of the learners
Would you broadly indicate how many percent of your learners come from ..
Poor less than less than
Families 25% 25% 90% 75% 75% 75%
Average 75% 75% 10% . 25% less than less thanlFamilies 25% 25%
Rich less than less than less than less than
Families 25% 25% 0% 0% 25% 25%
TABLE 4.10: Education levels and home environment
Indication of .
Educational schooled schooled
level Uneducatedand and and Uneducated uneducated schooledof learners' higher higher
education education Schooled
Learners'
Living
Moderately Moderately moderately moderatelyConditions appropriate appropriate inappropriate appropriate inappropriate inappropriateat
Home
Living
conditions
Being
Conducive yes yes No Yes no no
to
Learning
COMMENT
When observing the responses in Table 4.3, it was apparent that the teachers of only
one out of six schools felt moderately negative towards parents. From the responses
in Tables 4.9 and 4.10 it seems that the parents from School 1 and 2, who are from
135
the higher income group, are better educated and the conditions at home are positive
towards learning. In Schools 3 and 6 the parents are schooled, and moderately
positive conditions for learning prevail. The situations at Schools 4 and 5 are not
conducive to learning due to the fact that parents themselves have no education,
which again leads to poverty and poor economical status. These children often have
to work to find food and shelter.
What kind of support and encouragement do you provide to your learners?
All the principals indicated that they supported and motivated their learners by taking
personal interest in them. One school has a housemaster that attends to the
individual needs of day boys as well as boarders. One prinicipal said: "I show them
examples of people who benefited from education."
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Does informing parents (about their children's performance and behaviour at
school) have any effect on learning and teaching in your classroom?
Most of the teachers interviewed felt that parents were still primarily responsible for
discipline and therefore had to know when there were problems at school. Many of
the parents who are not educated were serious about their children being educated
therefore worked well together with the teachers at school. Some examples are:
"Yes, I believe that it can be beneficial to keep parents informed, formally and
informally. When there are problems, the parents can often provide backing for one's
discipline and expectations. Equally, positive feedback to parents often further
encourages good work. It is vitally important that parents, who have been contacted
with negative information about their kids, should receive positive feedback when
change occurs.'
"This depends entirely on parents commitment to the children's education."
"Invite them by writing a letter."
136
Factor 9: The use of teaching styles and strategies.
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
On the observation schedule, the following criteria had to be used for observing:
o Does the teacher prepare for lessons?
o What types of exercises are learners expected to complete?
o Learning strategies.
o Do learners read?
o Do learners summarise what the teacher says during the lesson?
o Do learners re-write everything that the teacher writes on the board?
o Do they memorise lists of facts and dates and names?
o Do learners sit back and listen throughout the lesson?
Most of the teachers never made use of "drill-work". Instead, associations were
made with things from "the child's world" to remember facts. Active participation
prevailed in the majority of classes and only seldom did the teacher speak alone
through. the entire lesson. Learners were encouraged to think creatively where the
work that had been done would be applicable. This also often formed part of the
exercises which had to be done. Sometimes exercises from textbooks were given for
completion. In primary schools however, memorisation is still used, but then the
"drilling" is done through singing or poetry. Learners were seldom required to read.
In the primary schools most of the classes had interesting reading corners which
could be used by the learners when their work had been completed. Reading formed
part of positive encouragement for good work. Depending on the cognitive level of
the learners, questions varied between low order and high order questions. Correct
answers were encouraged by the clapping of hands in the primary schools or by
encouragement such as "excellent try" in secondary schools. Interaction in the class
was encouraged throughout.
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
What do you think are effective teaching styles in your classroom (i.e. what
methods or strategies for learning do you use in your classroom which enable
learners to learn)?
137
The majority of teachers noted that they made use of self-discovery and thought-
provoking techniques to involve the learners actively. Visible, practical and concrete
explanations were used as well as praise and tangible rewards such as:
"captain of the first team", "winner of a toffee", asking a student to read his/her good
answer, and "having the answer signed by the parent". One of the language
teachers' response was, "language in action - where and how language is used in all
aspects. Sometimes I use textbook exercises, sometimes news articles, films,
debates etc." Another teacher noted, "I regard the use of humour as one of the most
valuable strategies. I also use the strategy of sometimes deliberately
misunderstanding or misinterpreting a learner."
Explain how your teachinq strategies highlight each child's mastery of skills
and understanding of content.
At this stage large numbers of learners in classes was repeatedly indicated as a
problem, but since many of the teachers were of the opinion that support/group
teaching worked well, this gave the learners an opportunity to gain knowledge and
confidence. "Working in groups and mastering content in the group, gives each child
the opportunity to talk maths, and that gives them confidence. Misunderstanding the
learner, forces the learner to re-formulate his thoughts so that the full extent of their
understanding becomes evident".
Teachers also stated that it was important to take the learner's ability into
consideration, since different strategies will work for different learners, for example:
"Some children need different levels of learning - the bright child will be encouraged
to read and explore themes -'others might illustrate a book".
Factor 10 : Functional arrangement of the environment
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
The researcher had to observe the way in which the desks were arranged in the
classroom, and also what the nature of environment was like.
138
Arrangement of desks varied from class to class depending on space and the
number of learners. In the primary schools desks were primarily arranged in small
circles where possible, while in the secondary school it varied between traditional
rows and half-circles. The classrooms of schools in the higher income groups were
colourful and painted in lovely colours. The poorly-resourced schools however had
no pictures on the walls and had quite a grey appearance. Teachers remarked that
the reason for this was that anything that was put up, was stolen. Teachers tried to
make up for this by using beautiful books and illustrations in their lessons. One of
the poorly-resourced schools had almost no desks, and learners were therefore
taken outside under the trees for their lessons, to create a better environment.
Summary of the factors relating to the learning process.
From the above exposition of the factors relating to the learning process, it seems
evident that the position of the teacher is in the centre of the process of facilitating
the different aspects. The teacher is the one who has to:
o continuously motivate the learner;
o keep the lessons exciting to keep the learners' attention and to make them "want
to learn";
o keep up interaction in the class in order to facilitate effective learning;
o positively reward the learner to keep them motivated and to build their self-
concept;
o use various strategies that are conducive to learning, while also considering
individual abilities;
e create such an atmosphere, with or without murals and pictures, to make the
learners feel at home in order to maintain a positive attitude towards learning; and
e invite the parents to the school on a regular basis, in order to make them feel part
of the learning and education process.
Now that the results of the project has been reported, a summary of the most general
factors that played a role in the classes where an effective teaching and learning
situation prevailed, will follow.
139
4.9 FINDINGS
4.9.1. An atmosphere of Invitational Education prevailed. The teachers in whose
classes effective learning took place, radiated the assurance that they were
there in the interests of their learners, and that they would like to mean
something to them, not only on an academic level, but in all spheres of life. As
had been observed by the researchers, the key to building positive and
realistic self-images in learners can largely be attributed to what teachers
believe about themselves and their students. These beliefs not only
determine the teachers' behaviour, but are transmitted to the learners and
thus also influence their performance. One cannot however ignore the
teacher's performance in the classroom, since the way in which the learner
perceives the behaviour of the teacher, as well as the experience he/she
provides, strongly impact on the learners. The following Invitational Education
characteristics were prevalent, as indicated by either observations in classes
or interviews with teachers:
(a) A high correlation was observed between learners' self-concept and the
degree to which teachers were calm, accepting, supportive and facilitative. A
negative relationship was also observed between the learners' self-concept
and teachers who were threatening, grim and sarcastic (cf. 4.8.1).
(b) Teachers mentioned that every child wants to be known as a unique person,
and that by holding the learner in high esteem, the teacher establishes a
climate that facilitates growth (cf. 4.8.1).
(c) Teachers reported that they were of the opinion that the teachers'
expectations have a significant influence on the learners' performance. This
could have a significant influence on a student's confidence to accomplish
tasks (cf. 4.8.2; 4.8.3).
(d) Evidence was provided that self-reliance is fostered by an environment that is
well-structured and reasonably demanding, rather than unlimitedly permissive.
This kind of environment is created by a teacher who provides well-defined
140
standards of values, demands for competence and guidance towards
solutions to problems (cf. 4.8.3).
(e) Teachers reported that it is better to be honest and frank with parents about
their children, in order not to create any false impressions about their
children's potential and abilities (cf. 4.8.3).
(f) Teachers suggested that the most important factor in the helping relationship
is that the helper serves as a model of genuineness, without keeping a "front"
(cf.4.8.1).
(g) Teachers mentioned that they assume that there is a close relationship
between the learner's self-concept and the teacher's behaviour when it
involves personal and private talks with learners. Good communication is of
the utmost importance (cf. 4.8.1).
4.9.2 The successful teachers indicated that they regard teaching as a
"calling". This is confirmed by the fact that although a large percentage of
these teachers have low qualifications (M+2 and lower), there is still a
willingness and need to do everything possible for their learners (within the
limits of the curriculum as well as the wider context of education to see to it
that learners enter life as fully actualised adults) (cf. 4.8.1).
4.9.3 The teachers demonstrated the ability to distingaJislhbetween "flexibility
and rigidity". These effective teachers succeeded in "reading" every situation
in the class. They distinguished when stricter discipline had to be applied and
also whether the existing situation (even if it does not look very orderly) may
be beneficial for successful learning (cf. 4.8.1).
4.9.4 Positive reinforcement of learners formed part of these teachers'
approach throughout the lessons. Learners' correct responses to questions
were generally awarded with reinforcements such as: "Good", or "Excellent",
or "Just listen to that brilliant answer". This made the learners feel good. In
addition, wrong answers were handled in such a way that learners were never
141
humiliated. This was done by means of redirection of questions, such as: "No,
that is not completely correct - Sella, please help a little bit so that we can see
if we can find the correct answers" (cf. 4.8.2).
4.9.5 Humour played a significant role throughout these teachers' classes. It
was always humour without humiliating the child, such as laughing about
something rather than laughing at the child who gave a wrong answer.
Situational humour was particularly employed for positive redefinement.
Humour was however never made unanimous with "making jokes", but was
applied as a functional didactic principle (cf. 4.8.1).
4.9.6 At the three promary schools it was clear that play was generally
employed as a didactic principle. Play, being one of the earliest means by
which the individual learns to relate to reality, was prevalent in most of these
classrooms. It is indeed through play that a child comes to terms with
him/herself and establishes a relationship with his/her own identity. Children
also have an inborn desire to play and this leads them to discover the world
around them. All the teachers observed in the primary classes, utilised this
inborn willingness of the child to play as an integral part of their effective
methods of presentation. The great advantage of this was that passive
learners changed into active participants in the teaching and learning process.
Of particular interest was that in most cases teaching methods such as free
activity, drill, experiments, the question-and-answer method and
demonstration were based upon play as didactic form (cf. 4.8.3).
4.9.7 Tlhe principle of totality was found to Ibe a fundamental principle. It was
noted that -teachers tried to incorporate all the subjects to form part of the
greater whole - that is, each lesson had to be a module, a part of the syllabus.
These teachers tried to relate the factual content of the lesson to the real
world, as the child knows it. Teachers thus mentioned that the classroom and
the environment should be seen as interrelated, each being a part of the
child's total experience. They also tried to bring the learners to realise that the
norms and standards prevalent at home and in the community are also
considered to be important in the school (cf. 4.8.1).
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4.9.8 Recognition was given throughout by these teachers of the child as a
unique being. Throughout the lessons, the educational principle of
recognising individual differences amongst learners was accounted for.
Learners in these teachers' classes were seldom made to feel that they were
only numbers. It thus appears that an effort was generally made to make
every learner feel "wanted". In addition the principle of differentiation was also
focused upon throughout the lessons. It was obvious that teachers addressed
the different intelligence levels of the learners, and differentiation between
individual learners was done through high order and lower order questions.
All the learners were therefore given the opportunity to answer questions
correctly and thus taste success by means of positive reinforcement (cf.
4.8.1 ).
4.9.9 Effective teachers never shouted or chanted at learners. It was interesting
to note that where learners were boisterous or loud in the class, the teachers
often spoke in a soft voice, thus forcing learners to silence their friends in
order to be able to hear the learning assignment or teaching (cf. 4.8.1).
4.9.10 Discipline was maintained by these effective teachers in a consistent
and democratic manner. Although discipline was a high priority throughout,
it was never enforced at the expense of spontaneity. Researchers were
unanimous in their impression that mutual responsibility for discipline was
taken by teachers and was not left entirely up to the principal. On various
occasions these teachers did, however, also mention to the researchers that
certain colleagues were responsible for the lack of discipline or chaos that
prevailed at particular schools. Especially at the secondary schools, teachers
mentioned that certain colleagues made allowances out of fear for the learners
(cf. 4.8.1; 4.8.2).
4.10 CONCLUSION
This chapter initially focused upon the research design and instruments of the
HSRC/Access to Learning project in the Free State. This was followed by the
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describing and defining of the research methodoloqy which was used in the project,
namely qualitative research.
A summary of the results of the wider project as applicable to the Free State was
given and then the results of the factors relevant to effective learning and teaching in
an invitational atmosphere were reported and interpreted. Finally a summary of the
findings in this study was given, namely which factors were relevant in a situation
where effective learning and teaching prevailed.
The following chapter will deal with the legal and educational requirements for the
development of learning programmes.
5
LEGAL AND EDUCATIONAL REQU~REMENTS FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNING PROGRAMMES
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Since the mid - 1990's a particular model of outcomes-based education (OBE) has
triggered the single most important curriculum change in the history of South African
education. Until that time, South African education was characterised by a uniform
and predictable curriculum policy environment. According to Jansen (1999:4) the
apartheid state managed a centralised curriculum policy system, which was
generally described as racist, Eurocentric, sexist, authoritarian, prescriptive,
unchanging, context blind and discriminatory. The core curricula were regularly
devised for all schools and were based on a "school subject" approach, and which
were introduced in schools with vastly different resource environments and
accordingly produced equally different consequences in these race-based resource
contents (Jansen , 1999:.4).
After the 1994 elections in South Africa, changes took place in most sectors of
society, and education had to adapt accordingly. It became imperative that the
curriculum should be structured to reflect the values and principles of the new
democratic society. Improvement of the quality of learning opportunities across the
broad spectrum of education was essential and the need for a new model of
education arose. After long negotiations and debates, the South African
Qualifications Authority (SAQA) Act was published in October 1995, which provided
in this need.
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5.2 LEGAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LEARNING PROGRAMMES
The SAQA Act is primarily aimed to structure education and training in such a way
that South African education could become an international role-player. The SAQA
Act provided for a National Qualifications Framework (NQF) which would enable
each person who enters into learning to achieve nationally recognised and
internationally comparable qualifications (Olivier, 1998:1).
5.2.1 The National Qualifications Framework (NQF)
The specific objectives of the NQF include the following:
a) creation of an integrated national framework for learning achievements; .
b) facilitating access to, and mobility and progression within education, training
and career paths;
c) enhancing the quality of education and training;
d) accelerating the redress of past unfair discrimination in education, training and
employment opportunities; and thereby
e) contributing to the full personal development of each learner and the social
and economic development of the nation in general (Republic of South Africa,
1995:n.p.).
The structure of the NQF is described in Regulation 3 of the SAQA Act (Republic of
South Africa, 1998b:n.p.) and consists of eight NQF levels providing for General,
Further and Higher Education and Training bands (cf.Table 5.1)
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TABLE 5.1 NQF levels and general, further and higher education and training
bands
NQF
Band Types of qualifications and certificates
level
8 Doctorates and further research degrees
7 Higher degrees
6 First degrees and higher diplomas
5 Diplomas and occupational certificates
4 School/College/NGO certificates (Grade 12)
3 School/College/NGO certificates
2 School/College/NGO certificates
ABET Level4
Senior Phase
1
Grades 7-9
ABET Level 3
Intermediate Phase
Grades 4-6
Foundation Phase ABET Level2
Grades 1-3 Level1
Pre-school Phase
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Furthermore the NQF identifies twelve organising fields, which are:
a. Field 01: Agriculture and Nature Conservation
b. Field 02: Culture and Arts
c. Field 03: Business, Commerce and Management Studies
d. Field 04: Communication Studies and Language
e. Field 05: Education, Training and Development
f. Field 06: Manufacturing, Engineering and Technology
g. Field 07: Human and Social Studies
h. Field 08: Law, Military Science and Security
I. Field 09: Health Sciences and Social Services
J. Field 10: Physical, Mathematical, Computer and Life Sciences
k. Field 11. Services
I. Field 12: Physical Planning and Construction
SAQA allocated a unique field description to each organising field and divided each
organising field into sub-fields to each of which the Authority allocated a unique
sub-field description.
In Regulation 12 and 20 of the SAQA Act (Republic of South Africa, 1998b:n.p.) the
quality assurance infrastructures which must ensure that education and training will
comply with required standards are described in detail. In summary this entailed the
following:
o National Standard BOdies (NSB's)
There must be a NSB for each of the twelve fields of learning. Each NSB will
identify sub-fields of learning in which Standard-generating Bodies (SGB) will
develop unit standards and qualifications and ensure that the unit standards
recommended by SGB's meet the requirements of SAQA.
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Standard-generating Bodies (SGB's)
The SGB's consist of stakeholders in a specific field and are responsible, by
means of delegation from SAQA, for establishing standards via education and
training outcomes associated by accompanying assessment criteria.
o Education and Training Quality Assurers (Moderation bodies) (ETQA's)
The ETQA's exist to register qualifications and to accredit providers of
education and training. They are also responsible for the moderation of
education and training. Moderation refers to the process which ensures that
the outcomes as described by the NQF, are fair, reliable and valid.
These bodies, according to Regulation 4 of the SAQA Act (Republic of South Africa,
1998b:n.p.), will produce the guidelines for level descriptors contemplated in
Regulation 3 (cf. 5.2.1), which will explain their process of assigning levels to
standards, other components of qualifications and qualifications. Furthermore, the
coherence access fields and the facilitation of the assessment of the international
comparability of standards and qualifications have to be ensured by the above-
mentioned standard bodies.
For the purpose of this study (designing of a programme/module), it seems
necessary to take a closer look at the Regulations of the SAQA Act with regard to
the following:
* Assignment of levels to standards and qualifications.
* Registration of standards and qualifications on the NQF.
* Requirements for the registration of unit standards and standards.
* Requirements for the registration of qualifications.
5.2.2 Assignment of levels to standards and qualifications
According to Regulation 5 of the SAQA Act (Republic of South Africa, 1998b:n.p.)
the assignment of levels to standards, other components of qualifications and
qualifications shall occur as follows:
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a. Each National Standards Body, together with each Standards Generating
body, shall reach an agreement on the level of each unit standard and
standard submitted, on a scale of eight levels as envisaged in Regulation 3
(cf. 5.2.1). This will take into account the way in which both the breadth and
the depth of knowledge, skills and values in a specific sub-field have been
advanced by learning, as well as the way in which one or more of the critical
outcomes is seen to be a distinctive, although contextual part of the
prescribed outcome of the unit standard concerned.
b. The proposers of unit standards-based qualifications shall construct, through
appropriate rules of combination of selected unit standards registered at
different levels, qualifications which have exit level outcomes. These
outcomes should be a function both of the particular component standards
used, and of a process of integrating the overall outcome, again considered
as reflecting the extent (on a scale of 1 to 8 as described in 5.2.1) to which
knowledge, skills and values in a sub-field have been acquired and the
critical outcomes incorporated into the assessable performance.
c. The proposers of qualifications not based on unit standards shall construct
combinations of learning outcomes which have exit level outcomes that are a
function of the most advanced outcomes included and of a process of
integrating the overall outcome, considered as reflecting the extent (on a
scale of 1 to 8 as described in 5.2.1), to which knowledge, skills and values in
a sub-field have been acquired and the critical sub-field outcomes
incorporated into the assessable performance as a whole.
5.2.3 Registration of standards and qualifications on the National
Qualifications Framework
Each standard and qualification which meets the requirements (cf. 5.2.4 and 5.2.5)
shall be registered on the National Qualifications Framework by the Authority and
each shall be identified by a unique description (Republic of South Africa,
1998b:n.p.).
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5.2.4 Requirements for the registration of unit standards and standards
According to the SAQA Act (Republic of South Africa, 1998b:n.p.) a unit standard
shall be formulated so as to be used as an assessor document, a learner's guide
and an educator's guide for the preparation of learning material and shall consist of-
a. a unit standard title;
b. a logo indicating approval by the Authority;
c. a unit standard number;
d. a unit standard level on the National Qualifications Framework;
e. the credit attached to the unit standard;
f. the field and sub-field of the unit standard;
g. the issue date;
h. the review date;
i. the purpose of the unit standard;
J. the learning assumed to be in place before this unit standard is commenced;
k. the specific outcomes to be assessed;
I. the assessment criteria, including essential embedded knowledge;
m. the accreditation process (including moderation) for the unit standard;
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n. the range statements as a general· guide for the scope, context, and level
being used for this unit standard; and
o. a "notes" category which must include the critical outcomes, supported by the
unit standard; these outcomes should include references to essential
embedded knowledge if not addressed under assessment criteria and may
include other supplementary information on the unit standard.
o Critical outcomes shall be embedded within a standard provided that where
such standard forms part of a qualification, those critical outcomes not
included in the standard shall be embedded in the qualification.
o Critical outcomes include, but they are not limited to :
a. identifying and solving problems in which responses display that responsible
decisions using critical and creative thinking have been made;
b. working effectively with others as a member of a team, group, organisation or
community;
c. organising and managing oneself and one's activities responsibly and
effectively;
d. collecting, analysing, organising and critically evaluating information;
e. communicating effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in
the modes of oral and/or written persuasion;
f. using science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility
towards the environment and health of others;
g. demonstrating an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by
recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation; and
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h. contributing to the full personal development of each learner and the social
and economic development of the society at large, by making it the underlying
intention of any programme of learning to make an individual aware of the
importance of:
i. reflecting on and exploring a variety of strategies to learn more
effectively;
II. participating as responsible citizens in the life of local, national and
global communities;
Ill. being culturally and aesthetically sensitive across a range of social
contexts;
iv. exploring education and career opportunities; and
v. developing entrepreneurial opportunities.
5.2.5 Requirements for the reglstratlon of qualifications
The SAQA Act (Republic of South Africa, 1998b:n.p.) defines a qualification to
a. represent a planned combination of learning outcomes which has a defined
purpose or purposes, and which is intended to provide qualifying learners with
applied competence and a basis for further learning;
b. add value to the qualifying learner in terms of enrichment of the person
through the:
provision of status, recognition, credentials and licensing; enhancement or
marketability and employability; and opening-up of access routes to
additional education and training;
c. provide benefits to society and the economy through enhancing citizenship,
increasing social and economic productivity, providing specifically
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skilled/professional people and transforming and redressing legacies of
inequity;
d. comply with the objectives of the National Qualifications Framework;
e. have both specific and critical cross-field outcomes which promote life-long
learning;
f. where applicable, be internationally comparable;
g. incorporate integrated assessment appropriately to ensure that the purpose of
the qualification is achieved, and such assessment shall use a range of
formative and summative assessment methods such as portfolios,
simulations, work-place assessments, written and oral examinations; and
h. indicate in the rules governing the award of the qualification that the
qualification may be achieved in whole or in part through the recognition of
prior learning, which concept includes but is not limited to learning outcomes
achieved through formal, informal and non-formal learning and work
experience.
A total of 120 or more credits shall be required for registration of a qualification at
levels 1 to 8, with a minimum of 72 credits being obtained at or above the level at
which the qualification is registered, and the number and levels of credits constituting
the balance (of 48) shall be specified. A qualification consisting of less than 120
credits may be considered if it meets the requirements, as described above.
The Authority shall register a qualification according to the type and level which shall
be determined on the basis of the total number and levels of credits required in
accordance with the following criteria:
a. The Authority shall register a qualification as a National Certificate at levels 1
to 8 where it has 120 or more credits, with 72 credits at or above the level at
which the certificate is registered: Provided that where the Authority has
154
considered and found that a qualification consisting of less than the minimum
number of credits has met the necessary requirements the foregoing
requirement is waived and the qualification registered as a National
Certificate.
b. The Authority shall register a qualification as a National Diploma where it has
a minimum of 240 credits, of which at least 72 credits shall be at level 5 or
above.
c. The Authority shall register a qualification as a National First Degree where it
has a minimum of 360 credits of which at least 72 credits shall be at level 6
or above.
The Authority shall upon registration describe each qualification by type, level,
number of credits and a title specifying its primary purpose.
5.2.6 Additional requirements for the reqlstratlon of qualifications at levels 1
to 4 and levels 5 to 8.
The SAQA Act (Republic of South Africa, 1998b:n.p.) prescribes that for registration
at levels 1 to 4 the following additional requirements shall apply:
a. A minimum of 72 credits is required at or above the level at which the
certificate is awarded, which shall consist of fundamental learning, of which
.at least 20 credits shall be from the field of Communication Studies and
Language, and in addition at least 16 credits shall be from the sub-field of
Mathematics including numeracy in the case of certificates at level 1.
b. A minimum of 36 credits at level 1 and 52 at levels 2 to 4 which shall be
divided between the Core and Elective categories, with each qualification
specifying the distribution of credits required in these categories: Provided
that the range of additional credits shall be broad enough to enable learners
to pursue some of their own learning interests.
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c. By the year 2002, at least 16 of the 52 credits for certificates at levels 2 to 4
shall be from the sub-fields focussing on Mathematics literacy.
In addition, for registration at levels 5 to 8 the number of credits required for
Fundamental Core and Elective learning shall be specified, which number of credits
shall be appropriate to the qualification for which registration is sought: Provided
that the Authority may require that the reasons for the number and distribution of
credits be provided.
5.2.7 Procedure for the registration of standards and qualiflcations
A unit standard, standard or qualification which meets the requirements for
registration may be submitted for registration to the Authority by organisations
generating such a unit standard, standard or qualification through the National
Standards Bodies.
The Authority may register each unit standard, standard or qualification which meets
the requirements for registration for a period of three years, which registration shall
be renewable.
In the first calendar month of the third year of registration of a unit standard, standard
or .qualification the Authority shall require each National Standards Body to review
each such unit standard, standard or qualification' submitted to it for registration and
to determine its suitability for renewal of registration: Provided that such review and
determination of suitability shall be accompanied by the reasons for such renewal or
otherwise and shall indicate the manner in which the criteria contained in these
regulations are met.
A unit standard, standard or qualification which is registered on the National
Qualifications Framework shall be public domain property.
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5.2.8 Interim registration of qualifications
The Authority may, with effect from 1 July 1998 to 30 June 2003, grant interim
registration to each existing qualification which has previously been approved by an
agency recognised by the Authority: Provided that -
a. each qualification is submitted to the Authority in a format approved by
SAQA, before 1 July 1998, for recording;
b. such qualification, so recorded is submitted between 1 July 1998 and
30 June 2000, in the prescribed format to one or more National
Standards Body for processing;
c. such qualification contains -
i. a statement of the purpose of the qualification;
II. assumptions of learning already in place before the programme
leading to the qualification is commenced;
iii. exit level outcomes;
iv. total credits required;
v. minimum credits required at specific levels or maximum credits
when these- exceed the minimum specified;
VI. integrated assessment appropriately incorporated to ensure that
the purpose of the qualification is achieved;
vii. articulation possibilities with related qualifications (either generic or
specific arrangements for articulation);
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viii criteria for the registration of assessors; and
IX. moderation options including the recommendation of a moderating
body or bodies;
d. no qualification may be submitted for interim registration after 30 June 2003,
and the registration of qualifications in terms of this regulation shall expire on
that date (Republic of South Africa, 1998b:n.p.).
In order to keep track of where the learner stands with regards to earning unit
standards and qualifications, a document called the Record of Learning will
outline and list all those unit standards and qualifications, which are achieved
on NQF levels. As a learner gains unit standards and qualifications by means
of any delivery system this information will be registered and added to the
learner's Record of Learning. The Record of Learning will be updated as a
learner earns more credits (Olivier, 1998: 18).
If one wants to follow the intentions imposed by the SAQA Act, the ways of
devising learning programmes based on outcomes will automatically introduce
new ways with regard to the curriculation process, the ways of providing
education and training as well as how learning occurs. In order to arrive at
these aims, one would have to make a complete paradigm shift from
traditional content-based and competency-based learning towards outcomes-
based learning which will subsequently be described.
5.3 EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS
As previously explained (cf. 5.1), a new education system was evident in the new
South African dispensation after the political changes commenced in 1994. With the
implementation of the new SAQA act, it was time for a new model of education to be
developed, which would incorporate the requirements of the National Qualifications
Framework. In 1995, an outcomes-based approach was introduced as a possible
model for education. The changing of the traditional learning system towards an
outcomes-based approach was a major attempt to transform education into
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becoming an international role-player. Outcomes-based learning is based on the
notion that the best way to get where you want to be, is first to determine what you
want to achieve. Once the end goal has been determined, strategies, techniques
and other ways and means have to be put into place to achieve the goal (Olivier,
1998:20).
5.3.1 Outcomes-based EclllJlcation : Background and Definition
Outcomes-based education (OBE), as a systematic approach to curriculum and
school reform, is rapidly gaining attention worldwide. A growing number of states in
the United States of America, such as Minnesota, Kansas and others, have
mandated OBE. Efforts in OBE-orientated curriculum planning and staff
development have thus proliferated. Another major influence on OBE is traditional
American business, which has a long history of shaping education (ACSD 1994:
n.p).
Further, one could say that outcomes-based education (OBE) is the current label
given to developments in education over the last four decades. The development of
this approach is not only the latest phase in the continuum of education
development, but also reflects what has been happening in society at large, and
industry, in particular. The developments leading to the current outcomes-based
approach to education were probably first initiated by Ralph Tyler in 1949 (Genis
1997: 112). His guidelines for curriculum development included clearly formulated
objectives as ways of identifying the behaviours that are to be developed in the
learner. These objectives related to the area of the curriculum or life in which the
behaviour is expected to be applied. In an outcomes-based approach the designed
or intended outcomes are used as a basis for all curriculum processes. Curriculum
developers work from these outcomes within a particular context to design
programmes of learning that will help learners to achieve these outcomes (Du
Toit,1999:2)
To define outcomes-based education in more detail, William Spady, widely regarded
as the architect of OBE indicates that "OBE" refers to focusing and organising of
everything in an education system around that which is regarded as essential for all
159
students to be able to do successfully at the end of the learning experience. This
means starting with a clear picture of what is important for students to be able to do,
then organising curriculum, instruction, and assessment to ensure that learning
ultimately takes place (Spady, 1994: 1). OBE thus involves the formulation of
outcomes that learners need to achieve at the end of their schooling. The system of
education has to be organised in such a way that it makes it possible for learners to
achieve these outcomes. In the case of the South African education situation, which
was essentially content-based the system will have to be restructured to
accommodate an outcomes-based approach.
Ki lien (1997: 26) further looks at Outcomes-Based Education as an approach that
requires teachers and students to focus their attention and efforts on the desired end
results of education. It encourages teachers to use this focus as a guide to all their
instructional decision-making, in particular planning.
Boschee and Baron (1994: 193) define OBE as a student-centred, result-oriented
design, based on the belief that all individuals can learn. Unlike traditional schooling,
which assumes that a student has been educated if he or she has taken the
prescribed courses and spent a specified amount of time in the classroom, OBE calls
for education agencies to determine the status, knowledge and ways of thinking that
makes a person function in the world and then to adapt the curriculum and methods
of instruction so that students could attain the desired outcomes.
Colleen (1993:427), views outcomes-based education as a means of providing
educational success for all students. OBE also positions itself as a means of
emancipating students and educators from traditional educational practices.
It seems as if OBE can be defined in many ways, but a useful definition would be to
say that OBE is a learner-centred approach to education and training, which is
primarily characterised by a focus on results and outputs as opposed to inputs and
syllabi or curricula.
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5.3.2 The nature of an outcomes-based approach in education (OBE)
OBE can be characterised as an evaluation system, a philosophy, a learning system
composing outcomes, processes and assessment systems, or a model for
instruction (Genis 1997:147).
OBE strives for the success of all learners provided that appropriate learning and
assessment approaches are employed. OBE systems are also transparent in that
sense that they clarify what learners have to achieve and the criteria against which
the achievement will be determined.
The aim of OBE is to produce learners who are capable of functioning effectively in
their social environment. It is an approach and strategy that places primary
emphasis on the outcomes of learning. The attainment of learning, and not the time
spent on learning, is therefore the focus. It is important to note that outcomes-based
education is not merely about the acquisition of competence, but the demonstration
thereof (Genis 1997:146).
Clarke (1997: 2) states that it is generally agreed that in order to determine whether
learning has taken place, learners must have acquired knowledge, skills and
attitudes that they did not previously have. These end products of the learning
process are called outcomes. An education system is outcomes-based when a
decision has been made about these end-products, they have been written down as
statements and learning programmes and are then developed in accordance with
these statements.
As a starting point OBE uses clearly defined outcomes which are written as
statements of what learners should achieve through the learning process. All the
activities, approaches and assessment strategies that are used in the classroom
should be directed at achieving the outcomes that are relevant to a particular level.
161
Clarke (1997:3) provides the following diagram for an outcome based approach
Outcome statement developed to indicate
what the learner needs to achieve
1
A learning programme developed using
the outcome as basis. All activities
designed to bring about the desired
outcome
1
The learner is assessed to see if he/she
can demonstrate the outcome. The
results of the test will show either that the
learner is competent or that the learner
still needs support to be able to achieve
the outcome.
1
If the learner still needs support, a new
learning programme based on his/her
weaknesses is developed. If the learner is
competent, he/she can start working on
a new learning programme based on new
outcomes.
162
According to Kobuoe (1999:9) the main difference between OBE and the type of
education currently practised in secondary schools lies in the way in which
assessment is used. At the moment assessment is used to indicate how well a
learner has achieved in relation to the learning content and compared with other
learners. In an OBE approach, assessment is used to determine whether a learner
is competent and also to determined what follow-up measures are needed.
5.3.3 Principles and features of outcomes-based education
According to Jacobs, Nqabomzi and Vakalisa (2000:104) principles are not only
characteristics but also features that should be part of OBE learning programmes.
5.3.3. 1 Principles of outcomes-based education
Jacobs et al. (2000: 104-1 06) summarise the principles of OBE as follows:
a) Outcomes-based
Outcomes form the foundation of OBE. An outcome is the demonstration of a
learning experience and capabilities that are derived from learning
experiences.
b) Value-orientated
Using the critical outcomes (cf. 5.2.4 ) as a basis, an OBE programme should
instil values such as independence, creativity, co-operation, a sense of
responsibility, inquisitiveness, communicativeness, environmental-
consciousness and tolerance
c) Learner-centred
The needs of the learners should always be put first when developing an OBE
programme. There should be a shift from instruction offered by teachers to a
focus on learners. This implies that learners must be far more active and
163
should take responsibility for their own learning. Teachers would thus take on
a more facilitative role, which implies more group-work and learner self-
activity.
d) Relevant
When an OBE programme is planned, current and anticipated future needs of
the individual, society, commerce and industry should be taken into
consideration (Department of Education, 1997c:4) The tendency to teach
learners knowledge which they do not use in future careers should be given
up and programmes should be strongly linked to new competencies and skills
required in the economy, and that are essential for citizens to lead productive
and self-fulfilled lives.
e) Integrated
OBE demands an integrated approach to reduce the fragmentation that
occurs in modern societies. Programmes should have built-in features that
equip learners to view at things in a holistic way. Teachers should attempt to
organise the curriculum around multi-disciplinary approaches and to integrate
subjects into broad fields.
f) Based on individual differences
Learners should be able to learn at their own pace and teachers should
attempt to use alternative methods to address the unique talents and
limitations of learners.
g) Based on authentic assessment
The assessment component of an OBE curriculum should be based upon:
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Criterion-referenced assessment. Learners are assessed against a set
of external criteria and not by comparing one learner's performance
with another.
o Performance assessment. Learners must be able to demonstrate that
they are able to do what is expected from them in the outcomes.
These actions however should not test memorisation but should focus
on understanding, skills and attitudes.
e Assessment of complex skills. Many different skills should be
assessed simultaneously and not just one skill at a time.
e Continuas assessment. Assessment should be based upon a whole
series of performances by the learner. Assessment should therefore
not rely on one or two examinations only.
h) Non-discriminatory
Learning programmes should encourage the development of mutual respect
for diverse religious and value systems. There should be no discrimination on
the basis of race, gender, religion, age and other forms of discrimination
stipulated in the constitution.
Guitig, Lubisi, Parker and Wedekind (1998:27) summarise the key principles of OBE
as follows:
a) Clarity of focus
Teachers should have a clear picture of the outcomes they want the learners
to exhibit and the learners' success should become the top priority. Teachers
must know exactly what the outcomes are, where to start, how to implement
the curriculum and how assessment is going to take place.
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bj Expanded opportunity
What the learners learn should enable to them to bé successful in the careers
of their choice, but should also provide them with the skills to be self-fulfilled
and productive citizens.
cj High expectations
Every learner, despite any handy-cap, is valued as important and should have
the opportunity to reach their his/her potential
dj Design down
Design down implies that teachers begin the planning of the curriculum and
teaching process where they want their pupils to end up, and then build back
from there. For this reason outcomes are so important since they determine
what learners should be able to do at the end of the learning process (Guitig
et.aI.1998:27).
In summary, OBE is built around the following principles:
lil future-orientated outcomes;
c focus on the needs of the learners;
Q focus on knowledge, skills and attitudes/values; and
Eo) all learners must reach their full potential (high expectations of all learners)
without discrimination.
A report complied by Du Toit (1999:3) mentions that outcomes-based education and
Training (OBE) have certain features which form an integral part thereof.
166
5.3.3.2 Features of outcomes-based education
a) Competence
Competence is one of the key features of OBE systems and is defined in a
number of ways. The following represent the key components of a number of
definitions found in the literature:
o Demonstration of understanding of the knowledge underpinning
performance or action and demonstration of the ability to integrate
understanding of underpinning knowledge and performance or action
(SAQA Quality Assurance Workshop, 1998:2)
o SAQA's standard setting regulations refer to applied competence,
which is defined as "the ability to put into practice in the relevant
context, the learning outcomes acquired in obtaining a qualification"
(Republic of South Africa, 1997:33).
As Nickse (quoted in Genis, 1997:121) points out, competence is a macro-
concept, larger than the sum of the discrete psychomotor, intellectual and
affective units. It subsumes learning outcomes and objectives. Critical
thinking, for example, is essential for the acquisition of a number of
competencies and would constitute one of the learning outcomes for a
situation, occupation or field. Different learning outcomes in the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains have to be integrated to produce a
particular competence, since its demonstration requires situations that
transcend isolated discrete contexts.
b) Outcomes
Outcomes in essence are statements regarding elements of competence that
specify performance that can be assessed through a variety of assessment
methods, against specified criteria in particular contexts and on the basis of
evidence collected (SAQA Quality Assurance Workshop, 1998:5).
167
According to the same source, outcomes go beyond the specification of
subject content and. include reference to elements such as knowledge,
understanding, values, skills, affective elements, and scope, context and level
of learning. Jacobs et al. (2000:29) adds to this by indicating that an outcome
is the statement of a desired task, skill or set of behaviours that a learner
should be able to demonstrate at the end of a learning experience.
The demonstration of achievement of these end-products is carried out in
specified contexts, drawing on a range of elements acquired during the
learning experience. Determining successful (or unsuccessful) achievement
of the end-product is made against clearly articulated assessment criteria.
These criteria should specify the knowledge, understanding, pertormance(s),
action( s) and roles that a learner needs to show in order to provide evidence
that outcomes, standards and competence have been achieved. The criteria
should also state the level of complexity and quality of these (SAQA Quality
Assurance Workshop, 1998: 5).
Two types of outcomes can be distinguished, namely critical cross-field
education and training outcomes and specific outcomes.
c) Critical cross-field education and training outcomes
Critical cross-field education and training outcomes (in short, critical
outcomes) focus on the capacity to apply the knowledge, skills and attitudes
in an integrated way in learning and work situations, as well as in life
generally. -Jacobs et.al.(2000:35) states that for too long learners have learnt
knowledge not used once they leave school. With this in mind, educators
and policy-makers of OBE designed attitudes, skills and knowledge that could
be useful for the rest of the learners. These critical outcomes have
characteristics such as the following:
ft All teachers must adhere to the outcomes.
Q The outcomes should be the starting-point of all lessons.
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• They should apply to real life situations, people and problems.
e They involve long term goals and need to be pursued for many years.
o Should be taught across all learning areas and from pre-school to the
highest educational level (Jacobs et al., 2000:36, du Toit, 1999:6)
The critical outcomes adopted by SAQA were listed in 5.2.1.3. In the
designing of modules or units, specific outcomes also have to be included.
d) Specific outcomes
Specific outcomes are contextually demonstrated knowledge, skills and
attitudes reflecting critical outcomes. Unit standards registered on the NQF
are described terms of specific outcomes and assessmenUperformance
criteria, together with various other administrative details. The achievement of
a specific outcome leads to the award of credit. Specific outcomes are the
building blocks that enable learners to achieve overall competence in a field at
a given level (du Toit,1999:8).
Jacobs et al., (2000:50) adds to the necessity for specific outcomes, indicating
that they are the only way in which the same standards are maintained in all
nine provinces, and also that learners are not negatively affected when
changing from one province to another. Van der Horst and McDonald
(1997:48) also indicate that teachers should be trained to write specific
outcomes for specific lessons .
e) Standards
The concept of standards is another feature of OBE. Standards are
expressions of judgement or assessment that are arrived at through the
consideration of a number of factors by people, organisations and institutions
(Quality Assurance Workshop, 1998:4). These judgements are usually
expressed in terms of good or bad, appropriate or inappropriate, right or
169
wrong, without explicitly or concretely specifying the basis for such
judgements.
Standards also serve as boundaries that particularly guide the general public
and learners about quality, behaviour, values, attitudes, knowledge and skills
expected of them as competent citizens. Standards are a necessary feature
in the sense that they assist in defining what needs to be aspired towards or
achieved and also in determining that the aspiration or achievement has been
reached (Quality Assurance Workshop, 1998:4).
Within the NQF, units of learning are developed around defined standards,
with particular credit values attached to each unit. The combination of a
number of related units at a particular level will result in a qualification. Thus
standards, and not the underpinning content, will determine courses,
combinations of courses and ultimately the qualifications.
f) Curriculum
Since standards will determine courses, combinations of courses and the
qualifications, different institutions could, by implication, each compile their
own curricula, and select the learning opportunities and modes of delivery of
the curriculum, in order to achieve the set standards for a. particular
qualification. The curriculum to obtain a qualification would therefore become
less fixed. In practice this may mean that every institution could decide on the
way it wishes to structure a learning programme into modules (Genis, 1997:
58). Curriculum in OBE will be discussed in detail in 5.3.4.
g) Assessment
Van der Horst and McDonald (1997: 170) define assessment as a strategy for
measuring knowledge, behaviour or performance, values or attitudes. It is
thus a data-gathering strategy. The measurement or data gained from
assessment should assist one to evaluate. OBE assessment emphasises the
assessment of outputs and products, as opposed to inputs. In OBE
170
terminology, this means that emphasis is placed on outcomes. Since
outcomes have to be clearly formulated, learners should understand what is
to be assessed. In OBE, assessment is de-linked from institutions, learning
programmes and time spent on learning. All learning aquired formally or
informally, is credited.
In assessing, judgements are made against set criteria that state what a
learner knows and can do as opposed to judging in terms of what other
learners know and can do (SAQA Quality Assurance Workshop, 1998:8).
According to Lubisi et al. (1997: 12) it is important that decisions about what
and how to assess must endorse the value of critical outcomes that have
formed the base of relevant, high-quality education and training.
Before entering into a detailed discussion of OBE assessment, a view of
Clarke's (1997: 6) two methods of assessment seem appropriate:
Criterion-referenced: According to this method learners should be
assessed against criteria that indicate if an outcome has been attained,
rather than against other learners' performance - or against a
customary performance norm. If a learner meets the requirements, the
learner attains the outcome. If the learner does not meet the criteria,
the learner has not yet attained the outcome. Re-assessment
becomes an important element of assessment.
Skills-based: Instead of learners reciting information, they are likely to
be asked to apply, understand, modify and re-organise information or
do things that produce a desired product or result.
171
Lubisi et al. (1998: 13) and van der Horst and McDonald's (1997: 171,172) holistic
assessment of learners can be added to the above list of Clarke:
o Formal summative assessment: It is similar to the year-end
examinations that took place in the past, with the main purpose of
ensuring that a learner is competent to attain a level or qualification.
o Formal continuous assessment: A learner should be assessed in a
variety of ways and contexts over a period of time. The results of these
assessments should be included, together with the summative
assessment results in order to determine if a learner has attained a
particular level. The results of these assessments will provide useful
. feedback to the learner during the learning process.
o Informal formative assessment: This kind of assessment is designed to
monitor and encourage the learning progress, providing guidance to
the learner in the form of self-assessment, and feedback through peer-
assessment and teacher-assessment. This is assessment used in a
developmental rather than a judgemental sense. Informal formative
assessment through the use of self-assessment, peer-assessment and
portfolios can be extremely useful to both the learner and the teacher.
It provides feedback to the learner on areas of weakness and provides
insight to the teacher into the way in which the learner mostly needs to
be helped to attain a particular outcome.
OBE assessment is criterion-referenced or self-referenced, which means that
assessment is viewed as making judgements about learners by measuring their work
against set criteria that are independent of the work of other learners. If grading
does take place, it is done in terms of whether the learners have satisfied the
assessmenUperformance criteria. In this respect, OBE differs from traditional
education where assessment is norm referenced. Norm referenced assessment is
associated with the grading and ranking of learners by comparing learners, and
172
averaging scores or grades of learners. An important advantage of criterion
referenced assessment as part of an outcomes-based approach is that recognition
can be given to learning that has taken place outside of the formal education system.
Recognition of prior learning is an aspect of the NQF that needs to receive specific
attention in the development of guidelines on assessment (Clarke, 1997:6).
Because outcomes are clearly specified, learners know exactly what they will be
assessed on. This explicitness intends to ensure openness and fairness in
assessment. It also helps assessors and learners to know what assessment method
and instrument could be valid and practical. Reliability is ensured since specified
outcomes and their associated criteria are the basis upon which assessment is
planned.
OBE also uses both formative and summative assessment. The first is used during
the process of learning and teaching to guide the learner during the learning
process whereas summative assessment is aimed at judging achievement. The
latter is carried out when a learner is ready to do assessment. OBE therefore
applies a variety of assessment methods and instruments which allow for the
collection of evidence from a variety of sources.
The formulation of an assessment framework by the NQF will be within the context of
OBE assessment. It will also be informed by the principles underlying the NQF such
as integration, relevance, credibility, coherence, flexibility, standards, legitimacy,
access, articulation, progression, portability, recognition of prior learning and
guidance of learners (Republic of South Africa, 1998a:12).
5.3.4 An outcomes-based curriculum development process
Olivier (1999:35) describes learning programmes as vehicles through which curricula
are implemented within delivery systems, such as schools.
A learning programme thus consists of a combination of outcomes selected from the
areas of learning, which will permit the learner to progress through particular levels
via appropriate combinations of the components of the delivery systems, in
173
accordance with the concepts of portability and flexibility. These components are
the sets of learning activities in which the learner will be involved while working
towards the achievement of sets or clusters of specific outcomes. These learning
programmes are compiled and published as curricula.
A learning programme consists of the following elements:
o Critical outcomes: Critical outcomes direct educational activities towards
development of the learners within a social and economic environment. Learners
should achieve to explore a variety of strategies to learn more effectively, as well
as to develop entrepreneurial opportunities whilst still remaining culturally
sensitive. The final product should be an active member of society
(Olivier,1999: 17). Critical outcomes are also discussed in detail in 5.3.3.1.
• Specific outcomes: Specific outcomes describe the finer definitions of the
aspects of learning. It must be noted that these outcomes are context-
based and not content-based (Olivier, 1999: 17). Specific outcomes are also
described in detail in 5.3.3.1.
(I Assessment criteria: Assessment criteria provide broad indicators of what
evidence learners need to present, submit or provide to be assessed.
Assessment criteria are therefore statements that inform teachers of the type
of evidence that is required to decide whether an outcome has been
achieved. Assessment criteria describe the observable actions learners
should be able to perform to prove that they are moving towards the
accomplishment of critical and specific outcomes (Olivier, 1999: 17 ; Jacobs et
al. 2000:126).
• Range statements: The range statements indicate the scope, depth, complexity
and the parameters of the achievement. It is a description of the difficulty level of
the learning content that should be learnt and the skills learners are expected to
display with respect to a specific outcome in a specific phase (Olivier,1999: 17;
Jacobs et al. 2000: 119).
174
o Performance indicators: Performance indicators provide detailed evidence of
the progress in the achievement of the knowledge, skills and processes that
learners could demonstrate in order to prove progress. The performance
indicators will acquaint learners on how well they are performing and what is
still to be obtained in order to achieve the specific outcome. The development
of performance indicators will support both the teacher and learner in the
planning and assessment of the learning process, as well as the quality and
quantity of progress taking place and which supports elements of action
learning. Performance statements go hand-in hand with range statements,
but are more specific than range statements (Olivier, 1999: 18 ; Jacobs et.al.,
2000:123).
According to Jacobs et.al. (2000: 108-128) five aspects have to be taken into
consideration, when designing a programme or curriculum within an OBE model,:
o Situation analysis: Situation analysis is an examination of the contextual
factors that have a bearing on the programme. An analysis of the situation is
imperative to determine the context in which the curriculum design process is
to take place. Factors that influence the curriculum are:
G External factors: changes within society such as the needs of the country
like for example new careers which require educated people, have
implications for the curriculum.
o Internal factors within the school and classroom also have to be
considered. The curriculum has to consider the learners (age and
abilities), the teacher (values, strengths, beliefs and experience), available
facilities and resources (equipment, buildings and learning material) and
class size.
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• Outcomes: In curricular activities, outcomes-based education is focussed upon
clearly defined outcomes which learners are expected to demonstrate when they
leave school. Outcomes direct
o selection and organisation of the learning content;
o selection and preparation of learning programmes;
o determination of a teaching strategy; and
o assessment of learning programmes.
" Learning Content: The learning content or material is an essential component of
the OBE curriculum. Learning content is approached in the OBE curriculum
through the use of :
o Learning areas: a learning area is the combination and integration of a
group of kindred subjects or branches of knowledge into a single, broader
study field.
• Learning programmes: a learning programme is the vehicle through which
the curriculum is implemented, and it includes sets of learning activities
which the learner will be involved in when working towards the
achievement of outcomes (Department of Education, 1997b: 17)
• Phase organisers: broad themes or topics prescribed by the education
department to link and integrate two or more learning areas (Department
of Education, 1997a:7)
o Programme organiser: the teacher chooses a sub-theme or subtopic
derived from the phase organiser when designing a unit. This unit must be
suitable to be taught in more than one learning area.
Q Range statements: these are the difficulty levels of the learning content as
described in 5.3.4.
• Teaching strategies: This includes the methods, procedures, activities and media
techniques that the teacher uses, as well as learner activities. The media that the
teacher will use also forms part of teaching strategies.
• Assessment: Assessment consists of a task or series of tasks set in order to
obtain information about a learner's competence (Jacobs et a/., 2000: 127).
Assessment was addressed in full detail in 5.3.3.1.
176
Olivier (1999:37) gives a schematic representation of the process of curriculum
design (Table 5.2) which includes the above-mentioned factors.
TABLE 5.2 Curriculum design (Olivier, 1999:37)
LEARNING PROGRAMME
RATIONALE/OUTCOME OF THE
LEARNING PROGRAMME IN WHICH
THE CRITICAL OUTCOMES ARE
EMBEDDED FOR A SPECIFIC PHASE,
E.G. FOUNDATION PHASE
Learning Programme
Learning area Learning area Learning area Learning area Learning area
1 2 3 4 5
e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g. e.g.
Outcomes Outcomes Outcomes Outcomes Outcomes
2+3 2+4 2+3 3+4 3
Outcome 1, etc.
Performance Performance Performance Performance Performance
Indicator indicator Indicator indicator indicator
1 2 3 4 5
+ + + + +
Assessment Assessment Assessment Assessment Assessment
Criteria criteria Criteria criteria Criteria
177
The learning areas as indicated in Table 5.2, form the basis of the education
curriculum and are as follows:
1. Language, Literacy and Communication
2. Human and Social Sciences
3. Technology
4. Mathematical Literacy, Mathematics and Mathematical Sciences
5. Natural Sciences
6. Arts and Culture
7. Economic and Management Sciences
8. Life orientation
Departing from one of the above areas of learning, the outcomes-based approach is
initiated with the formulation of outcomes. From the intended outcomes, the
appropriate or supportive knowledge, skills and processes are derived, as enabling
objectives in order to achieve the outcomes. The next step is subsequently to plan
for appropriate learning experiences that will enable learners to achieve the
outcomes. These processes include critical thinking, problem-solving, application,
appreciation, analysing, synthesising and evaluation of information and life skills,
such as teamwork, communication and socialising. When constructing outcomes,
learners will learn to formulate questions and draw on information from various fields
of knowledge while utilising any available source, such as text, sketches, video
material or the Internet.
Having designed a curriculum, learning has to take place. This process within OBE
will now be focussed upon.
5.3.5 The outcomes-based learning process
The outcomes-based approach to learning is based on achieving outcomes - the
curriculum design process, planning of education, assessment of learning and
advancement of learners all form part of the process. The outcomes-based
approach to learning also emphasises an integrated approach to learning. This
approach consists of content, competencies and processes. Similar to an
r/ 178
't'
in'"itational educational approach, the OBE approach to learning has a significant
influence on how and what learners will learn.
Olivier (1999:38) explains that an outcome is always an achievement within a
specific context, which can be demonstrated following a range of learning
experiences that include supportive elements such as the acquiring of knowledge
and skills, as well as ways of executing activities or tasks. Acquiring these
supportive elements is only instrumental in achieving an outcome and is not an
outcome in itself. Learners start to achieve an outcome once they embark on
employing these supportive elements in an interactive way when they prepare for
the outcome, perform according to the preparation, conclude the outcome, whilst
simultaneously interacting and assessing knowledge, skills, processes,
progression and the final outcome.
With the outcomes-based learning approach, learners start the learning process
departing from the outcome. The achievement of the outcome begins by preparing
how the outcome will be achieved. Preparing could include the following:
o developing a clear view on what the intended outcome should be;
• investigating the nature and extent of the problem (outcome);
to) formulation of the problem;
e checking the understanding of the problem with other learners and the teacher;
., identifying the knowledge that has to be mastered and accordingly plan how,
when and where it will be acquired;
• listing and sequencing the steps/tasks of the achievement process;
• establishing performance indicators. The performance indicators will indicate to
the learners on how well they are performing;
179
o determining assessment criteria;
o identifyin~ sources for information, for instance textbooks or a video;
o identifying any other support which can be of assistance;
o developing a time schedule;
o identifying the members of the learning group;
o reconciling the preparation done with the group;
e reconciling the performance criteria and with role-players/co-Iearners;
• reconciling the performance indicators (proof of performance/evidence or
progression) and criteria and with role-players/cO-learners;
e sequencing the activities as they will be performed; and
o 'other preparations as needed.
The next step is to start performing, that is to materialise what was planned for,
while continuously interacting with the attributes of the preparation process, peer
group(s) and the teacher or facilitator. This interaction is also seen as part of co-
operative learning, which is where learners work together to ensure that all members
in their group have learnt and assimilated the same content. In this way pupils learn
to recognise and value their dependence upon one another (Jacobs et a/., 2000: 191;
Olivier, 1999: 38).
The above will eventually lead to the finalisation of the outcome, when all the
preparations, performances and interactions that took place are concluded and the
learners confirm that they are satisfied with the outcome.
180
Throughout the whole process, assessment continuously takes place when learners
themselves, peer group(s) and the teacher or facilitator assess the quality and
quantity of performance, progressing, results, knowledge, skills and the achievement
of the outcome.
The challenge involved in outcomes-based learning is the rationale of achieving
outcomes within a learning programme while developing within learners the
capability to think, reason, criticise, deliberate, socialise and apply knowledge and
skills within a specific context, rather than just acquiring it. In the outcomes-based
learning approach there is a strong focus on conceptual thinking, problem-solving
and insight abilities, which is coupled with strong adaptability to change and develop.
This approach implies that the manner in which learning take place is as important
as the way in which mastering and integrating as well as manipulating of information
occur.
The objective of outcomes-based education is to enable each learner to accomplish
knowledge and skills, as well as to master processes in a balanced fashion in order
to accept the challenges and opportunities of the world of the future. Embarking on
an outcomes-based education approach merely as a facelift, without actually
employing the above methodology, which supports the system, would be detrimental
to the education process and would cause the system to fail (Olivier, 1999:39).
Since OBE also places emphasis upon the role of the teacher as facilitator in the
process of guiding learners towards achieving outcomes, this important issue will be
dealt with.
5.3.6 What is expected of the teacher in this new role?
Outcomes are achieved when knowledge, skills and processes are used to build new
constructs within specific contexts. According to Olivier (1999:40) and Killen (1997:
29) outcomes-based learning requires the following of the teacher:
181
• Teachers must prepare the students adequately so that they can succeed. This
requires teachers to understand exactly what they want students to learn, to
anticipate difficulties that students might have and then plan to minimise these
difficulties. It often means that teachers must review essential prerequisites at
the start of each term, and also provide additional time or assistance to those
students who need it.
• Educators must help their learners to understand what they have to learn, why
they should learn it (including of what use it will be to them in the future), and how
they will know when they have learnt it.
o Teachers should use the most effective strategies that are learner-centered
rather than educator-centered. In order to be more practise orientated, this would
mean that the teacher would have to continuously communicate with learners to
confirm progress and direction, based upon performance indicators.
o The teacher should assist, facilitate and guide the learners to
• social interaction;
• problem solving;
• processing of information; and
• interpretation of information.
e Teachers should be able to reconcile learning styles with the context of learning.
• Educators must provide students with sufficient opportunities to practice, using
the new knowledge and skills they have gained. This should be done by
propagating creativity by means of:
self-learning;
self-development;
cross-curricular thinking;
social interrelationships; and
182
focusing on development of higher order thinking, communication and
decision-making.
o Educators must create a positive learning environment in which learners know
that they will be assisted in their learning regardless how easy or difficult they
might experience the learning process.
Learners must also devise their own ways and means to achieve outcomes, apart
from mastering content and skills. In outcomes-based learning, the content and
processes for preparation, performance, completion, interaction and assessment
phases become part of the learning process and consequently also part of what will
be assessed.
To accomplish this, teachers must, according to Olivier (1999:41) and Jacobs et al.
(2000:236), ensure that they
a) establish what is incapsulated within the intended objective or the specific
outcome and envisaged goal of the learning. programme;
b) establish what the outcomes require the learners to do, taking into account
the phase and the range statements;
c) identify the knowledge, skills and processes, that should be demonstrated;
d) identify the learning experiences needed to achieve the outcomes;
e) plan and devise learning activities that will support the learning experiences
such as discussions, dramatisation and debates;
f) determine the activities or tasks which must be executed to demonstrate
evidence of learning and achievements;
183
g) establish the evidence which must be demonstrated in order to evaluate the
outcomes. Special attention must be given to the type, nature and extent, as
well as to the amount of evidence required;
h) determine methods of evidence collection. Methods of evidence collection
entail infer alia tests, observations and questioning; and
i) develop criteria to assess or judge the evidence. This assessment will be
based upon the extent to which the evidence meets the required standard;
and it is imperative that learners should always play an active role in the
teaching and learning situation. This could only be achieved when teaching
methods which facilitate active participation of the learners are used. (Olivier,
1999: 41 ; Jacobs et.al., 2000: 236)
5.4 OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION AND INVITATIONAl EDUCATION: A
SYNTHESIS
According to Genis (1997:164), the most outstanding feature of the development and
implementation of outcomes-based education is the diversity in the interpretation of
the terms associated with the current movement and its predecessors. The same
ideas and skills appear under different terminologies and are grouped in different
ways.
It seems that at this point one could compare the approach which is prescribed by
SAQA for South African· Schools, namely outcomes-based education and the
approach underlying the training programme for teachers in this study, namely
Invitational Education. The following synthesis (Table 5.3) could provide more
clarity.
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TABLE 5.3 SYNTHESIS
OUTCOMES-BASED APPROACH INVITATIONAl EDUCATION
(OBE) (lE)
OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION INVITATIONAL EDUCATION
1. NATURE 1. NATURE
o OBE strives for the success of o Teachers' productive behaviour
all learners if the learning positively affect school failure or
approach is employed as success.
prescribed.
• OBE will produce learners who • lE has broader goals than
can function effectively in a students and achievements. It is
social environment. concerned with more than grades.
• OBE furnishes the learner with It is concerned with skills of
knowledge, skills and becoming.
competence which they would
not have had previously.
• Emphasis is on exit competence. 6') Emphasis is on developing the
individual to his full potential.
e Curricula are competence-based o Curricula are competence-based
and structured around and structured in such a way that
competence standards. Modules every individual feels able,
and subjects are structured to responsible and valuable after
meet the requirements of a completing it. Subjects include all
standard. Subjects include areas of human development
cross-field rather than pure rather than pure discipline
discipline content. content.
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2. PRINCIPLES 2. PRINCIPLES
o OBE is outcomes-based. First it 0 The process is as important as the
is decided what the learner must product.
know at the end of the learning 0 All people are valuable, capable and
experience, and then the responsible and should be treated
learning process starts. accordingly.
o OBE is value-orientated. This 0 Education is a co-operative process
means the learner aquires and cannot be successful without the
independence, responsibility, participation of those involved,
communicativeness, tolerance including learners.
and co-operativeness. e All people possess relatively
e OBE is learner-centered. The untapped potential in all areas of their
needs of the learner come first. lives. Everyone can improve if certain
e The content of OBE is relevant to conditions are created.
the need of the society and what
employers want.
G OBE is integrated. The content
of subject must be interrelated.
e Individual differences are
important. Learners keep to their
own pace.
13 The criteria for assessment is
evaluating the learner against the
criteria which had to be met, and
not against other learners.
• OBE is non-discriminatory.
l 186
3. LEARNING PROCESS 3. LEARNING PROCESS
o OBE stands for an integrated o Learning is integrated with the
approach to learning. perceptions of the self.
o Learning is interactive. o Learning is interacting with
o Learners take part in formulating others - other people create the
the problem. belief in the self.
o Learners know exactly what is o Because, according to lE,
expected of them. learners' views are respected,
e Learning takes place with a lot of they form part of the learning
support from teachers and process and trust their teachers
fellow-learners. for support in the learning
process.
e Group-work form an important e The learning process lies in the
part of learning. collaborative, cooperative nature of
teaching.
e Learning is achieved via flexible Gl Learning is a cooperative activity
modes of instruction, facilitating where the process is as important
and self-directed learning. as .the product. Learning takes
e Facilitation and : learning is place in an invitational atmosphere
output-based. where the teacher is inviting to the
learners. Learners take
responsibility for the learning.
Assessment includes a variety of Assessment includes a variety ofCl 19
modes, within and outside the modes, within and outside the
formal institution. formal institution.
4. ROLE OF THE TEACHER 4. ROLE OF THE TEACHER
• The teacher must prepare the e The teacher must invite the
learners for success. learners for success.
• The teacher should explain • Teachers must see to it that
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what, why and how they are learners take responsibility for the
going to learn. learning process.
o Teachers provide the unit of o Teachers provide the unit of
learning in order to provide the learning as part of the program to
learner with a credit. The learner assist learners in reaching their
finishes the content of the unit full potential with regards to that
after mastering. it, and get a content. Learners finish the
credit. content after mastering it.
e Teachers must follow a learner- e Teachers point out the value of
centered approach to teaching. each individual.
e Teachers should guide learners • Teachers should invite learners to
towards problem-solving, find out more information and how
processing of information, to solve problems. Teachers
interpretation of information and have to operate democratically in
socialising. order to realise the principles of
• They must be able to reconcile lE, and therefore form part of
different learning styles. these "actions" to facilitate
.. Teachers should guide learners learning.
to learn through self-learning, .. Teachers must perceive
self-development, social education affirmatively. Learners
interaction and creativity. should take example from them to
be positive and to seek meaning,
o Teachers should create a clarity and significance in content.
positive learning environment. • By being positive and realistic
G Activities should form part of the about themselves, teachers
process of teaching. should create a positive learning
environment where the learner
becomes part of this inviting
relationship.
From the above-mentioned synthesis, it seems clear that Invitational teaching would
be compatible with an outcomes-based training approach.
188
Although the focus shifts from content to competence, content is not unimportant or
superfluous, neither should content and competence be seen as opposing elements.
The outcomes-based approach does not imply that all existing courses and
textbooks will have to be abandoned. Content would not necessarily change, but
instruction should (Genis, 1997: 165). It is then specifically with regard to the method
of instruction, that both Invitational Education and Outcomes-based education
emphasise the end-result, both in acquiring knowledge, skills and attitude, but also
the fulfilling of the learners' full potential. This would lead to the development of
learners who will be able to live as productive employees in society.
5.5 CONCLUSION
In this chapter the legal and educational requirements for the development of
learning programmes were focussed upon. The NQF was briefly discussed;
assignments of levels as well as the registration of standards and qualifications. The
requirements for registration of standard units and qualifications were investigated as
well as the procedure for this registration.
With regard to educational requirements, outcomes-based education was discussed
in terms of its nature and principles. The development of curriculum within this
approach was described as well as the learning process and the role of the teacher
within OBE.
Lastly, a synthesis of outcomes-based education and Invitational Education was
given in order to indicate that Invitational Education might be an appropriate method
of instruction within an outcomes-based approach.
In the following chapter a program will be introduced for the development of (South
African) teachers, specifically aimed at equipping them with the necessary skills to
be able to apply the method of Invitational Education.
==~~~6 ~=======s======~-=================~
A TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR TEACHERS: MODULE ON
INV~rATIONAlIEDUCAT!ON
6.~ INTRODUCTION
The impact of transformation in South African Higher Education is evident in the
implementation of current legislation in this regard. The National Department of
Education will in future only subsidise students that enter into accredited
programmes (White Paper, April 1997:11).
Since the module designed in this thesis is going to be implemented at the University
of the Orange Free State (UOFS) as part of one of their professional learning
programmes, a brief look at programme development at UOFS seems evident. This
institution decided to identify programme niches, delivering appropriate/specific
qualifications which could serve as basis for the development of specific modules of
learning. Modular designs are usually outcomes-based in nature. Spady (1994:19)
indicated two golden rules for outcomes-based design, viz. consistent, systematic
and creative design down from significant culminating outcomes to establish the
enabling outcomes on which they depend, and to replace or delete the discrete
outcomes that are not significantly enabling components for culminating outcomes.
In practice, however, it was evident that the design of modules does not only happen
"downwards", but simultaneously "upwards" (from enabling outcomes to significant
culminating outcomes) as well. Programmes are thus instrumental in facilitating the
allocation of qualifications.
190
At a summit (22 January 1999), top management of the University, deans,
programme directors and the Director of Programme Development gathered and
decided on the following criteria for the development of programme niches:
o The vision and mission of the university should be the point of departure.
o Uniqueness of all products should be a priority.
o Demand for such programmes (learners and market as well as employers are
influential stakeholders).
o Financial sustainability (a continual financial sustainability plan is important).
o Meet the particular needs of learners even if it should exceed the boundaries of
disciplines.
o Address generic skills.
o Requirements of occupational registration and professional associations.
o Start with the application and then move towards fundamental knowledge.
e Transformation requirements (occupations, private and civil sector).
o Functioning in a diverse community (encompassing a variety of transferable
skills).
o Value should be added to the student.
o International acknowledgements.
o National needs should be taken into account and addressed if possible.
o Balance between scientific deepening and market relatedness.
o Relevancy (is the programme relevant to the needs?).
o Coherence (is the programme coherent in terms of outcomes?).
o Role/value of teaching methods and study guidance (are teaching/learning
methods and study guidance/facilitation directed towards the realisation of
programme outcomes?).
o Applicability of resources (human, physical and financial).
o Effectiveness (realisation of outcomes).
e Quality of programme management.
o Accomplishing ownership by personnel.
o Ethical dimension in programme for education of professional people.
o Logistic and personnel capacity to present quality programmes.
191
Programmes can be structured within one of three categories:
o Pure academic programmes.
o Professional programmes across disciplines.
o Problem directed, e.g. Environment or development programmes
(Steyn, 1999:4).
The programme approach will dominate the curriculum scene in the new century of
Higher Education in South Africa and globally. It will challenge the academics to
rethink the relevance of their disciplines and the "marriage" of formative and career-
orientated learning content. This will be manifested within the paradigm of
Outcomes-based Higher Education. The following module, Invitational Education,
forms part of the Baccalaureus Educationis Programme, and is based on a model
proposed by the Director of Programmes at UOFS, and which meets the
requirements of SAQA. The Baccalaureus Educationis Programme will be given in
full, and was compiled by a committee of which the researcher was a member,
followed by the module, Invitational Education.
6.2 PROGRAMMING PLANNING AND DEVElOPMIENT
UNIVERSITY OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE
SUBMISSION OF NEW LEARNING PROGRAMME (ONE QUALIFICATION) TO
THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION AND THE COUNCIL ON HIGHER
EDUCATION AND THE SOUTH AFRICAN QUALIFICATIONS AUTHORITY
l.
NAME OF INSTITUTION University of the Orange Free State
2. NAME/TITLE, TYPE AND DESIGNATION Title of Programme: Education studies and
OF QUALIFICATION (FIELD OF education development
LEARNING) Name: Baccalaureus Educationis (B.Ed).
Exit point qualifications:
e Certificate in Education (CE)
~ Diploma in Education (DE)
Type: First degree in Education
Field: 05:Education, training & development
Designation: School of Education
Faculty_of the Humanities
192
3. NQF LEVEL 6
4. CREDITS 520
5. PURPOSE ÓF QUALIFICATION Learners should demonstrate competence as
education and training practitioners for one of the
following phases:
o Pre-School and Foundation Phase
o Intermediate Phase
o Senior Phase
o Further Education and Training Phase
6. ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS I ASSUMP- A Senior Certificate awarded by the SA Certification
TIONS OF LEARNING TO BE IN PLACE Council (or equivalent) with at least a university
entrance pass. Learners in possession of Senior
Certificates without university entrance passes, but
with an M-score between 24 and 27 (see General
Regulation A3 (iv)), could apply for evaluation by
the University Student Counselling Service to gain
provisional access to the learning programme.
7. DURATION 4 years full-time
5200 notional learning hours
8. EXIT LEVEL OUTCOMES Foundation: Capable to reveal core knowledge
regarding the science of school subjects as well as
the science of education.
Practical: Capable to reveal reflexive com-
petencies acquired to enhance the didactics &
teaching of school subjects.
Learners will be capable to:
9. SPECIFIC OUTCOMES o Demonstrate the ability to design, implement,
interpret and evaluate learning programmes
and materials, appropriate to the specialisation
for the degree.
o Show a well-developed understanding of the
knowledge, and demonstrate skills, methods
and procedures relevant to the specialism.
o Make decisions on the appropriate level,
manage learning in the classroom and
effectively carry out administrative duties.
o Effectively communicate in the language of
instruction.
o Develop and apply innovative teaching
methods, techniques & resources to facilitate
learner-centered classroom practices towards
life-long learning.
o Mediate learning in a manner sensitive to the
193
diverse needs of learners.
o Promote and practise a critical, committed and
ethical attitude towards the community in
general and the school environment in
particular.
o Explain the developmental stages in learning
competence, identify, evaluate and promote
school readiness skills.
o Critically analyse the foundations under-
pinning education.
o Use skills and display attitudes and values that
improve relationships in family, group and
community.
o Function optimally in education system context.
o Demonstrate knowledge and skills
underpinning effective leadership.
10. FORMS OF INTEGRATED ASSESSMENT A module course mark as well as a final mark to be
obtained through continuous evaluation, practicais,
portfolios, assignments and examinations.
Il. ASSESSMENT CRITERIA Leamers will demonstrate their knowledge
and skills by means of:
o Integrating educational theory in praeticals
and simulated practicais.
o Solving learning/teaching problems by means
of assignments and/or group and team work
sessions.
o Compiling portfolios of fieldwork according to
set standards.
o Revealing knowledge of the theory and practice
underpinning each specific outcome.
194
12. ACCREDITATION BODY • Council on Higher Education
• National Department of Education
o HEDCOM
13. ARTICULATION Level Qualification I
POSSIBILITIES Ph.D I D.Ed
(360)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - M:Ëë( {Sëripif - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
(128)
8
M.Ed
(Dissertation) ---------------il=========;j
(256) M.Ed : Post Graduate Diploma
(Coursework) :~: in Education (PGDE)
(128) : : (128)
f------t- ---------------_.I. .&. __ Jo - - - - - - - - - - - - --
B.Ed (Hons)
7 (128)
~. _ti
Post-Graduate I Advanced I Baccalaureus I
Certificate in Certificate in Educationis (B.Ed.)
Education (PGCE) education: 480+ credits
6 120+ credits ACE
120+ credits
First degrees (360
ct)
Access to B.Ed Honours
14. COMPLIANCE WITH REQUIREMENTS
OF REGULATION 8
The table below measures the proposed
qualification against Regulation 8(1),
which states that a qualification shall:
8(1)(a): ...represent a planned Learners complying with the outcomes stated in 9 will
combination of learning outcomes which possess the competence of expert training and
has a defined purpose or purposes, and education practitioners for the Pre-school and
which is intended to provide qualifying Foundation or Intermediate or Senior or Further
learners with applied competence and a Education and Training phase of the school.
basis for further learning.
8(1)(b): ...add value to the qualifying
learner in terms of enrichment of the After an integrated professional degree in education
person through the provision of status, (B. Ed.) the learner will be prepared to embark on a
recognition, credentials and licensing, course of study leading to a Honours Degree in
enhancement of marketability and education.
employability, and opening-up of access
routes to additional education and
training
8(1)(c):...provide benefits to society and Benefits society by contributing to the economy
the economy through enhancing through their commitment to education and their
citizenship, increasing social and practitioner's skills in teaching and learning.
economic productivity, providing
specifically skilled/professional people
195
and addressing
8(1)(d)....comply with the objectives of
the National Qualifications Framework
contained in section 2 of the Act. These
are to:
(a) create an integrated national a) The qualification complies with the NQF and the
framework for learning Norms and Standards for Educators, 1998,
achievements ensuring an integrated approach to the training of
teachers.
(b) facilitate access to, and
mobility and progression within b) Access is provided if candidates are in possession
education, training and career of an endorsed senior certificate by the South
paths African Certification Board.
(c) enhance the quality of
education and training c) This qualification equips learners to play a leading
role as practitioners in education and training.
(d) accelerate the redress of past
unfair discrimination in d) Disadvantaged learners are given the opportunity
education, training and to enter into a practitioner's diploma (240 credits)
employment opportunities, and in teaching and learning.
thereby
(e) contribute to the full personal
development of the learner and e) The critical outcomes of a practitioner's course in
the social and economic education and training formed the basis of
development of the learner and designing this course. The development of an
the social and economic educational practitioner therefore forms the core
development of the nation at content of this course.
8(1)(f):... comparable, The qualification is comparable to international
where Rnnll(~R[]I/R eo rts.
8(1)(g): ... incorporate integrated assess- An integrated assessment approach is followed in
ment appropriately to ensure that the order to accomplish the specific outcomes as stated in
purpose of the qualification is achieved, 9.
and such assessment shall use a range
of formative and summative assessment
methods such as portfolios, simulations,
work-place assessments, written and
oral examinations
8(1)(h):.. Indicate the rules governing Learners should comply with the set entrance
the award of the qualification that it may requirement (6) and adhere to the expected standard
be achieved in whole or part through the of performance (10 & 11). The modular system leaves
recognition of prior learning, which learners with the opportunity to accumulate credits
concept includes but is not limited to over a longer period of time.
learning outcomes achieved through
formal, informal and non-formal learning
and work
A total of 120 (one hundred and twenty) 192 credits on level 5
or more credits shall be required for 328 credits on level 6
registration of a qualification at levels 1
to 8, with a minimum of 72 (seventy-
two)credits
Being obtained at or above the
level at which the auamficitticln
196
is registered, and the
Number and level of credits constituting
the balance (of forty-eight) shall be
specified: Provided that a qualification
consisting of less than 120 credits may
be considered if it meets the
requirements in regulation 8(1) and
complies with the objectives of the
National Qualifications Framework
contained in section 2 of the Act.
15.
See attachments to document:
o Pre-School and Foundation Phases: ADDENDUM EE
o Intermediate Phase: ADDENDUM FF
o Senior Phase and Further Education and Training Phase: ADDENDUM GG
16. YEAR OF INTRODUCTION 2001
17. ENVISAGED STUDENT ENROLMENT 200 per year
FOR FIVE YEARS
18. QUALIFICATIONS AND RESEARCH Personnel from five departments in the School of
ACHIEVEMENTS OF PERSONNEL Education will mainly facilitate the different
INVOLVED IN THE PROPOSED modules. They will be complemented by staff
PROGRAMME members from relevant departments in other field
of study, such as natural sciences, social sciences,
art, music, mathematics, languages etc. In
addition, the personnel of the Bloemfontein College
of Education will assist the departments with the
facilitation of the modules.
The majority of the personnel involved hold
Docorate Degrees in their respective fields of
specialisation. They have also distinguished
themselves as compotent instructional and
research leaders in various fields nationally and
internationally and have earned recognition in a
variety of sectors.
19. IMPLICATIONS IN TERMS OF Sufficient personnel, physical and financial
PERSONNEL, EQUIPMENT AND resources
FINANCIAL LIABILITIES
197
20. CURRENT PROVISION AT OTHER Other Universities regulated by the profession
INSTITUTIONS (UNIVERSITIES AND (COTEP)
TECHNIKONS)
21. DATE OF APPROVAL BY SENATE
22. NAME OF AUTHORIZED PERSON DOING
SUBMISSION (REGISTRAR)
23. SIGNATURE
ADDENDUM EE
15. COMPLIANCE WITH REGULA liON 9(2) (SAQA)
B. Ed. COll"e Electove
Pre-School and Foundation Phases
Instructional Science 16
Psychology of Education 16
Social Work 8
Philosophy of Education. 16
Management & Leadership 16
Language/Literacy 96
Computer Literacy 8
Religious Education 8
Elective subjects from learning programmes 96
Early Childhood Studies 56
Foundation Phase Studies 48
Technology 32
Elementary Economics 8
Environment, Physical and Health Education 16
Mathematics and Numeracy Education 64
Life Skills Education 16
Total ~84 336
Grand Total: 520
198
ADDENDUM'FF
B.Ed. Core
Intermediate Phase
Instructional Science 16
Psychology of Education 16
Sociology of Education 8
Philosophy of Education. 16
Management & Leadership 16
Language/Literacy 96
Religious Education 8
Computer Literacy 8
Elective Subjects from learning programmes 96
Mathematics 64
Natural Science 32
Technology 32
Human & Social Sciences/ManagementlEconomics 32
Arts and Culture/Life Orientation 24
Speech and Drama, Music, Dance, Art 32
Environment, Physical & Health Education 16
Inclusive Education 8
84 336
ADDENDUM GG
B. Ed.
Senior Phase and Further Education and Training Phase
Instructional Science 32
Psychology of Education 32
Sociology of Education 16
Philosophy of Education 32
Management & Leadership 32
History of Education 8
Teaching Practice 16
Language Proficiency and Communication 32
Life Orientation 16
Religious Education 16
Learning area Education 64
Elective subjects from learning areas 224
2
199
As indicated previously (cf. 6.1), programmes are compiled from different modules
which follow on one another. The specific programme of which the module in this
thesis forms a part, consists of different fields of study from which learners could
choose to prepare them to teach in one or more of the following school phases:
o Pre-school and Foundation Phase
o Intermediate Phase
e Senior Phase
o Further Education and Training Phase
The module, Invitational Education, forms part of the training programme for
prospective teachers in the Senior, as well as of the Further Education and Training
Phase and will be presented to learners in their third year of study. To place
Invitational Education into the broader context of the Educational Psychology and
other modules, the content of the programme is as follows:
BACCALAUREUS EDUCATIONIS: Psychology of Educatio01 Modules
SENIOR PHASE/FURTHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING PHASE
EDM 112
2 nte Igence, Interest, attention and memory EPI 112
Motivation EPM 112
Learning and Study methods ESM 122
Developmental phases of the learner EHD 122
3 Career orientation, selfactualisation and relationship ELX 112
skills
Social problems: at risk children EFT 122
tnvltational Education ESI122
4 Mu on EMG 112
Professionalism EJI 122
Classroom Management ECS 122
200
Each module could consist of various units. The reasoning behind the units used in
the module on Invitational Education is as follows:
6.3 MODULE ON INVITATIONAl EDUCATION: DIVISION INTO UNITS
The mission statement of the International Alliance of Invitational Education reads as
follows:
"Because the International Alliance for Invitational Education is dedicated to
democratic principles, its mission is to enhance life-long learning, promote positive
change in organizations, cultivate the personal and professional growth and
satisfaction of educators and allied professional, and enrich the lives of human
beings personally and professionally" (Purkey, Internet). From this quotation it is
clear that Invitational Education encompasses different components, which ultimately
forms part of the process of leading people to reach their full potential. Kok's
(1988:264-265) approach to the training of teachers is divided into three headings,
namely:
o The teacher's perception:
All learners should be viewed as able, responsible and valuable. The teacher
should see him/herself in a positive light.
o The teacher's attitude:
Attitude in defined in terms of the teacher showing respect, trust, optimism and
intentionality.
o The teacher's behaviour:
This section focuses on the teacher's behaviour of inviting him/herself and others
personally and professionally in a positive manner.
201
Against the background of the literature study in this thesis (ef. Chapters 2 and 3),
the mission statement of Purkey (Internet), and the divisions of Kok (1988:265),
the researcher concluded that teachers in training should possess at least a
sound knowledge on the grounding principles of lnvitational Education, with the
accent on the development of self-concept. Armed with this knowledge on ways
in which to lead learners to feel able and valuable, students should also learn how
their own behaviour influences the process of learning. Lastly, this process takes
place in an environment that should "invite" learners to learn. From here, the
researcher then arrives at the following three condensed divisions, namely:
o Perceptions, which form the grounding principles of Invitational Education.
Here the sub-divisions are perceiving learners as able, valuable responsible,
viewing oneself positively and perceiving education affirmatively.
o Behavior that entails the teacher's behavior such as trust, respect, optimism,
intentionality and the handling of conflict (discipline).
o Environment (schools) where learning has to take place effectively. Factors
that influence learners as well as teachers, are taken into consideration.
The final structure of the module, Invitational Education, as part of the
Baccalaureus Educationis Programme, follows in the subsequent section:
201 A
QUALIFICATION: BACCALAUREUS EDUCATIONIS (B.ED) EDUCATION STUDIES AND EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT
MODULE:
CODE AND TITLE OF MODULE: ES1122, INVITATIONAL EDUCATION I F I " I
NQF-LEVEL: 6 - ORGANISING fiELD/SUB FIELD: 05 - Education Training and Development Indicate with cross
DISCIPLINE, PROGRAMME DOMICILIUM OIFTHE MODULE: EDUCATIONAL STUDIES AND EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT
CREDITS: 8 NOTIONAL LEARNING HOURS: 80
PRE REQUISITE LEARNING: SENIOR CERTIFICATE WITH UNIVERSITY PASS OR EQUIVALENT;M-SCORE 24-27
Purpose (Overall outcome) Specific leaminQl outcomes of Assessment standards (e.g. A
of the module: the module (whlch also reflect training programme developed Metlhodsof assessment
(It correlates witlh one or the critical outcomes): according to set standards):
more of the specific Learners will be able to: Learners will be assessed against 1. Written forms of
learning outcomes of the UNIT 1 the achievement of stated assessment
specific qualification) 1. Obtain knowledge and skills outcomes that have been 2. Written reports
regarding the basic assumptions formulated and disseminated to 3. Self-assessment
and principles of Invitational the learners at the beginning of exercises
Education. the module. They will demonstrate 4. Questionnaires
Learners will be competent in 2.Demonstrate the ability to, their competencies by: 5. Group or teamwork
demonstrating knowledge of a without discrimination, lead 1. class simulation sessions
healthy and invitational learners to feel able, valuable and 2. role-playing 6. Simulated
learning environment and to respected in order to reach their 3. learner profiles compiled from learning/teaching
create an effective and full potential. relevant skills and competencies situations
positive learning and teaching UNIT 2 7. Tests
culture for the sake of 3.Apply effective conflict handling 8. Examinations
maximal development of skills and apply the knowledge
learners obtained to create an environment
where effective learning can take
place.
UNIT3
4. Obtain reflexive skills in the
establishment of an invitational
classroom climate.
201 B
Content (learning
areas)/statements to Learmnq modles Notional Quality controldescribe the range, depth hours (inclUIding moderation) I Forms of learner support
and scope of the content:
UNIT ~ I Resource-based I I o Individual and group
1. Expositi~n and expl~nation study self I 70 hours Internal moderation consultations
of the basic assumptions of r----------f-. -----I. o Peersupport
Invitational Education and the o Learner support seminars
realising of the self-concept Contact facilitation 4 hours
UNIT2
2. Indicate the different
aspects of teacher behaviour,
which creates an inviting Group discussions
4 hours
atmosphere in the classroom ~---------r----~
3. Learning the different steps Formal assessment 2 hours
in the process of handling
conflict, which forms part of 1-----------1------1
the disciplinary process.
UNIT3
4. Exposition and explanation
of different aspects that are 80 hours
imperative to create a culture
of learning, and a learning
environment that facilitates
effective learning.
Date for submission to Faculty Programme Committee: _
Date for submission to faculty Council:
Date foil' next revision:
Signatures:
Lecturer: Date: _
Departmental head: _
Programme manager: Dean/Assignee: Datum: _
202
Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational objectives was used for the preparation of the
study guide for the module Invitational Education. The Taxonomy will now be
explained:
6.4 THE TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
Bloom's taxonomy is aimed at providing for the classification of educational
objectives for the use of teachers and researchers, in order to ascertain whether their
students understand or internalise knowledge (Bloom 1956:1). Bloom also argued
that since the determination of classes and their titles are in some ways arbitrary,
there could be numerous ways of dividing and naming domains of educational
outcomes. He therefore made use of the following guiding principles:
o The major distinctions between classes should reflect the distinctions teachers
make with.regard to student behaviour.
e The taxonomy should be logically developed and internally consistent.
o The taxonomy should be consistent with the present understanding of
psychological phenomena.
o The classification should be purely descriptive, within which every type of
educational goal can be represented in a relatively neutral way (Bloom 1956:14).
In the development of the taxonomy, Bloom (1956:16) first limited himself to those
objectives commonly referred to as knowledge, intellectual abilities and intellectual
skills, which he called the cognitive domain. This area also included behaviour such
as remembering, reasoning, problem-solving, concept formation and creative
thinking. He also came to the conclusion that one could adopt the Gestalt point of
view that complex behaviour is more than the sum of the simpler behaviours, or that
one might view the complex behaviour as being completely analysable into simpler
components. Regardless of which way one would approach this matter, the
taxonomy had to be organised from simple to complex categories of behaviour. The
six major classes Bloom ultimately derived at, are:
o knowledge;
o comprehension;
203
e application;
e analysis;
o synthesis; and
o evaluation (Bloom 1956:18).
The six categories of Bloom's Taxonomy (1956) will now be dealt with:
6.4.1 Knowledge
Knowledge mainly involves the processes of remembering as well as the
recalling of patterns and structures. It implies the bringing to mind of what one
has learnt, for evaluation purposes.
6.4.1.1 Knowledge of specifics
Here the emphasis is on concrete symbols and specific bits of
information.
6.4.1.2 Knowledge of terminology
Knowledge of the referents for specific symbols.
6.4.1.3 Knowledge of specific facts
This may include specific facts such as dates, events, persons and
places.
6.4.1.4 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics
Organising, studying, judging and criticising are included in this
category.
204
6.4.1.5 Knowledge of conventions
Knowledge of characteristic ways of presenting ideas and facts.
6.4.1.6 Knowledge of trends and sequences
In this category, time is important. This involves knowledge of the
processes and directions of phenomena with respect to time.
6.4.1.7 Knowledge of classifications and categories
Here the knowledge of classification, classes and divisions of a specific
subject field is important.
6.4.1.8 Knowledge of criteria
Criteria against which facts, opinions and principles are tested.
6.4.1.9 Knowledge of methodology
Knowledge of different methods of inquiry, techniques and procedures
in a particular subject field.
6.4.1.10 Knowledge of the universal and abstractions in a field.
The major schemes and patterns by which phenomena and ideas are
organised.
6.4.1.11 Knowledge of prinCiples and generalisations
These principles are used to explain, describe or predict the most
appropriate action or direction to be taken.
205
6.4.1.12 Knowledge of theories and structures
Knowledge of the body of principles, together with their interrelations
~
that gives one a clear view of a complex field or problem
(Bloom,1956:201-204).
6.4.2 Comprehension: intellectual abilities and skills
6.4.2.1 Comprehension
This is the lowest form of understanding, only sufficient to make
communication between two people possible.
6.4.2.2 Translation
Here care is taken to translate one language or form of communication
into another.
6.4.2.3 Interpretation
Interpretation involves a reordering or rearrangement of material.
6.4.2.4 Extrapolation
The extension of trends beyond the given data to determine
implications, consequences and/or effects that are in accordance with .
the conditions as described in the original communication (Bloom,
1956:204,205).
6.4.3 Application
To use and select a concept (abstraction) in an appropriate situation. The
abstractions may be in the form of general ideas, rules of procedures, or
l 206
generalised methods. The abstractions may also be technical principles,
ideas, and theories that must be remembered and applied, eg:
o Application of the phenomena discussed in one paper of the scientific
terms or concepts used in other papers.
o The ability to predict the probable effect of a change in a factor on a
biological situation precisely at equilibrium.
6.4.4 Analysis
The "dissecting" of communication into its basic elements in order to see the
relations between the ideas expressed.
6.4.4.1 Analysis of elements
Identification of the elements included in communication.
6.4.4.2 Analysis of relationships
Here one has to look at the interactions between elements in
communication.
6.4.4.3 Analysis of organisational principles
Communication is held together by organisation and systematic
arrangement (Bloom 1956:205,206).
6.4.5 Synthesis
The putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole.
6.4.5.1 Production of a unique communication
Ideas, feelings and experiences are conveyed by a speaker.
207
6.4.5.2 Production of a plan or proposed set of operations
Here a plan is devised to satisfy the requirements of the task.
6.4.5.3 Derivation of a set of abstract relations
Here one looks at a set of abstract relations to classify or explain
particular ideas (Bloom 1956:206).
6.4.6 EvaluatioB1l
Material and methods for given purposes have to be judged on their value.
Quantitative and qualitative judgements about the extent to which material and
methods satisfy criteria. Use of a standard of appraisal. The criteria may be
t those determined by the learner or those given to him/her.
6.4.6. 1 Judgements in terms of internal evidence
Logical accuracy, consistency in communication is evaluated, eg:
(il Judging by internal standards, the ability to' assess general
probability of accuracy in reporting facts from the care given to
exactness of statement, documentation or proof.
o The ability to indicate logical fallacies in arguments.
6.4.6.2 Judgements in terms of external criteria
Evaluation of material with reference to selected criteria, eg:
o The comparison of major theories, generalisations, and facts about
particular cultures.
li) Judging by external standards, the ability to compare a work with
the highest known standards in its field - especially with other works
of recognised excellence (Bloom 1956:207).
208
The STUDY GUIDE for the module INVITATIONAL EDUCATION will be presented
in the following section.
6.5 STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE: INVITATIONAL EDUCATION
P 209 to 244.
209
ESI 122
INVITATIONAL EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT PSYCHOLOGY OF
EDUCATION
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
210
~NDIEX
Introduction
Purpose
Learning outcomes
Lay-out of the module
Assessment
Unit 1- Grounding principles of lnvltatlonal Ech.Acation
Basic assumptions: viewing learners as able
Perceiving students as valuable
Seeing students as responsible
Viewing oneself positively
Perceiving education affirmatively
Self-concept: Organised
Dynamic
Consistent
Modifiable
Learned
unit 2- Teacher behaviour and discipline
Trust
Respect
Optimism
Intentionality
Discipline: concern
confer
consult
confront
combat
Unit 3- Effective learning
Culture of learning
Learning environment
Learners
Teachers
211
I ~NvrrAr~ONAlIEDUCAr~ON
INTRODUCTION
Education is fundamentally an imaginative act of hope. This hope generates an
educational vision and suggests creative means of attainment. Without this,
educators become mere technicians and functionaries in a bureaucratic system. In a
democratic social order, there is hope that the educative process can enable all
involved to participate in the process of continual self-realisation and in the self-rule
of their society. For this to happen, we clearly need a hopeful, action-based
approach to education. Invitational Education is such an approach.
In this module you will learn about the principles and practical applications of this
approach. (Adapted: Purkey and Novak 1996:1).
I PURPOSE I
The purpose of this module is to equip candidate educators with the basic knowledge
and skills to create an inviting classroom atmosphere in which all learners could
reach their full potential, thus feeling able, valuable and responsible, participating in
the learning process, and therefore facilitating effective learning.
LEARNING OUTCOMIES
The candidate educator will be able to demonstrate
o knowledge and skills regarding the basic assumptions and principles of
invitational teaching;
212
e reflexive skills in the establishment of an invitational classroom climate, the
effective way of handling conflict, creating an environment where effective
learning can take place; and
o the ability to, without discrimination, lead learners to feel able, valuable and
responsible in order to reach their full potential.
THIE LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THIS MODULE WIll BE REACHED BY
APPLYING BLOOM'S HIERARCHY
KNOWLEDGE The theory and principles
Invitational Education
CONCEPTUAlISATION Insight into the various invitational
education con
ANALYSIS The ability to analyse the information in
order to apply it to practical classroom
situations
APPLICATION Reflexive competence to apply theory
to practice in order to create an
invitational learning atmosphere in
order to facilitate effective learnin
SYNTHESIS The ability to integrate all the
knowledge and skills to form a
complete life orientation, which is
invitational to the personal self as well
as to the ssional self.
ASSESSMENT Invitational education knowledge and
skills by means of a variety of methods
of assessment
LAY-OUT OF THiS MODULE
THIS MODULE WILL CONSIST OF THE FOLLOWING UNITS:
UNIT 1: Grounding principles of Invitational Education: Basic assumptions of
Invitational Education, theories of self-concept and perceptions.
UNIT2: Teacher behaviour in Invitational Education: Trust, Respect, Optimism,
Intentionality, Discipline.
213
UNIT 3: Creating an inviting classroom environment to facilitate effective
learning: Learning styles, aspects influencing effective learning.
ASSESSMENT
o You will have to be able to demonstrate your knowledge regarding Invitational
Education and to apply it to practical class and life situations. This assessment
wi II be done by means of
o Written forms of assessment
o Written reports
o Self-assessment exercises
o Questionnaires
o Group- or teamwork sessions
o Simulated learning/teaching situations
o Written assessment that will take place at scheduled occasions will be done in the
same format as those in the study guide and will be based upon the knowledge
and skills addressed in this module.
SOURCES
The sources to be consulted throughout this study guide consist of the following:
o Chapter 2 in this thesis : CREATING A CULTURE OF TEACHING AND
LEARNING
o Chapter 3 in this thesis: INVITATIONAl EDUCATION
In the study guide, references are made to the relevant pages to be consulted.
Learners may also make use of any other sources in addition to the prescribed ones.
214
UNIT 1 : GROUNDING PRINCIPLES OF INVITATIONAL EDUCATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ARE NECESSARY FOR THE FACILITATING OF
LEARNING IN AN INVITING MANNER
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1.2 KNOWLEDGE AND CONCEPTUALlSATION
GROUNDING PRINCIPLES
OF INVITATIONAL EDUCATION
BASIC ASSUMPTIONS: TEACHERS' PERCIEPTIONS
VIEWING LEARNERS AS ABLE
PERCEIVING STUDENTS AS VALUABLE
SEEING STUDENTS AS RESPONSIBLE
VIEWING ONESELF POSITIVELY
PERCEIVING EDUCATION AFFIRMATIVELY
SELIF-CONCEPT
ORGANISED
DYNAMIC
CONSISTENT
MODIFIABLE
LEARNED
215
KNOWLEDGE AND CONCEPTS ACTIVITY
VIEWING LEARNERS AS ABLE Read the following quotation and write down
the resemblance between that and the concept
Consult: Chapter 3: 57-67 of "viewing students as able"
"Where I come from, we have great
universities. When students graduate, they
have two things you need. A diploma and a
degree. There, then, is your diplorna-" He
handed the scarecrow a rolled up parchment-"
and your degree. You are now a Th.D.- Doctor
of Thinkology." The scarecrow took the
diploma, and frowned. Then he looked up and
smiled a huge smile! "Gosh", he cried," I think I
can think!"
(The Wizard of Oz. From the Metro-Goldwyn-
Mayer film 1939).
216
PERCEIVING LEARNERS AS VALUABLE Teacher: 'Would you like me to refer to you as
Black or Afro-American?"
Consult: Chapter 3: 57-67 Student: "l think I would like to be referred to as
Jeanne" (Purkey and Novak 1996:43).
Write down what the above dialogue means in
terms of perceiving learners as valuable.
SEEING LEARNERS AS RESPONSIBLE "Human beings are not born once and for all on
the day their mothers give birth to
Consult: Chapter 3: 57-67 them ........ life obliges them over and over
again to give birth to themselves (Gabriel
Garcia Marquez, Love of the Time of Cholera
1988:165).
Describe in terms of Invitational Education, why
it is so important to see learners as
responsible.
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217
VIEWING ONESELF POSITIVELY "I to myself am dearer than a friend."
(William Shakespeare, Two Gentlemen of
Consult: Chapter 3: 57-67 Verona, Act II. Sc vi).
Describe the implications of the teacher
viewing him/herself positively.
PERCEIVING EDUCATION AFFIRMATIVELY "The result of the educative process' is the
capacity for further education"
Consult: Chapter 3: 57-67 (John Dewey, Democracy and Education
(1916:79).
What is the result (in the classroom) of a
teacher perceiving education in an affirmative
manner?
218
SELF-CONCEPT "All behaviour is a function of the individual's
perceptual field."
Consult: Chapter 3: 62-67
Write down briefly the assumptions of the
perceptual field.
0
0
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0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
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0
Name the five characteristics of the self-
concept
0
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1.3 ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION
1.3.1 PERCEPTIONS
The following exercise is a group exercise with the following goals:
o To increase perception of the self.
219
o To provide an opportunity to share personal perceptions.
o To provide an opportunity to receive feedback on perceived behaviour.
TIME REQUIRED: 2 HOURS
MATERIALS
o A collection of objects - at least twice as many objects as participants - of
varying size, weiqht, composition, tactile sensation and colour.
o A container large enough to accommodate all the objects so that the
participant may not see the objects.
PROCESS
The group members sit in a circle. Each participant goes through the objects
in the container and chooses one that he/she could identify with. As soon as
all the participants return to their original position they each explore their
object and their identification with it. Each participant shares verbally with the
group their identification with their object. They are encouraged to speak in
the first person for example: "I am rough in some places and smooth in
others". In order to emphasise the activity involves self-description rather than
object-description. The members give one another feedback on
similarities/dissimilarities with their own object images (Pfeiffer and Jones1977
vol vi :7).
AFTER COMPLETiNG THE EXERCiSE, ANSWER THE FOLLOWING
QUESTIONS:
o What was the most positive experience for you in this exercise?
o What was the most negative experience for you in this exercise?
c After this exercise, indicate your awareness of the influence of perceptions in
behaviour.
220
1.3.2 SELF-CONCEPT/SELF-DISCLOSURE
The following exercise is a group exercise in order to
o introduce the concept of the Johari Window; and
o permit participants to get to know themselves and to let others know them.
TIME REQUIRED: 2 HOURS
MATERIALS
o Copies of the Johari Window Self-knowledge and Recording Sheet for all
the participants.
o Copies of the Johari Window Feedback Sheet for all.
o Pencils.
PROCESS
Participants complete part 1 of the Johari Window Self-Knowledge and
Recording Sheet.
After that they all fill out the Johari Window Feedback sheet. The fascilitator
collects the Feedback Sheets and reads them aloud anonymously.
Participants record perceptions held of them on the Self-Knowledge and
Recording sheet, which they keep. This proveds data on the Area II, the blind
area, and permits the participants to test whether he/she has actually revealed
any hidden data about him/herself.
JOHARI WINDOW CONCEPT
KNOWN TO SELF NOT KNOWN TO SELF
KNOWN Area of free activity Blind area
TO (public self) ("bad breath area")
OTHERS
NOT Avoided or hidden area Area of unknown
KNOWN (private self)
TO
OTHERS
221
JOHARI WINDOW SELF-KNOWLEDGE AND RECORDINGSHEET
INSTRUCTIONS
o List in the left column below, the major assets and liabilities of your
personality. Then place a check mark in front of those aspects that you
have revealed so far.
o When the facilitator collects the feedback sheets and reads them out
aloud, use the right column of this sheet to record perceptions of you held
by other participants.
ASSETS Self-perceptions ASSETS Other's perceptions
LIABILITIES Self-perceptions LIABILITIES Other's_perceptions
JOHARI WINDOW FEEDBACK SHEET (Pfeiffer and!JOO1es1974 vol l :67)
222
INSTRUCTIONS
o Write your impressions of the major assets and liabilities of other group
members, including yourself, in the spaces below. These will be read
aloud anonymously as feedback.
Participant Assets liabilities
o Write down anything about your self-disclosure that made you feel able, valuable
and responsible.
o Write down the feelings you experienced during the feed-back session with
regard to:
o Feeling able _
o Feeling valuable _
o Feeling responsible _
o Feeling positive towards the self _
o Feeling positive towards teachinq; _
1.4 SYNTHESIS
1.4.1 Read through the following case study, and with all the knowledge
gained in UD1Ii1t , describe what ,according to you, were the factors
iD1lfiuencingthe learner to become a happy and fulfilled adult.
"I am 21 and a painting major. When I was in sixth grade, I had already failed twice.
I was used to hearing how useless I was and that I was destined to become a "bum".
One day I was sick and tired of my daily environment and suggested a mural design
for our school. My teacher was so pleased, she ordered the paint, ladder, even
223
best paintings I've ever done. I completed school successfully and look forward to a
career as an artist" (Adapted from Purkey and Novak 1996:43).
1.4.2 With a particular learner in mind, compile a plan to go about to motivate
this unmotivated learner to succeed by using the principles of
invitational teaching you have learnt in Unit 1 (4-5 pages)
UNIT 2 : TEACHER BEHAVIOUR IN INVITATIONAl EDUCATION: TRUST,
RESPECT, OPTIMISM, INTENTIONALITY and DISCIPliNE
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The four basic elements of invitational teaching are trust, respect, optimism and
intentionality. These elements give the teacher a consistent "stance", which provides
a reliable internal compass that points to the true north of teaching: a therapeutic way
of relating with oneself and others, personally and professionally (Purkey and Stanley
1991:16).
224
2.2 KNOWLEDGE AND CONCEPTUALlSATION
TEACHER BEHAVIOUR
TRUST
RESPECT
OPTIMISM
INTENTIONALITY -l> intentionally disinviting
unintentionally disinviting
unintentionally inviting
intentionally inviting
personally inviting with oneself
personally inviting with others
professionally inviting with oneself
professionally inviting with others
DISCIPLINE
CONCERN ---S> CONFER -1> CONSULT -t> CONFRONT ---[> COMBAT
KNOWLEDGE AND CONCEPTS ACTIVITY
TRUST How does "trust" manifest in a classroom
situation?
Consult: Chapter 3: par 3.5.1
225
RESPECT Give examples of ways in which a teacher can
show "respect" to his/her learners in the
Consult: Chapter 3: par 3.5.2 classroom
226
OPTIMISM "Optlrnisrn is critical in invitational teaching
because teachers create the facts that make.
Consult: Chapter 3: par 3.5.3 their hypotheses come true."
Discuss this statement in terms of "optimism"
as a teacher's stance.
INTENTONALlTY "Intentional individuals are able to develop.
plans, act on many possible opportunities, and
Consult: Chapter 3: par 3.5.4 evaluate the effect of these actions."
Name the four kinds of intentional behaviour
that a teacher could project, with two examples
of each kind.
0
0
0
0
Now describe the effect of each behaviour on
the learner.
0
0
0
0
227
THE FOUR CORNER PRESS Name the "four corners" of invitational
teaching.
Consult: Chapter 3: 74-85
0
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Give two examples of each of the corners of
the "four corner press".
0
0
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0
0
0
0
0
228
DISCIPLINE What is the purpose of invitational teaching in
Consult: Chapter 3: 85-92 resolving conflict in the classroom?
Name the five C's in resolving conflict.
0
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Write down the four most important questions
the teacher has to ask him/herself in each
stage of the five C's.
0
0
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0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
229
2.3 ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION
2.3.1 TRUST
This is a group exercise with the following aims:
o to increase understanding of physical, intellectual and emotional trust;
o to explore how the trust level existing in the group affects the openness of
discussion; and
o- to provide an opportunity for group members to give each other feedback on trust.
TIME REQUIRED 2 HOURS
MATERIALS
o Enough slips of paper for each member (8-12)
o One "affirmation of trust sheet" for each member
o Pencil
PROCESS
Each member removes a shoe and puts it next to the shoes of the other members.
Then each member selects five statements from the Affirmation of Trust sheet that
best describe his/her trust in another member of the group: to write the other
member's name, the numbers of the applicable statements and his/her own signature
on a slip of paper and deposits it into that person's shoe. After the exercise, each
member takes out the slips from his/her own shoe and reads the trust put in him by
others.
AFFIRMATION OF TRUST SHIEET
1. I would trust you to share your happiness with me.
2. I would trust you to hold my money.
3. I would trust you to take care of my children.
4. I would hope that you would tell me how others perceive me.
230
5. I would trust you te help me if I was incapacitated in some way.
6. I would hope that you would give me help if I need it.
7. I would trust you to keep me an appointment with me.
8. I would hope that you would tell me if I am phony.
9. I would trust you to be honest with me.
10. I would trust you not to gossip about me in my absence.
11. I would trust you enough to tell you about those I love.
12. I would trust you to be an excellent companion for a trip abroad.
13. I would trust you to be executor of my estate.
14. I would trust you to drive my car.
15. I would trust you to pay back money I might loan you.
16. I would trust you to live in and take care of my house.
17. I would trust you to complete any task given to you.
18. I would hope that you.would freely give me friendship.
19. I would seek your advice on interpersonal relationship.
20. I would share my creations with you.
21. I would trust you with my life.
22. I would trust that what you say is based on facts and not fabrication.
23. I would trust your view on political matters.
24. I would trust you enough to share my feelings towards you.
(Pfeiffer and Jones 1977 vol vi:110).
Answer the following questions:
o What have you learnt about yourself concerning "trust"?
e Was trust established through the exercise?
231
e If your answer in (b) was affirmative, what difference did it make in you
interpersonal relationships with others?
2.3.2 INVITING - DISINVITING
PLEASE RESPOND TO THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS ACCORDING TO
FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE. Please give a number corresponding to
the following continuum:
Always (1) ; Very Often (2) ; Often ( 3) ; Occasionally (4); Seldom (5) ;
Very Seldom (6) ; Never (7)
1. I plan time for enjoyable activities with others-------------
2. I condemn myself when I think I did something wrong--------
3. I critisize others when I think it is needed.----------
4. I congratulate others on their successes-----------
5. I neglect my own needs--------
6. I forgive others for their transgressions---------
7. I tell myself when I think I've done something stupid-----------
8. I am quick to recognise my own value------------
9. I am impressed by the abilities of other people-----------
10. I critisize myself when I think it is needed------------
11. I plan time for enjoyable activities with myself-------------
12. I neglect the needs of other people-------------
13. I congratulate myself on my successes--------
14. I am insensitive to my own needs-------
15. I am quick to recognise the value of other people-------
16. I tell others when I think they have done something stupid--------
17. I am insensitive to the needs of other people---------
18. I forgive myself for my transgressions-----------
19. I condemn others when I think they did something wrong--------
20. I am impressed with my own abilities
232
SCORE: INVITING TO THE SELF (8,11,13,18,20) LESS THAN (24) .
DISINVITING TO THE SELF (2, 5, 7, 10, 14,) MORE THAN (24)
INVITING TO OTHERS(1, 4,6,9,15,) LESS THAN (24)
DISiNVITING TO OTHERS (3, 12, 16, 17, 19) MORE THAN (24)
(Wiemer and Purkey 1994:25-31 ).
e What have you realised about your own behaviour towards yourself?-----------------
o What have you realised about your own behaviour towards others?-------------------
o What could you possibly do to better yourself and the situation?------------------------
--------------------~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
233
2.3.3 CONFLICT
COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE REGARDING
HOW YOU HANDLE CONFLICT. I~TE YOUR ANSWER BY MARKING THE
APPROPRIATE ANSWER WITH AN~
IN A CONFLICT SITUATION YOU ..... YES NO
o become emotionally involved
o : become destructive towards the other person
o make invalid conclusions
o build on the person's positive characteristics
o overreact
o involve other inappropriate matters
o look for a mutual solution
o accommodate the other person's needs
o avoid the situation through silence
o intellectualise
o start doing some introspection
o take a "poor-me stance"
o try to reach consensus
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...the reasoning behind it.:
234
How do you as a teacher handle conflict at present?How does your way of
discipline differ from that of the principles on discipline in invitational
teaching? ~-------------------------------- ___
o What is your short-term goals in terms of dealing with discipline in your class?
2.4 SYNTHESIS
2.4.1 Read through the following case study and give a description of what
happened between Keith and! his teacher in terms of what you have
learnt in this unit.
Keith was one of those students "whose reputation preceded him" to the high school.
His elementary teachers passed along horror stories of his escapades: the day he
inked his hands to leave a trail of blueprints along the white walls of his third grade
classroom, the time in fourth grade when he used his scissors to "trim" the hair of a
girl seated in front of him, his record number of trips to the principal's office in fifth
grade. According to records, his previous teachers had tried everything from
conferring, consulting and confronting to detention, demerits and deterrent, all to no
avail.
When the sixth grade teacher learnt that Keith would be one of his students in the
fall, he began to plan for success. Several weeks before the new school year he
sent a card to all his incoming students (including a special note to Keith) welcoming
them to his class. Next, he studied Keith's records and found not only an abundance
of referrals but also a number of indications of academic potential.
On the first day of class, students were asked to complete autobiographical
inventories describing their interests. Keith listed "pets" and "reading" among his
235
likes. When Keith interrupted class discussion with, "Hey, did you hear about the guy
who tried to dry his hat in the microwave?" the teacher waved off his comment and
moved closer to him. His second disruption was greeted by the teacher with "we will
talk about this after class".
During the private conference the teacher explained his expectations for the class
and asked Keith to talk about his expectations as well. During the conference the
teacher also asked Keith to help him set up a class aquarium. After the aquarium
was operating, the teacher encouraged Keith to join several students as tutors in a
treading program for younger students. Keith acted up from time to time, but the
teacher's efforts were successful in improving the learner's behaviour (Adapted from
Purkey and Stanley 1991 :27).
2.4.2
Take any "difficult" learner in your class and write down his/her present behaviour.
From what you have learnt in this unit, write down a detailed plan how you would go
about changing your own as well as the learner's behaviour (4-5 pages).
UNIT 3 : CREATING AN INVITING CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENT TO
FACILITATE EFFECTIVE LEARNING: ASPECTS INFLUENCING EFFECTIVE
LEARNING
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The project of "transforming" an education system is the project of changing the vast
webs of practices which constitute it. Given the size and complexity of the system it
is most unlikely that one can transform it by the wholesale attempt to replace all
current practices with new practices (Morrow1999:43). To create a culture of
learning is a joint attempt by teachers and learners.
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236
3.2 KNOWLEDGE AND CONCEPTUAlISATION
EFFECTIVE LEARNING
CULlURE lF LEARNING
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT LEARNERS TEACHERS
KNOWLEDGE AND CONCEPTS ACTIVITY
CULTURE OF LEARNING Which factors influence the culture of learning?
Consult: Chapter 2: 19-28 0
0
0
0
0
In your own words, write which role each one
of these factors has to play in creating a
culture of learning.
0
0
0
0
237
LEARNING ENVIRONMENT Which characteristics are attributed to a
nurturing learning environment?
Consult: Chapter 2: 28-34
0
0
0
0
0
0
'0
0
0
0
0
0
0
238
Name the factors that have an influence on the
LEARNERS learner in the school situation.
0
Consult: Chapter 2: 34-46 0
0
0
0
0
0
Define the difference between the holistic and
the surface approach of learning.
In the process of getting learners motivated,
which are given as the four main sources for
educational aspirations?
0
0
0
0
The transformation process for transforming
the content knowledge for the purpose of
teaching is divided into four sub-processes.
Name them.
0
0
li>
e
239
THE TEACHER What are the characteristics of an effective
teacher?
Consult: Chapter 2: 46-55 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
What are the key issues in teachers' notions of
differences amongst pupils?
0
0
0
0
0
How could a teacher create a "learning climate"?
Who takes the major responsibility for the nature
of the relationship between teacher and learner?
240
3.3 ANALYSIS AND APPLICATION
HERE ARE TWENTY PHRASES THAT INDICATE YOUR ~BAL
BEHAVIOUR TOWARDS THE LEARNER. INDICATE WITH A ~
WHICH ONES YOU SAY OFTEN:
POSITIVE (INVITING) COMMENTS NEGATIVE (DISINVITING) COMMENTS
Thanks very much Keep out!
Congratulations Use your head
How can I help? It won't work
Tell me about it You can't do that
I appreciate your help I don't care what you do
I understand Don't be so stupid
We missed you Who do you think you are?
I like that idea Why didn't you stay home?
I think you can They don't have the ability
You are unique You can't be that dumb
That's even better You ought to know better
How are things going? You must do as I say
I'd like your opinion How could you?
What do you think? Shape up or ship out
I am impressed Anybody can do that
That's okay You'll never make it
Please come in Get lost
I've always got time for you So what?
I think you can do it Forget it
Please tell me more Shut up
(Adapted from Purkey and Novak 1996:194).
Add to the list any other comments yOIUcl an think of, either positive
(inviting) OD" negative (disinviting) that yOIUml ight use every day.
POSITIVE VERBAL COMMENTS NEGATWEVERBAlCOMMENTS
o
e
e
241
The following twenty phrases describe teacher behaviour which could
either invite learning or disinvite learning. Indicate with a [{] which
behaviour suits your doing.
Inviting Teacher Behaviour Disinviting Teacher Behaviour
Smiling Interrupting
Asking for an opinion Looking at your watch
Listening carefully Yawning in someone's face
Shaking hands Scowling and frowning
Being on time Slamming a door
Nodding affirmation Using ridicule
Sharing lunch together Turning your back on someone
Sharing an experience Cutting people short
Accepting praise Making fun of a person
Offering to help Looking away from someone
Yielding interest Hitting someone
Learning names Being obscene
Extending an apology Throwing paper on the ground
Waiting your turn Tapping a pencil
Planting a flower Breaking a promise
Extending a hand Forgetting an important date
Congratulating Using sarcasm
Remembering birthdays Mimicking
Expressing regret Sneering
Giving thumb's up sign Being late
(Adapted from Purkey and Novak, 1996: 195)
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242
Add to the list any behaviour you might have a habit of doing, whether it
is inviting to learning or disinviting (negative).
INVITING TEACHER BEHAVIOUR DISINVITING TEACHER BEHAVIOUR
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Here are twenty positive (inviting) qualities to the physical environment
of the school, as well as twenty negative (disinviting) qualities which
could either enlhlancean effective and positive learning climate 00" work
towards a negative learning climate which would not facilitate effective
learning.
Indicate with a [{] which of these qualities are present in your school.
POSITIVE (INVITING) QUAUTIIES NEGATIVIE (DISINVITING)
QUALITIES
o Fresh paint Dark corridors
o Pleasant smells Bad smells
o Living plants Dingy colors
e Soft lightning Full trash cans
e Lots of books Hard lightning
e Fresh air Insects
o Flowers on the desk Excessive noise
o Soft music Smoke-filled room
o Attractive pictures Bare walls
o Comfortable temperatures Leftover food
Cil Birthday cake Full ashtrays
o Books and magazines Bare light bulb
o Sunny room Stack out-af-date materials
El This morning's paper Dead plants
COl Holiday tree Dingy curtains
e Birthday card Cold room
fil Positively worded signs Peeling paint and plaster
e Clean aromas Nothing to read
o Clean windows Sticky floors
e Clear floors Broken windows
(Adapted from Purkey and Novak 1996:196).
243
Write down any qualities in your physical environment at school which
might facilitate effective learning or maybe not:
POSITIVE (INVITING) QUALITIES NEGATIVE (DISINVITNG) QUALITIES
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
3.4 APPLICATION
Creating a positive learning climate to facilitate effective learning is dependent
upon various factors. Make a detailed analysis of a school close to you (or
your own school) in terms of all the aspects you have learnt in this unit. After
making a "diagnosis" on the present prevalent culture of learning, give a
detailed description of how you would go about changing this school to
become an invitational school where effective learning could take place (6-8
pages).
END OF MODULE
244
6.6 CONCLUSION
In this chapter the development of a training programme was discussed. At first the
outlay of the' programme was presented in the format as submitted to and approved
by SAQA and the Council on Higher Education. The process of module development
was discussed, as well as the taxonomy of educational objectives. Lastly the
complete module, as designed for the training of teachers in Invitational Education,
was given.
The last and final chapter will deal with the summary of the thesis, the conclusions as
well as recommendations made for further research.
SUMMARY, FINDiNGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The main aim of this study was to develop a programme for teachers training
which would equip them with the necessary skills in order to facilitate effective
learning. In order to do so, it was necessary at first to determine which factors
influenced effective learning and teaching and then to identify a model of
education in which to facilitate this process. This was done through a literature
study as well as an empirical study, the summary of which is given in the
following section.
7.2 SUMMARY
Chapter 1 outlined the background of the study. The poor matric results in South
Africa raised many questions amongst educationists on why this situation
prevailed. Apart from other factors, the main reasons for the collapse of a culture
of learning seemed to be poor administration as well as teachers being
unmotivated. It also appears that high absenteeism as well as unprofessional
behaviour amongst teachers are recurring phenomena. Educationists believe
that teachers need re-education since many of them never had positive role-
models during their own years of schooling (cf.1.1).
246
In Chapter 1 the similarities between some of the findings of the project, "Access
to learning", undertaken. by the HSRC and the researcher, and Invitational
Education', were shown. From here, some crucial questions arose
o What does effective learning entail?
o What are the fundamentals of Invitational Education?
o What are the criteria for a programme for teachers within the National
Qualifications framework?
o What would the nature of a programme be that is directed at the training of
teachers to facilitate effective learning? (cf.1 .2)
These questions were thoroughly examined in the following chapters.
In chapter two the factors that were responsible for the collapse, as well as the
re-building of a culture of learning and teaching in South Africa were examined.
At first, learning was defined as something that brings about change in behaviour
and as a process where new skills are learnt in a cumulative process (cf. 2.2)
Extremely important in this regard is the new paradigm which represents a shift
towards a learner-centered approach, where learners are not only equipped with
problem-solving skills and technological literacy, but also with skills to be
responsible and to acquire a positive attitude (cf. 2.3).
Causes for the collapse of a culture of teaching and learning were examined.
These included factors such as the infrastructure of education, where there is
inadequate electricity, water and security (cf. 2.5.1), and a lack of discipline
manifesting in absenteeism, late-coming and gangsterism (cf. 2.5.2). Other
identified factors were poor relationships between principals, teachers and
learners, relating to poor management appointing "radical" teachers (cf. 2.5.3;
2.5.4), as well as problems with the Department of Education, who are amongst
other things, responsible for unbearable teacher-learner ratios (cf. 2.5.5).
The restoring of a culture of teaching and learning depends on numerous factors
of which the following three are the most important:
247
o The first factor is a learning environment where learners need to feel they are
valuable and their individual needs are taken care of. It is also important to
try to keep the learner-teacher ratio to a minimum where every learner could
feel special (cf. 2.6.1; 2.6.1.1).
o The second factor relates to the learners themselves where the teacher has
to consider the learners' individual learning styles (cf. 2.6.2.2), their cognitive
abilities (cf. 2.6.2.3), their motivation to learn which is enhanced by a good
self-concept. Learners need to feel a sense of pride, sense of identity and a
sense of confidence in order to learn effectively (cf. 2.6.2.4; 2.6.2.5). The
content of the curriculum has to be tailored to fit the needs of the learners (cf.
2.6.2.6) and learners need to know what is expected of them. Too high or too
low expectations can cause the same damage in terms of the way in which
learners feel themselves successful or not (cf. 2.6.2.7).
e The third and last factor contributing to a culture of teaching and learning
relates to the teachers themselves. Teachers should be open, friendly and
compassionate and through various positive statements and reinforcement
create an inviting climate for learning (cf. 2.6.3.1; 2.6.3.3). Teachers should
never forget that they are still the most important factor in a school that ought
to create an atmosphere within which learning should take place. Their
planning of lessons should always consider the background and interest of
the learners. Keeping the learners actively involved helps to keep the
relationship between learners and teacher positive (cf. 2.6.3.5; 2.6.4.1;
2.6.4.2).
In Chapter three the educational model, Invitational Education was discussed.
The aim of Invitational Education is to make all people feel able, responsible and
valuable. Through the process, which is just as important as the product, all
people should be able to reach their full potential (cf. 3.3). Invitational Education
is based upon two theories, namely the perceptual and self-concept theories.
Both of these theories advocate that one's self-image depends on the
perceptions of others of oneself. The perceptions one has of oneself is equally
248
important (cf. 3.4.1; 3.4.2). The basic elements of Invitational Education are
trust, respect, optimism and intentionality. These four elements help to create an
inviting environment that leads the learner to better performance and to the
reaching of his/her own potential (cf. 3.5.1-3.5.4).
Teachers' behaviour however still seems to be the most important aspect in
order to keep the learners' attention and to motivate them to learn. Teachers can
either behave intentionally inviting or intentionally disinviting. The latter would
mean that the teacher would go out of his/her way to be mean to the learner .
. The teacher could also be unintentionally inviting or disinviting. Many teachers
are not aware of the way in which they either motivate or disencourage learners
through their own behaviour (cf. 3.6). The intentionally inviting behaviour has to
be learnt in some Way. Teachers could be trained by using the Four Corner
Press. Here teachers are taught how they can be good to themselves and others
in their personal lives, as well as in their professional lives (cf. 3.7).
Invitational Education does not guarantee a problem-free school. Therefore
teachers are also trained in the skills of handling conflict. This is done by means
of a five point plan, which is called the five C's. The C's stand for concern,
confer, consult, confront and combat. What it entails is that teachers should be
alert for any problems, but first contemplate the seriousness of the issue and
whether it cannot be solved through proper communication before reverting to
"combat" (cf. 3.8.1-3.8.5). Lastly, Invitational Education is a process which
involves not only the place (schools) or the people (teachers and learners), but
also the policies (for example rules) as well as the programmes (curricula). All of
these should be inviting in nature and inducive to learning and teaching. Lastly,
action (procedures) has to be taken to get the process moving towards
Invitational Education (cf. 3.9.1-3.9.5).
Chapter four dealt with the research design and instruments used. A qualitative
research methodology was used and the focus, scope and methods of the
249
research reported. At first the wider project of the HSRC, "Access to learning"
was discussed, as well as the findings reported (cf. 4.7.1). These results were
used as a data-base for this research. Relevant factors, such as factors
influencing effective learning as well as factors creating an inviting learning
climate, were chosen for this study. These were categorised in the following
sections: factors relating to the educator, the learner and the process (cf. 4.8.1-
4.8.3). The results were then reported in detail.
The legal and educational requirements for designing a programme were
examined in Chapter five. The National Qualifications Framework was described
(cf. 5.2.1) and special attention was given to the assignment of levels and the
registration of standards and qualifications (cf. 5.2.2; 5.2.3). Since Outcomes-
Based Education (OBE) is currently the educational model to be implemented in
South African schools, the nature and principles of OBE were focused upon (cf.
5.3.2; 5.3.3), as well as the curriculum design and learning process to be
followed (cf. 5.3.4; 5.3.5). Special attention was given to the role of the teacher
with regard to the new educational model. It was also evident that one of the
most important factors was that the teacher had to create a positive learning
climate (cf. 5.3.6). Lastly, a synthesis of Outcomes-based and Invitational
Education was given. The conclusion drawn from this was that Invitational
Education was an ideal approach to realise the goals of Outcomes-based
education (cf.5.4).
Before the final module on Invitational Education was focused upon in Chapter
six, the entire process of programme design at the University if the Orange Free
State was highlighted. The original programme, of which the module,
,Invitational Education forms a part, was laid out, as well as the units into which it
would be divided (cf. 6.2; 6.3). The module was designed according to the model
of Bloom, which inevitably had to be explained (cf. 6.4). This was followed by the
proposed module, Invitational Education, which would enable teachers to
understand the principles of Invitational Education, as well as ways in which the
250
learners should be treated, and their own behaviour as teachers within the
Invitational approach(cf.6.5).
Hence the findings of this research will be discussed in accordance with the
research questions asked and the aims that were put forward in Chapter 1 (cf.
1.2; 1.3).
7.3 FINDINGS
7.3.1 Findings with regard to the first aim of this thesis: What entails
effective learning?
Effective le.arning is a process conducive to learning: where the learner gains
new knowledge and also reaches his/her full potential, whilst the teacher teaches
in such a manner that it motivates learners to learn (cf. chapter 2). Learning per
se is the change in behaviour that results from activity, observation or training (cf.
2.2). This change cannot occur if a culture of learning and teaching does not
exist. Causes for the collapse of a culture of teaching and learning in South
Africa are factors such as the inadequate infrastucture, lack of discipline, poor
relationships between principal, students and teachers, lack of proper
management and inadequate communication from the Department of Education
(cf. 2.5.1-2.5.5).
Restoring of a culture of teaching and learning is imperative in order for effective
learning to take place. Here, factors relating to the learning environment is
important to facilitate learning, for example a better teacher-pupil ratio than the
present 50:1 in African schools in South Africa (cf. 2.6.1.1). With regard to the
learners, their individual cognitive abilities, learning styles and individual
background must be taken into consideration during the learning process (cf.
2.6.2.1-2.6.2.3) .. Learners will only be able to learn effectively when they are
motivated by a positive teacher who also helps them to build a positive self-
251
concept (cf. 2.6.2.4; 2.6.2.5). In the process of learning, the designing of the
curriculum must be tailored to the learners' needs (cf. 2.6.2.6). The teacher's
expectations of the learner causes the learner to be motivated (or not) in order to
learn effectively (cf. 2.6.2.7).
Lastly, the teacher's teaching style, but above all his/her attitude towards
teaching and the learners, greatly influence the learning process. Teachers
should be aware of the needs of learners, as well occupy themselves with
creating a positive learning climate (cf. 2.6.3.1-2.6.2.4). These factors contribute
to the restoring of a culture of teaching and learning, which is conducive to
effective learning.
7.3.2 Findings with regard to the second aim of this thesis: what are the
fundamentals of lnvltatlonal IEch.ncatioD1l?
Invitational Education is an approach to teaching, intended to create the type of
learning climate in which all people could realise their human potential. It also
aims at identifying and changing forces in schools that could undermine and
destroy this potential. Invitational Education is based upon the assumptions that
all individuals are able, valuable and responsible and should be treated
accordingly. Education is a cooperative activity in which the process is as
important as the product, based on the assumption that all individuals have
untapped potential which could be realised through the right process (cf. 3.3).
Invitational Education is further based upon the perceptual tradition as well as the
self-concept theory. Both theories explain that all individual behaviour is
.determined by past experiences and directed by other people's expectations of
them, as well as the way in which people perceive them. Important to this thesis,
is the premise that self-concept is an important causal agent in academic
achievement (cf. 3.4.1; 3.4.2).
252
Invitational teaching is further based on four assumptions namely;
o the resp.ect that a teacher has for him/herself as well as for the learner'
o the condition that teachers should trust their learners in order for them to gain
self-confidence, which will lead them to find their own best way of learning
and reaching their potential;
o the conviction that Invitational Education cannot take place if optimism is not
present, which means that teachers should believe in what they are doing.
Only then will learners feel "invited" to study; and
o the idea that learners will show some interest in learning activities when
teachers clearly communicate their belief in the learners' success in learning,
and also provide classroom structure and responsibility (cf. 3.5.1-3.5.4).
Teachers, -in order to create an inviting atmosphere for learning, should
intentionally project inviting behaviour. This implies that they would have to be
more responsive to their learners and therefore more readily accepted by the
learners (cf. 3.6.4). In order to show intentionally inviting behaviour, teachers
must be taught to become personally inviting with themselves and others, as well
/. as professionally inviting with themselves and others. By doing so, they will
r ensure that they will not "burn out" or become discouraged in their calling (cf.
3.7.1-3.7.4 ).
Discipline however still forms part of Invitational Education. The procedures for
installing discipline in a school are divided into five steps. Firstly, one should be
concerned whether something is wrong, then confer, which means to have an
informal conversation with the learner in question. If necessary, formal
discussions could follow and only then should the problem be confronted. Only
if the problem is not solved after these steps, combat comes into action. The aim
is to combat the situation, not the person (cf. 3.8.1-3.8.5).
The last of the principles of Invitational Education refers to the process through
which it comes into action. The people involved should be part of the process by
253
seeing to it that the policies and programmes also underwrite the principles of
creating an inviting place for learning, called school (cf. 3.9.1-3.9.5).
7.3.3 Findings with regard to the third aim of this thesis: what are the
criteria for a training programme for teachers in the context of the
new South Africa, according to the National QualificatioD1ls
Framework?
The answer to this question can be found in two categories, namely the legal
requirements and the educational requirements.
7.3.3. 1 Legal requirements
The South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA) provided for a National
Qualifications Framework (NQF). The aim of the NQF is to enable all individuals
who enter into learning to achieve nationally recognised and internationally
comparable qualifications (cf. 5.2). There are eight levels of training which are
divided into three bands, namely, general education and training, further
education and training and higher education and training. All units (which form
part of a programme) should adhere to the standards prescribed by the NQF for
the chosen level in terms of the depth of knowledge, skills and values. Each unit
has to represent a chosen sub-field, from one of the twelve fields prescribed by
the NQF (cf. 5.2.1).
Each unit has to consist of critical and elective outcomes (cf. 5.2.3), which should
meet the requirements of the overall outcomes as defined by the NQF. This
would ensure that there will be mobility in terms of moving from one institution to
another for studying purposes, or that an individual would be able to exit at a
particular level, and move on to another level at a later stage. The specific
requirements for the standards and qualifications are set out in SAQA regulations
(cf. 5.2.3-5.2.7).
254
7.3.3.2 Educational requirements
The proposed model for education by the Department of Education, is the
Outcomes-based approach. This is a learner-centered approach where the
process is determined by learning outcomes. These learning outcomes are
determined by the needs of both learners and employers (cf. 5.3.1), and should
be in line with the requirements set by the NQF (cf. 7.3.3.1).
A programme that is outcomes-based, should adhere to the following principles
(cf. 5.3.3):
o It should instill values such as independence and responsibility.
o It should focus upon the needs of the learners.
e Current and future needs of the individual and society should be taken into
consideration when designing the curriculum.
o The curriculum should integrate subjects into broad fields.
o The programme should be non-discriminatory.
o Assessment should take place by judging what the learner knows, and not
against what other learners know.
7.3.4 Findings with regard to the final aim of this thesis: what would a
programme look like which is directed at the tralnlnq of teachers in
the necessary skills to create a culture of learning and to facilitate
effective learning?
The programme which is designed in this thesis, is composed of factors relating
to effective teaching in an invitational manner, as determined through empirical
research as well as a literature study. It will be reported in the following two
sections:
255
7.3.4.1 Factors determined through empirical research relating to effective
learning
The factors determining effective learning can be divided into three categories,
namely those factors relating to the teacher, the learner and the learning
process.
o Factors relating to the teacher include the teacher's attitude, which
influences the learner's attitude directly. If the teacher is positive towards the
school, the teaching process and the learner, the learner will respond more
readily to what the teacher expects of him/her. Learners respond more
positively towards their work if teachers respect them as individuals. If
teachers are motivated to teach, they are more friendly and happy, which
makes them more "askabie" to the learners. Lastly, if the teachers are
masters of their subjects, they feel more confident, which they project onto
the learners. Self-confidence builds a better self-image, which again
enhances academic achievement (cf. 4.8; 4.8.1).
o Factors relating to the learner include the extent to which the learner feels
accepted and supported by the teacher. A "simple" thing such as knowing
learners' names and interests, make them feel special and unique and thus
facilitates learning. If learners are involved in the learning process, they
remain interested. Lastly, it is imperative to accommodate individual
abilities in the classroom. When too much is expected of a learner, helshe
gets disheartened and loses interest. The opposite is also true. If a teacher
believes in the potential of the learners it motivates them not to disappoint the
teacher (cf. 4.8; 4.8.2).
o Factors relating to the process include the building of the learner's self-
concept by making use of positive reinforcement. This kind of behaviour
invites the learner to try again when he/she has made a mistake. Together
256
with a informal teaching style where humour is used often, the atmosphere
becomes motivating and relaxing. Seldom would it therefore be necessary for
the teacher to shout at the class. Parental involvement in the teaching and
learning process lends itself to a situation where learners feel that people
really care about their development. Lastly, the physical environment (the
school) also influences the learners' motivation to learn (cf. 4.8; 4.8.3).
7.3.4.2 Factors determined through the literature study regarding aspects
that influence learning, as well as principles in Invitational
Education that enhances the learning process.
The factors as determined by the literature study, are divided into three
categories:
o Perceptions which form the grounding principles of Invitational Education. It
is important to make the learners feel able, valuable and responsible. It is
also important for the teacher to perceive him/herself positively and
education affirmatively (cf. 3.3; 3.4).
o Teachers' behaviour has to project that they trust and respect themselves
and the learners. They should project optimism and see teaching as their
"calling". Teachers should "invite" learners intentionally to participate in the
learning process, but should also be personally and professionally inviting to
themselves. Conflict should always be handled in a constructive manner (cf.
3.5-3.8).
o The environment in which teaching takes place influences the learning
process. learners should feel important, due to the fact that their needs are
regarded as important in the process and classes are inviting to learning.
Teachers should be friendly, sympathetic, warm and open to their learners'
needs. They should accommodate different learners by planning their
257
lessons in creative ways. In the learning process learners should be
involved right from the start. Criteria according to which curriculum is
designed should be tailored to their needs, stretching right to where they are
actively involved in problem-solving and peer-tutoring (cf. 2.6.2-2.6.4).
All the factors mentioned in 7.3.4:1-7.3.4.2 were incorporated in the programme
designed to train teachers to facilitate effective learning through lnvitational
education.
7.4 RECOMMENDATIONS
A thorough examination of factors influencing effective learning through both
empirical research and the literature study, point towards the following
recommendations:
o Learners' responsibility
Learners should become aware of a learning culture. They should begin to
accept responsibility for their own actions. Particularly in the secondary
schools, learners should be made aware that unrealistic Claims are not
educationally accountable. They should also be made aware of the fact that
they are still participants and not the rulers in the learning situation.
o Teachers' accountability
Teachers should know that they are responsible for the transfer of knowledge
in the most effective way. They should always see to it that they are well
equipped to effectively teach by attending information sessions, workshops,
seminars and also through the improvement of their own qualifications by
further study. In further education they should focus upon
258
o knowledge with reference to the child's world of experience and
development;
o knowledge aimed at subject content;
o brushing up and practicing of didactic methods of transfer;
o knowledge in respect of ways in which learning takes place, especially
regarding the multicultural field. In this regard teachers must be given
training in respect of the various learning strategies that learners can
follow, as well as the various learning styles of different cultures; and
o potential development of the teacher him/herself. In this instance the
person's development must be considered which, can lead to personality
~rowth. One would have to deal with obtaining characteristics that would
assist the teacher towards developing into an approachable educator.
o Discipline
It appeared that at schools and classes where good discipline exists, the
least problems occurred. Discipline in this context includes learners and
teachers, but teachers should be trained to execute discipline in a
constructive manner.
o Principal's leadership
Good effective leadership and the consequent application of basic
management functions on the side of the principal and management body,
has to form the foundation on which a successful school functions. This
could be nurtured through effective communication, for example, newsletters
and parental involvement in all aspects of the teaching process.
259
o Support systems from authorities
When the provincial education department functions effectively and an
efficient basis is provided to the schools and teachers, effective education
can be exercised. This will lead to schools and teachers giving their attention
to the creation of a learning culture, which will be to the advantage of all the
role-players.
'T.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
To conclude: In order to create the conducive environment within which effective
teaching and learning could take place, a wide variety of factors have to be taken
into consideration. All these factors however lead to the conclusion that effective
learning is dependent UJlpOD1l effective teaching. Teachers in South Africa
should be nurtured and trained in order to do the most important job effectively,
namely, guiding the youth of the country to become worthy citizens with sufficient
self-confidence to adhere to the needs of society. Only then would society reap
the benefits of a good education.
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ADDENDUM A
ACCESS TO lEARN~NG: THEORET~CAl BACKGROUND
1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
1.1 LEARNING
It has often been stated that education reforms succeed or fail at classroom level. This is the
place where learning and teaching take place. Thus resource allocation, school leadership,
climate of the school, and institutions not having the ability to change, are factors capable of
contributing either positively or negatively to learning. In the same breath, class size,
student-teacher ratio, and the curriculum development process, are some of the realities likely
to demand more from schools.
It is against this background that this research focused on learning and the different fragments
of the learning context and tried to get a handle on what this learning is all about. What
within and environment would enable learning to take place, what conditions are necessary
for such learning to take place, what processes are necessary to enhance such learning, and
what outcomes might ensure that learning has taken place. Thus central to these questions is
how to ensure that the enabling conditions for successful learning environments, which
enhance quality access, become the norm.
The project defined learning as the acquisition of knowledge. Such knowledge entails
information, skills, and appropriate values and attitudes. The information, values and
attitudes, are shaped and perceived by what society describes as appropriate.
It would provide an impoverished definition to talk about learning and the learner without
taking into account other participants in the learning process. These participants might
include a teacher anJor parent, who can facilitate learning through mediation and teaching.
This nonetheless does not mean' that learning cannot take place without teaching and
mediation. Formal teaching, as the practice of organising learning systematically, is an
invaluable resource in learning and can generate successful learning.
In view of the above definition of learning, the need to explore the enabling conditions for a
successful learning environment arose both in terms of broader school-based aspects, and
classroom dynamics.
1.2 SCHOOlL EFFECTIVENESS AND SCHOOlL IMPROVEMENT
One of the most recent thrusts in school reform is the growing call for effective schools. The
research on effective schools grew as a response to the research findings of Coleman et al.
(1966), Jeneks et al. (1972) and others, which alleged that schools made little difference to
student achievement because of the pervasive influence of family background characteristics
(Holmes, 1989). Subsequent research seeking to refute this conclusion, identified schools
which scored particularly high or low in relation to their socio-economic status. The schools
that scored high became known as effective schools (Reynolds, et al., 1994). Proponents of
effective schools identify exemplary schools that they believe are effective based on criteria
they establish, and describe the characteristics of these schools that make them effective.
Edrnonds (1981) located effective schools in the most economically-deprived communities in
the USA. He defined effective schools as those which are "sufficiently powerful to raise
otherwise mediocre pupils to levels of instructional effectiveness they might not ordinarily
have thought they could aspire to". This author classified those schools as effective if they
demonstrated the ability to deliver basic school skills to all students, regardless of race or
socio-economic status for at least three consecutive years. The five characteristics of
effective schools identified by Edrnonds are:
* Style of leadership.
* Instructional emphasis.
* Climate.
* Implied expectations derived from teacher.
* Presence and use of and response to standard instruments for increasing pupil
progress.
Bossert et al (1982) identified essentially the same characteristics of effective schools as did
Edmonds. Bosset listed the following:
* School climate conducive to learning, free of disciplinary problems and vandalism.
* A school-wide emphasis on basic skills instructions.
* Expectations among teachers that all students can achieve.
* Clear instructional objectives for monitoring and assessing students' performance.
One of the key difference between effective and ineffective schools is the instructional
climate discussed in the literature (Rutter et al., 1979). Effective schools are seen as having
environment that foster academic success on the part of student. This is one the major focus
for this proj eet.
. Proponents of effective schools have developed a list of positive characteristics that make
schools "effective". The approach they adopted has been to establish certain effective
criteria, to identify schools that meet these criteria, and then observe the processes within the
schools to demonstrate the operation of an effective school in a qualitative manner.
A large international body of research has examined the question of what makes a school
effective. In most studies, the definition of an effective school is on the lines given by Peter
Mortimore: "a school in which students progress further than might be expected from a
consideration of intake" (1988, p.210). Mortimore (1988) did find that schools do make a
difference in promoting students' learning and development. the most promising models of
school effectiveness are the ones that consider the actual learning process of individual
learners and then to consider surrounding conditions which facilitate this process. The
effective schools research has been concerned with identifying. types of schools and
conditions of schooling which are successful at attaining desired goals, often stated as desired
student outcomes (Smith, et al. 1997, p.2). From this work, a core of findings consistently
emerges relating to school organisation and classroom practices which have a positive impact
on pupils progress, and the findings are confirmed by teachers own perceptions of effective
management practice.
The school improvement literature on the other hand has been concerned with educational
change - the process of improving schools (Smith et al., 1997). The findings of school
effectiveness research do not provide an instant recipe to transform schools. They provide a
"vision of a more desirable place for schools to be but little insight as to how best to make the
journey to that place. This is the central objective of "school improvement" (Smith et al.,
1997, p.2). School improvement is essentially about strategies and underlying processes of
change.
Criticisms have been levelled at the school effectiveness literature. For example, Purkey and
Smith (1983) faulted the effective schools literature on the following grounds: (1) research
on effective schools utilised small and narrow samples that severely limited their
generalizability; (2) only one study was longitudinal, preventing conclusions being drawn
concerning the staying power of effective schools over time; (3) there is a tendency for
studies in effective schools to compare exceptionally bad schools (negative outliers) with
exceptionally good schools (positive outliers); this approach risks missing those
characteristics that differentiate the majority of average schools from both extremes. They
suggested that research into educational innovation should look more at school organisation
and school culture, as did the study by Sarason (1971). The work of O'Toole (1981) on
workplace culture is seen as having provided a useful framework for examining the
effectiveness of schools. Selby (1983) noted that the "ethos" of a school or any learning
environment has a significant influence on the quality and quantity of learning that takes
place in that school or learning environment.
Recent thinking on educational reform views the school as the centre of any efforts that will
make any real difference in teaching and learning. This means that schools must have a
significant say in reform efforts.
The link between disadvantage and educational performance has so far proved too difficult
for policy-makers at a national level to break. However, many individual schools in
disadvantaged areas have been able to do so, through having vision, providing a challenge ot
all pupils whatever their perceived capabilities, and by pursuing particular policies and
practices. An investigation in the United Kingdom by the National Commission on
Education (1996) which looked at schools in disadvantaged areas, focusing on features,
problems, strategies and initiatives of 11 schools that succeeded inspite of their
circumstances, elucidates mechanisms for spreading good practice used in the study. Of
importance to this study is how disadvantaged schools also produced good results inspite of
few resources. Their study indicates that disadvantaged schools can also work hard to
produce good quality education. The types of schools identified in this project include:
mixed and girls' schools, Asian, ethnically mixed, Roman Catholic, and commurtity schools.
Despite all of these differences, what all the schools have in common is proven experience of
overcoming difficult circumstances. All aspects of school policy that were examined
included development planning, teaching methods, classroom organisation and the extent and
nature of external support. This project also analysed the process of improvement in the
school, who was involved in setting objectives, what initiatives were taken and what is
needed to maintain and improve present achievements.
In the USA compensatory education strategies were based on specific assumptions regarding
the causes of chronic under-achievement among minority children. The basic thrust of
compensatory education was identification of deficiencies in basic skills such as reading and
writing and the provision of remedial assistance of slower children. Many educators and
psychologists felt that compensatory education was not responsive to the demand for
successful and meaningful education of large numbers of school children.
In South Africa, similar studies have begun to emerge. A study headed by Mark Potterton
and Pam Christie (1997) identified and studied schools that were able to survive where other
schools nearby showed signs of crisis and failure. One of the main findings of this study is
the point that most of the schools studied viewed teaching and learning as their primary
purpose and the major focus of their attention. Various other similar studies are also taking
place in South Africa.
The success of a school hinges on various interrelated factors, some of which include the
following:
* Institutional and functional arrangements
As far as the institutional arrangements are concerned one of the critical areas is the school's
timetable. A successful learning environment would ideally have a timetable in place and
functioning. The extend to which the timetable enhances the teaching and learning of the
various subjects without any major clashes, the extent to which teachers have been involved
in designing it, and how specific subjects have been allocated certain slots in the timetable
tell us something about the school. In the same breath, the degrees of innovation evident in
the timetable are helpful in assuming how the school copes or stands a better chance of
coping with educational changes.
The extent to which both pupils and teachers attent their classes is equally important. An
understanding of attendance in a row (consecutive attendance) provides a picture of the
extent to which the general culture of learning and teaching is prevalent in a school. In the
same breath, punctuality of both teachers and pupils and their presence during official school
hours can be an important indicator. Equally, the mere presence of both teachers and pupils
on time at school is no guarantee for actual teaching and learning. Thus the aspect of time-
on-task comes to mind in this regard, which looks more at the time that teachers actually
spend teaching in their respective classrooms and subjects. These dimensions become even
crucial when one looks at what the South African literature says on the culture of learning
and teaching in schools. Studies such as those by Maja (1993 and 1995) and Jansen (1995)
point to the finding that both teachers and pupils tend to arrive at school hours after the
school day officially commences, and leave long before the school day ends. "Teachers,
even though they may be physically present, are seldom in the classroom, or, when they are
in their rooms, they are seldom found teaching" (Jansen, 1995).
The kinds of extra-curricular activities taking place and how they are planned can enhance or
hinder the learning environment. Thus an understanding of the extent to which these
activities tamper with normal and scheduled lessons and the extent to which this happens is
also critical.
The second aspect to highlight looks at the functional arrangements. Teacher-pupil ratio and
the impact, if any, it has on achievement is the debate that has provided no clear-cut
dichotomy. Much as the literature is conflicting in this regard, it can nonetheless be assumed
that a school with around thirty pupils per class and per teacher stands a better chance of
succeeding than a school with hundred pupils per class and teacher. On the other hand, it
does not mean that a school with hundred pupils per class is destined to failure. The Japanese
experience is a typical example in this regard as " ... Japanese do not regard large classes as an
issue for quality instruction; ... their class sizes are partially representative of their corporatist
and group culture" (Sedibe, NBI 1997). Various other environmental aspects and their inter-
relatedness can put a school with large class size above the ones with lesser pupils. Such a
school would thus constitute, in view of its circumstances, a successful learning invironment.
Teacher qualifications and the placement of teachers (subject allocation) are equally
important factors in this regard. The extent to which teachers teach subjects that they are
well qualified for can be an indication, though not automatic, of how well they master their
lessons.
The principals' management style and their leadership at schools can also be a critical factor
when looking at the enabling conditions for successful learning environments. This is one
area which the literature has consistently identified as one of the most crucial factors
determining the success or failure of a school. Thus the extent to which the principal of the
school is committed, the extent to which s\he involves various stakeholders in the running of
the school, how s\he supports and encourages the teaching staff and pupils, and his/her level
of education are just some of the aspects to be looked at in this regard.
* Teacher support and! development
The availability of both Pre-set and In-set initiatives in the vicinity of the schools'
environment can have an effect on learning. As far as in-service teacher training is
concerned, it would be informative to look at the provision of in-service training. The main
providers in this regard are non-government organisations, government, and professional
associations such as subject associations and teacher unions. How long such training has or
is taking place and how well or badly it is being administered are some of the critical factors.
In-set initiatives differ from whole school initiatives to the subject specific ones. The length
and depth of such initiatives are equally diverse, so is the quality of the training being
offered. These varieties, which extend from one day workshops to ongoing training and
support, need to be taken into account when one assesses the extent to which In-set initiatives
enhance learning. Pre-service institutions are also important. The availability of reputable
and/or recognised colleges and universities can impact on teacher qualifications. This has a
spin-off effect on the learning environment since the more teachers have the basic
qualifications, the likely such teachers will master their subject matter, and the more possible
it is for them to be exposed to various theories of teaching and learning.
Teachers' personal development separate from organised training can also have an effect on
the learning environment. The extent to which teachers read on their own, both for the
subjects that they teach and education and societal issues in general, can impact on their
teaching and pupils' learning. Teachers who are generally well read and who consult
extensively on their subject specific matters tand a better chance of mastering their subjects,
understanding knowledge production more broadly, and inculcating a variety of methods in
their teaching. Equally important is a learning environment which incorporates peer \ teacher
support, whether it be per school or region. Teachers who share their problems and expertise
are likely to position themselves advantageously within the broader education realm.
* Learners' background
Pupils come from different backgrounds when coming to school, which can vary from the
most disadvantaged to the most advantaged. This is likely to impact on their ability and the
extent to which they can take full advantage of responsibility in the learning process.
However some demographic characteristics tend to place certain students more at risk for
school failure. For example, in the United States it was found that differences in the social
background of the students accounted for 82% of the differences in student achievement
(Reimers, 1992).
Based on the above assumptions the study identifies the parents' educational background,
their occupation and expectations as critical in determining the pupils' learning opportunities.
Pupils from well educated families, whose parents occupy middle to upper level positions,
have role models to set their goals against. Equally, such parents tend to expect good
performance from their children and usually provide the necessary support from home.
Though on the other hand poorly educated parents tend to have the same aspirations from
their children, these are usually not reinforced by support mechanisms abundant in well to do
families. Thus pupils' family responsibilities from the two homes will differ, and so will the
extent to which such responsibilities provide a conducive learning environment. By the same
token, the living conditions for the well to do differ from those of the poor. Thus the overall
socio-economic status of the child has an impact on the extent to which s\he exercises the
agency part in the learning process. This is likely to also impact on the age at which the child.
qualifies for a particular standard.
* Physical facilities and materials
When debating the enabling conditions for a successful learning environment, one of the key
and easily identifiable indicators in this regard is the schools' physical facilites and materials.
Thus it was in this field that the present government launched the school refurbishment
programme as one of its first programmes under the RDP funded culture of learning
campaign. Thus for purpose of this study, the school building (structure), availability of the
library, science laboratory, hall, toilets and other physical resources examined in the recently
published School Register of Needs, will be looked at in view of the over all school
performance. Equally important are materials such as desks and chalkboards, and learning
resources such as textbooks and exercise books. In looking at these factors, based on the
study's proactive nature (see aims and objectives), the availability or lack of these key
resources will be understood in relation to the schools' strategies to cope within the
limitations. Thus in this manner, even schools which are the most disadvantaged but where
learning is taking place will be visited. On the other hand, as part of the criteria for an
, enabling environment, an identification of some minimum standard to enhance learning and
teaching will be an added dimension.
The other important aspect which has also been looked at in the School Register of Needs is
transport. The extent to which pupils come to school can be influenced by the distance they
have to travel and the availability of transport, rather than simply a lack of will. Thus when
looking at aspects such as punctuality and class attendance, these need to be placed within the
context of distance and availability of transport in some instances. This has largely been
more relevant for the rural and farm schools, though in the last five years it began to also
affect pupils from the townships who have enrolled with the ex-Model C schools.
* Teachers' attitudes
Quality education as measured by pupil academic achievement, is partly a function of teacher
quality. Teacher quality in turn is a function of the teacher's mastery of subject matter,
knowledge and use of appropriate teaching skills, the acquisition of professional attitudes
(Tatto et al, 1992) as well as his/her knowledge/understanding of the learner. The teachers'
attitudes towards learners, parents, academics, bureaucrats, policy and 'knowledge affects
their morale, and this in turn has an impact on teaching and learning. The literature on the
culture of learning and education quality indicates that teachers tend to blame others for the
lack of quality education (Maja, 1995). The three most important barriers to teaching and
learning that teachers tend to identify are parents, learners, and bureaucrats. Ironically, these
are the most important stakeholders in education both in South Africa and internationally. It
is against this background that it becomes important for purposes of this study to understand
the extent to which teachers' attitudes in this regard affects the learning environment. In the
same breath, teachers' attitudes towards knowledge and policy will impact on the extent to
which they interact with these aspects and thus ultimately imporve their teaching.
* Support schools receive from institutional structures and communities
Schools do not function in a vacuum. They are guided by the education departments in
various ways whilst on the other hand they are located within communities for whom they are
meant. It is therefor inevitable that at various points they will have to interact with these
structures. The extent to which the department interacts with the school, that is, the kind of
interaction, how often and how long such interaction takes place if any, are some of the
important facets in this regard.
Equally important is the extent to which the community within which the school finds itself
involved in the affairs of the school, both in the negative and positive sense. Ownership of
the school cuts across these features and largely informs the involvement of both the
community and government. This aspect is critical as pointed out that, "A sense of
ownership needs to be inculcated in local communities so that at the end of the day
communities regard school buildings as their own properties, and therefore develop rather
than destroy them" (Maja, 1995). It is in this spirit that the South African Schools Act puts
emphasis and clarifies in detail the role that a governing body plays in 'the governance of a '
school. Thus as part of the Presidential Educational Initiative, school governance (election
and training of governing bodies), received priority since the beginning of 1997. Thus for
purposes of this project, the extent to which these structures are beginning to make a
difference, if any, will be informative.
* Relevant curriculum
The systematic organisation of knowledge, which in defining learning at the beginning of this
section was identified as one critical contribution by teachers on learning, is normally
encapsulated in the curriculum. Not only is the content of the curriculum that IS taught
important, but also the way (hidden curriculum) in which it is taught, essential in achieving
the aim of education. The NEPI report (1993: 109) stresses the fact that curriculum models
are more than just a form of systematised knowledge: "Curriculum models cannot simply be
viewed in technical terms, but need to be understood within their political and social
contests". the current curricula in South African schools may still discriminate against
students, girls and children from rural areas. The "hidden curriculum" as a way of expressing
values can invluence how children will understand and cherish the values underpinning the
basic principlesofnation building. Bergh and Berkhout (1994) notes how the current debates
regarding educational policy and change are ignoring the existence of the "hidden
curriculum". For example, the present curriculum leaves girls worse off in comparison to
boys (RDP, 1994). The curriculum that prevails in our school system still relegates certain
subjects like Domestic Science to girls. Subjects like mathematics and sciences are seen as
belonging to the male domain. The curriculum also does not prepare students, especially
those from the rural settings for an information and technology society.
Thus the extent to which teachers decide on what and how to teach has an impact on learning.
This usually influences the way in whey the assess their pupils. and whether they emphasise
mental manual or not. The medium of instruction within the curriculum also affects the
extent to which both teachers and pupils are at ease with the language, which has an effect on
the language used in the classroom - whether it be simple English or some form of
codeswitching.
Almost linked to issue of the timetable is assessment. The school's assessment arrangements
can give an indication of how successful the learning environment is. How often the exams
are written, what form such exams take, can be some of the determining factors. This
however does not mean that a school with many scheduled exams constitutes a successful
learning environment. The question is whether such exams are meaningful to the extent thay
they enhance learning, and are well planned within the overall timetable of the school.
* Stability and change
What becomes evident as one goes through all these facets regarding an enabling
environment for learning, is the fact that built into them is the aspect of change in our society
and education in particular, and the extent to which schools are coping with the newly found
expectations. Education reform demands add to the already difficult nature of teaching by
requiring that academic tasks be rendered more true to discipline; That they require more
reasoning and understanding from students; that they connect subject matter to other aspects
of life, and that they incorporate more and more diverse students (Kennedy, 1992). These
new demands are being placed on schools to improve and derive more meaning and quality
from their teaching and learning, whilst on the other hand these demands are not being
equalled by massive resources to enhance their achievement. In view of various other
priorities that the new government is facing, it is unlikely in the short to medium, or even
long term, that resources will be pumped into education en-mass. Thus the extent to which
schools proactively tackle issues of race, culture, religion, work ethic and transitional
settlements, to mention some, will determine the extent to which learning environment is
enhanced.
1.3 CLASSlROOM DYNAMICS
How does change in teaching practice occur? Teachers' practice have been tempered by
experiences in the demaning environment of the classroom. Teachers use what has worked in
the complex culture of the classroom (Bolster, 1983; Fullan, 1985) and it takes time for these
practices to change. Change does not take place immediately after the introduction of an
innovation. Significant changes will generally be accompanied by anxiety and uncertainty.
Support, technical and personal, must be provided for teachers during the change process.
Thepressure exerted through interaction with peers and technical and administrative leaders
impacts on the success of an innovation (Full an, 1985).
Teachers' beliefs and attitudes must evolve if an innovation is to have a lasting effect. This
evolution in teachers' beliefs and attitudes will come only after teachers recognise the effect
on student behaviours. When the teacher sees students' achievement, interest in class work,
and confidence improve, change in teachers' beliefs and attitudes is likely to occur (Fullan,
1985).
Many factors impact on the success of a reform being integrated into a teacher's classroom
practices. First, the teacher must be willing to undertake the implementation of a reform and
be involved in the planning of the training (Full an, 1985). Second, the teacher must be able
to recognise the alternatives that are available throughout the change process and decide
which should be integrated into classroom practice. Third, the teacher must have a basic
understanding of the principles behind the change and value the innovation enough to put
forth the additional effort that may be required for implementation.
During the 1970s, numerous research studies examined the "direct instruction" approach to
teaching. This strategy attempts to identify the specific teacher behaviours that produce
student learning. Leinhardt, Zigmond, and Colley (1981) examined the behaviours and
characteristics of teachers that lead to high rates of engagement in reading activities by
students. Their research question was simply: What do teachers do that enables students to
do things that help them learn?
These authors found that the teacher behaviours that contributed markedly to student
attention and engagement were teacher instruction, reinforcement, and "cognitive press".
According to these authors, "Instructional behaviours included model presentations,
explanations, feedback, cueing and monitoring". Consistent with the rest of the study,
teaching was measured by how much time teachers spent performing these instructional
activities. A second important teacher behaviour was reinforcement of student learning. This
was measured by counting the number of reinforcements, that is, praises, acknowledgements,
etc. received by each child daily.
The measure of "cognitive press" assessed how fully the teacher was supporting and
encouraging student orientation to academic material. Time on task has proven to be as
simple and pragmatic way to raise academic achievement, improve the instructional
leadership of principals, and provide teachers with techniques for more effective instruction.
The pupils' learning styles and the teachers' teaching strategies are almost inseparable. This
is equally an area in which it will be difficult to assess without concentrating more on how
meaningful a particular teaching and learning style is practised and the extent to which it
seems to enhance learning. The literature points us largely in two separate directions. One
approach con be loosely termed the 'progressive' approach, and the other the 'traditional
approach'. In the progressive approach, which largely forms part of the new curriculum in
this country, the learner is the focal point. Thus one finds talk of learner-centredness, group
work, pair work, communicative language teaching, and task oriented teaching to mention
but a few. In the traditional approach, which has dominated South African Education for
many years, one finds talk of teacher-centredness, drilling, changing, chorusing, and
memorising. This study does not intend to prejudge any of the two approaches. Rather the
focus will be on how or which aspects of these approaches enhance learning.
The teachers' understanding of what knowledge is and their treatment of such knowledge is
also important. In the same light, their knowledge of the learners and how they expect them
to interact with knowledge, which will largely be informed by the two approaches alluded to
above, will be essential. The teachers' knowledge of the act of teaching and specifically, the
role that teaching plays in the acquisition of knowledge can enhance or hinder learning. Thus
a teachers' concern with his/her own teaching above the learning of the pupils is unlikely to
be an enabling environment.
Hollins (1987) has proposed that the following conditions should be present in schools to
help black students achieve.
* The process and content of the learning should be related in a meaningful way and
should be familiar to the learner.
* The content should be communicated in a way that is acceptable and comprehensible
to the learner.
* The learner should be provided adequate time to access, process, and apply the
content.
* An affective environment ought to be such that the learner feels comfortable and
support so that she/he will take the risks necessary for learning.
Cognitive research has identified other key instructional variables. Shade (1986) states that
teachers need to:
* Communicate the objectives of the lesson. Students need to be told what they will
learn, how they will learn it, the behaviour needed for mastery, and how new learning
is related to prior learning.
* Establish routines and structures in the classroom.
* Use a variety of approaches: e.g., discussion, inquiry, concept development, peer
tutoring.
* Make presentations more oriented toward active involvement.
* Include the culture of the students as much as possible my incorporating pupils'
interest, experience, and language.
* Make the material relevant to the learner. When new learning is linked to what the
student already knows, success is more likely.
* Plan activities so students have a high rate of success. Students develop a better self-
concept when their existing abilites are emphasised rather than their inadequacies.
Teachers should estimate where the student is and build on that base.
Thus in the same manner that school-based dynamics represent a complex set, classroom
dynamics on the other hand have their own set of complex dynamics. Much as both can
impact on each other, they are nonetheless not interdependent.
ADDENDUM B
~NTERVIEW=OBSERVAT~ON SCHEDULE
SCHOOL NAME:
GRADE:
SUBJECT:
NUMBER OF PUPilS:
PROVINCE - AREA:
DATE:
2
TH~NGS TO OBSERVIE
Section 1.1 Describe the structural arrangements in the classroom - are the desks
placed in rows or are they grouped, or paired. Are the tables round or h~.ed?
Section 1.2 How are the students grouped or paired ( e.g. in terms of ability or
any other criteria used?)
3
Section 2.1 Teaching methods \ techniques:
4
• 0 0 0
8
Section 2.2 Teachers' knowledge - the extent to which his/her subject mastery is
adequate, inadequate or excellent? The extent to which the teacher is informed
broadly about education and general societal issues, has access to knowledge,
ideas, information and resources?
---------------~----------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Section 2.3 Teacher's attitudes - does the teacher seem to be happy with his\her
profession?Is s\he happy with his\her subject\s?
El g El
9
Section 2.4 Lesson Preparation;
Does the teacher prepare for lessons? How does the teacher prepare for the
lessons? Does the teacher demonstrate during the lesson that he/she has organized
the information properly?
-------------------------------------------------~-------------------------------------------------------------------
Section 3.1 What types of exercises/task(s) are students expected to complete in
their exercise books\workbooks (e.g. are they textbook based?, do they demand
memorization, instill creativity, encourage original thinking and / or pupil
involvement in conceptualizing the tasks?
Section 3.2 Learning Strategies ( i.e. how do pupils learn?) for example;
Are the pupils listening to the teacher and observing her/his demonstrations?
Do the pupils read (How? Do they volunteer? Are they enthusiastic?)
10
Do the pupils summarize what the teacher says during the lesson?
Do the pupils re-write everything that the teacher writes on the board?
Do they memorize lists of facts, dates, and names?
Do the pupils sit back and listen to the teacher throughout the lesson?
Do the pupils have freedom of movement? (i.e. can they move around and consult
other students?
11
Do the pupils actively participate in the lessons (i.e do they ask questions and
participate in solving problems and answering questions)?
Do the pupils read or consult a variety of books?
Are the pupils encouraged to solve problems individually with the help of the entire
class?
Are the pupils encouraged to develop critical thinking abilities?
• lil &I
12
Section 3.3 Pupils ability to apply knowledge i.e. the extent to which pupils can
relate information to everyday life.
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Section 3.4 Learning outcomes (for example)
to what extent do they acquire information?
to what extent do they comprehend?
to what extent do they reason?
to what extent do they analyse?
to what extent do they discuss issues?
to what extent do they interpret information?
to what extent do they synthesize
&I IJ IJ
13
Section 4.1 Teacher / Pupil interaction in the classroom;
Formal vs informal / disciplined/ Is there rigid/firm/strict control? Is discipline
consistently practised in the classroom? exciting / motivational and encouraging.
Are pupils rewarded for good behaviour?
Methods of discipline (i.e. negative reinforcement ): corporal punishment, and/or
other types of ( negative discipline) punishment e.g. detention used. Are any other
'methods of discipline used e.g. constructive methods?
000
14
Section 4.2 Teachers' and Pupils' language use:
English oniy or a Vernacular language (or more thatn one) or Afrikaans? Do they
mix languages\ does code-switching occur ( indicate whether it is planned or
random and the extent to which it seems to enhance or inhibit an understanding of
concepts)
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15
INTERVIIEW SCHEDULE
The o01l~elNoew schedule should 01l0~ foe understood as separate from
the observation schedule. Most of the areas ldentlfied OIT1l the
observatlon schedule mnght warrant follow-up discusslons with the
'teachers. Such issues must be raised as part of the inteNoew, 1b1Ul~
clearly indicated as such D.e. ontel1'view.
1. Does pupil participation or lack of it lead to increased learning?
What do you think should be the pupil's role in the classroom in order to enhance
learning?
2. How do you think a teacher can ensure that meaningful learning takes
place?
3. What do you perceive to be your role when teaching?
16
4. What do you think are effective teaching styles in your classroom (i.e. what
methods or strategies for learning do you use in your classroom which enable
pupils to learn) ?
5. Explain how your teaching strategies highlight each child's mastery of skills
and understanding of content.
l
6. Every pupil has certain strengths or talents. How can these be used to
promote learning for his/her group or the whole class ?
7. Does informing parents ( about their children's performance and behaviour
at school ) have any effect on. learning and teaching in your classroom ?
17
8. What do you perceive to be the advantage of the in-service training that you
have so far been exposed to ?
9. What effect does your assessment practise have on learning?
10. What experience or role have you played in the design of your current
school curriculum - any room for innovation?
11. Do you know anything about the Curriculum 2005 initiative?
'2. Indicate specifically how you think Curriculum 2005 will impact on your
teaching?
18
13. What do you perceive to be the effect of class size on learning and teaching
in your class ?
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14. Any other comments ?
o El 0
HUMAN SCIENCES RESEARCH
COUNCIL
Access to Learning Project
August - September 1997
SCHOOLS' QUlESrIONNA~RE FOR COMPLETION BY THE IPR~NCIPAl
AND HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS
Please CIRCLE the correct answer, e.g. I YeslC 1) II No I 2
School timetable:
1. Does the school have a standard timetable? I Yes 11 II No I 2
2. Who designed the timetable?
Principal & HoDs Principals/HoDslTeachers
3. What process was followed in designing the timetable?
4. To what extent is the timetable being adhered to?
I Always Often Sometimes Never
5. What are the reasons for subject distribution per number of periods?
6. Are the any subjects clashes in the timetable? I Yes I 1 II No I 2
7. To what extent does the timetable accommodate innovation and change? (explain
how)
Class attendance:
1. How many lessons does your school day comprise of
2. Provide the average number of lessons teachers attend per day
3. Provide the average number of lessons pupils attend per day
Punctuality:
1. At what time does your school day officially begin?
2
2. What is the total number of teachers at your school
3. How many of your teachers arrive;
i) before the official school time?
ii) 30 minutes after the official school time?
iii) an hour or more after the official school time?
4. How often do these (Question 3) happen in a school week?
1 2 3 4 5
5. What is the total number of pupils in your school
6. Roughly how many of the pupils arrive;
a) before the official school time?
b) 30 minutes after the official school time?
c) an hour or more after the official school time?
7. At what time does your school day officially end?
8. How many of the teachers at your school depart;
a) at lunch time or before?
b) 30 minutes before the school is officially out?
d) an hour or more after the official school day?
9. Of the total number of pupils at your school roughly how many of them depart;
a) at lunch time or before?
b) 30 minutes before the school is officially out?
c) an hour or more after the official school day?
3
Time on task: (teachers and pupils)
1. How much of lesson preparation time do teachers spend?
1-2 hrs 3-4 hrs 5-6 hrs 7+
2. Of the total number of hours teachers spend at school, how many hours do they
spend in class?
1-2 hrs 3-4 hrs 5-6 hrs 7+
3. Of the total number of hours pupils spend at school, roughly how many hours do
they spend in class?
1-2 hrs 3-4 hrs 5-6 hrs 7+
4. How much time do teachers spend teaching?
1-2 hrs 3-4 hrs 5-6 hrs 7+
5. How much time to pupils spend learning?
1-2 hrs 3-4 hrs 5-6 hrs 7+
Extra-curricular activities:
1. From the list provided, tick those extracurricular activities available in your school:
Soccer Netball Rugby Basket ball Cricket Boxing
Soft ball Tennis Swimming Golf Athletics Other
2. When do these activities take place? (Circle both the day and time box)
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
08hOO-11 hOO 11 hOO-14hOO 14hOO-17hOO
3. Who plans and manages these activities?
Principal HoDs Teachers Pupils
4
4. Provide an average percentage of pupils taking part in these activities.
25% 50% 75% 100%
5. To what extent are teachers involved in these activities?
Always Often Sometimes Never
6. How often do these activities clash with the school timetable?
Always Often Sometimes Never
Teacher / Pupil ratio:
1. What is the teacher/pupil ratio of the school?
1-20 1-25 1-30 1-35 1-40
1-45 1-50 1-60 1-70 1-80
1-100+
2. How do teachers generally feel about the ratio?
Satisfied Moderately satisfied Moderately unsatisfied Unsatisfied
3. Does the ration have any effect on learning and teaching in the school? (Explain)
Teacher qualifications:
1. Indicate the number of teachers in your school whose qualification/s include:
No matrie + 2yr
diploma I I I Matne + 2 yr diploma Matrie + 3 yr diploma
Undergraduate degree (eg. BA Ed, BA, B Com ete) Post-graduate degree
5
2. Are your teachers currently enrolled and studying with any institution?
If so indicate courses/degrees enrolled for.
3. . Have there been any In-service teacher training institutions/NGOs working in your
school?
4. What kind of In-service teacher training institutions are or have worked in your
school?
name of NGO
duration
type
focus of the training provided
5. How many teachers teach subjects that they were not trained for?
6. To what extent are the teachers at ease with their respective subjects? (Explain)
Teacher attitudes:
1. How would you describe your teachers' overall attitude towards the subjects they
teach:
Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
2. How would you describe your teachers' overall attitude towards the methods of
teaching that they follow:
Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
6
3. How would you describe your teachers overall attitude towards knowledge broadly?
Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
4. Mention any diversions from the overall picture provided in questions 1 to 3, and the
possible reasons thereof?
5. What would you ascribe your teachers overall attitude to? (give reasons)
6. To what extent would you say your teachers understand their learners? (mention
any specific examples to illustrate your point).
Large extent Less extent
7. How would you describe your teachers attitudes towards:
Parents: Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
Academic: Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
Bureaucrats: Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
Policy: Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
Principal's role:
1. To what extent are you dis/encourage by recent education initiatives and why?
7
2. How would you compare your enthusiasm when first appointed into the school's
management structure to today? (in the event of changes, wherether negative or
positive, indicate the contributing factors) .
3. How often do you consult with your staff before deciding on issues?
. Always Often Some times Never
4. How often do you consider suggestions from your staff?
Always Often Some times Never
5. Provide an indication of the percentage of decisions made in 1997 that were based
on staff input?
25% 50% 75% 100%
6. What support mechanisms have you initiated in support of your teaching staff for
their teaching responsibilities?
7. What support mechanisms have you initiated in support of your teaching staff for
their personal development?
8. What kind of support and encouragement do you provide to your pupils?
8
Stability and changes:
1. Has your school ever gone through any major educational changes since its
inception? (Circle appropriate box/es)
Teaching methods - governance - school policy - other
2. Provide details according to the items ticked above.
3. What kind of instructional changes has your school gone through in the past three
years (i.e. 1994 - 1997)?
4. To what extent have changes in education generally influenced the functioning of
your school? Mention the influence in more specific terms e.g.
increased/decreased commitment etc.
5. Give an indication of how these influence have been.
Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
6. Based on your answer in question 4 and 5, indicate the potential your school has to
adapt to any additional education changes such as the Curriculum 2005 initiative.
(Provide details)
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7. How have the changes alluded to above influenced the teachers attitudes towards
their teaching responsibilities and field of work in the broad sense?
Positive Moderately positive Moderately negative Negative
8. Mention any other changes that your school has experienced in the last five years
i.e. race, culture, religion etc.?
9. Explain how the school dealt with these challenges?
1O. Looking back, would you say your school dealt with these challenges successfully?
Teacher support and development:
1. Which is/are the nearest tertiary institution/s which provide any kind of pre-service
teacher training?
2. Roughly how many kilometers away from the school are these institution/s?
3. Which institutions/organisations have in the pas five years provided any kind of in-
service teacher training/workshops to the school?
4. What kind of training/workshops have these institutions/organisations provided?
(mention subjects and/or focus)
Whole school Subject specific
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5. For how long was the training provided?
6. Has there been any follow-up after the initial training (e.g. monitoring)? - provide
details of the extent of follow-up/monitoring.
7.' To what extent has the training/workshops influenced the functioning of the school
i.e. what changes have they brought into the school?
8. To what extent are the teachers in your school involved in any personal
development such as reading to enhance their subject teaching expertise or
teaching method or knowledge more broadly?
Always Often Some times Never
9. To what extent are teachers at your school exchanging ideas amongst each other
(peer support).
Always Often Sometimes Never
10. To what extent is teacher interaction structures/formal or unstructured/informal?
(explain)
11. Where such interaction takes place, is it restricted to:
Specific Subjects? The school? Region?
teachers?
12. How frequent does the department of education interact with the school?
Always Often Some times Never
13. What form does the interaction normally take?
Memos Meetings Workshops Other
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Community involvement:
1. What is the extent of involvement of the local community in the affairs of the
school? Be specific.
Always Often Some times
3. What role/contribution/effect has the governing body so far had on the school?
learners' backqround..
1. Would you broadly indicate how many percent of your learners come from
Poor families?
Average/middle class
families
Rich families?
2. Would you broadly indicate the average educational level of your learners' parents?
Uneducated Schooled Higher Education Post-graduate Other
3. What kind of responsibilities does your average learner has at home?
Cattle herding Cooking cleanin Baby sitting None
Other
4. How would you generally describe your learners living conditions at home
Appropriate Inappropriate
5. Would you regard such living conditions as being conducive to learning?
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Relevant curriculum:
1. Which curriculum does your school follow? E.g. DoE, Intergrated Studies.
2. If your not following the national departments curriculum at all or have modified it to
some extent, explain these modifications.
3. Where the school is following its own modified curriculum, what role did teachers
play in these process?
Highly involved Involved Less involved Not involved
4. Which principles in the Curriculum 2005 initiative would you say your teachers are
already familiar with?
5. To what extent do the teachers practice these principles in their classrooms?
Always Often Sometimes Never
6. Which assessment practices are common in the school and indicate their frequency
(eg. Monthly, weekly etc.)
7. How often does your school write internal examinations?
Weekly Monthly Quarterly Yearly
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8. Give a brief explanation of how these exams are structured.
Any other comments: