ENHANCING ENGLISH ACADEMIC LITERACY PROGRAMMES FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS By MOODIELA VICTOR MATHOBELA B.Ed; B.Ed - Hons (UL); MA (SIT GRADUATE INSTITUTE) Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Philosophiae Doctor in Education (Ph.D. Education) in the SCHOOL OF HIGHER EDUCATION STUDIES FACULTY OF EDUCATION at the UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE BLOEMFONTEIN June 2015 PROMOTER: Dr D.J HLALELE CO-PROMOTERS: Dr C.T TSOTETSI : Ms M PAPASHANE 0 DECLARATION I, Moodiela Victor Mathobela, declare that: i. The research reported in this Thesis (Enhancing English Academic Literacy Programmes for First Year University Students), except where otherwise indicated is my original work. ii. This thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university. iii . This thesis does not contain other persons' data, pictures, graphs or other information , unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons. iv. This thesis does not contain other persons' writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted : a. Their words have been re-written , but the general information attributed to them has been referenced; b. Where their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside quotation marks. and referenced. v. This thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged , and the source being detailed in the thesis and in the references section . vi. I hereby cede copyright to the University of the Free State. Signed: .. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt and revolutionary appreciations to the following invaluable persons: The Almighty God for giving me the power, fortitude and audacity to continue and never succumb when fatigue set in . My ancestors who played a critical role in their blood tree that led to the nurturing of this branch called me. My promoter, Dr Dipane (DJ) Hlalele and the SULE and SuRLEC supervisory team for their guidance and continued support throughout th is PhD journey. Co-promoter, Dr Cias (CT) Tsotetsi for his undying and unending tutelage and above all , his trademark words of exhortation that kept me going even during difficult times, "It is difficult, but doable". Mr VFS Mudavahnu's office in the UFS Qwaqwa Campus CTL office for such a speedy and professional response to my request to conduct the research with students and facilitators of English academic literacy programmes for first year university students. My wife Refilwe Mathobela (Charlene), our adorable children, namely daughter Tebello and sons Tshepiso and Bokang, for their patience and support during my research sojourn . My parents, brothers, sisters and relatives for their support. My friends . colleagues and comrades for their continued support. The M.Ed . and PhD SULE and SuRLEC cohort of candidates for years of intellectual and robust sharing, debating and growth . Mr Hlaviso Motlhaka for tackl ing the language editing. All the participants who availed themselves to make this study possible. Words can never be sufficient to express my appreciation for your invaluable contribution in this study! The University of the Free State Faculty of Education Post Graduate bursary for fund ing this study ii DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to the following special souls who consciously and unconsciously formed a very critical support and motivation web in my academic journey since grade 1 (old sub A) to this stage of PhD: Topela Sarah (late grandmother), Maphehli (mother) and Kapa (father) Masilo, Mosibudi and Matseleng (late brother and sisters) Kgashane, Maile and Maphoko (brothers and sister) Refilwe, Tshepiso, Tebello and Bokang (family) Evenrond Primary School teachers and learners Sekolotome Primary School teachers and learners Mabapa Primary School teachers and learners Matseke Secondary School teachers and learners Professor MJ Themane Dr Beth Steinbach Dr TN Mafumo Friends, colleagues and comrades All children of the downtrodden poor masses of the world who yearn for education, but due to their unbearable socio-economic circumstances, they are unable to access it. The journey of a thousand miles that began with the first step has now reached its logical conclusion iii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AL Academic Literacy ALC Academic Literacy for Commerce, Education and Humanities ALN Academic Literacy for Natural Science CBI Content Based Instruction CDA Critical Discourse Analysis CER Critical Emancipatory Research CHAT Cultural Historical Activity Theoretical CPUT Cape Peninsula University of Technology CTL Centre for Teaching and Learning DQAU Directors of Quality Assurance Units OS Discipline Specialist EAL English Academic Literacy EALC English Academic Literacy Course EALP English Academic Literacy Programme EDP Extended Degree Programme ELL English Language Learners ESL English Second Language DHET Department of Higher Education and Training FAI Free Attitude Interview LAS Language Academic Skills L2 Second Language MRTEQ Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications NA Narrative Analysis NSE Norms and Standards for Educators PAR Participatory Action Research PSE Post-Secondary Education RSA Republic of South Africa UFS University of the Free State UK United Kingdom USA United States of America iv SUMMARY OF THE STUDY This study aims at enhancing English academic literacy programmes for first year university students at the Qwaqwa Campus of the UFS. In order to achieve this , the following specific objectives were formulated to direct the study: 1. To identify challenges justifying the need to enhance EALPs for first year university students, 2. To identify and discuss the components and aspects necessary for such enhancement to occur, 3. To determine the conditions under which such enhancement can be successfully achieved, 4. To anticipate plausible threats that may hinder the enhancement operationalisation and the strategies that could be put in place to circumvent them, 5. To identify monitoring strategies as well as indicators of successful enhancement, and 6. To propose strategies for enhancing EALPs for first year university students. Critical Emancipatory Research (CER) as the theoretical framework was chosen to couch this study towards the operationalisation of the above mentioned objectives. CER's agenda of equity, social justice, freedom, peace and hope made it suitable for the enhancement of EALPs for first year university students that would include facilitators and students. These stakeholders are included in this study on the basis that their direct participation would likely enhance and promote their sense of ownership, legitimacy and also democratise and legitimise the process of enhancing EALPs for first year university students. Guided by CER as the lens anchoring th is study, I reviewed the literature on EALPs for first year university students who learn through English as a second, third , fourth or foreign language in South Africa , Australia , Canada, UK and the USA because these countries represent the best practices with regard to academic literacy teaching at first year university level given their socio-economic contexts which are more or less similar to the kind of students we teach at this campus of the UFS. Literature revealed a number of challenges and mechanisms which were put in place to solve them. Informed by theory and guided by the objectives of the study, I also looked at the components and aspects necessary for enhancement of EALPs, the conditions that made these solutions to be operational, as well as the threats that scampered their V effectiveness in some instances and strategies put in place to circumvent them. The intent was to finally identify monitoring strategies and indicators of successful enhancement so that strategies can be proposed and replicated in our context. To complement the conceptualisation above , we generated empirical data through Participatory Action Research (PAR) as a research methodology and design which enabled the study to operationalise CER in action and to problematize issues of unequal power relations between the facilitators and the students. These power disparities seemed to be the most important factors that caused problems in the implementation of EALPs on the said campus . Through this the PAR approach , the voices of the marginalised and excluded stakeholders who were directly affected by the implementation of EALPs were given the opportunity to be expressed and heard . The empirical data confirmed that there were challenges in the implementation of EALPs at the Qwaqwa Campus as revealed in the literature elsewhere. These challenges included the exclusion of facilitators as EAL practitioners, as well as other beneficiaries in the implementation of these EALPs like students. There were also problems in formulating a commonly acceptable vision, hence no coordinated plan in implementation as well as lack of proper monitoring procedures to name a few. In order to overcome these challenges, seven components and aspects necessary for enhancing EALPs for first year university students emerged to counteract the challenges. Thereafter, eight conditions conducive for EALPs enhancement to occur were identified. Threats to enhancement and strategies to circumvent them were also highlighted. Based on the above, monitoring strategies and indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs were also explored and examined . The study concludes by proposing strategies to effectively enhance EALPs for first year university students using data from the literature and from the empirical data emanating from this study. Key terms: English Academic Literacy, English Academic Literacy Course, English Academic Literacy Programmes, English Second Language, Extended Degree Programme, Enhancement, Critical Emancipatory Research, Free Attitude Interview, Narrative Analysis, Participatory Action Research. vi OPSOMMING VAN DIE STUDIE Hierdie studie is toegespits op die verbetering van Engelse akademiese geletterdheidsprogramme (EAGPs) vir eerstejaarstudente op die Qwaqwa kampus van die Universiteit van die Vrystaat. Om die sukses hiervan te verseker, is die volgende doelwitte daargestel: 1. Die identifisering van uitdagings wat die verbetering van EAGPs vir eerstejaars regverdig . 2. Die identifisering en bespreking van komponente en aspekte wat noodsaaklik is vir die verbetering om te geskied 3. Die bepaling van die optimale toestande waaronder hierdie verbetering kan plaasvind 4. Die bepaling van moontlike hindernisse en die opstelling van strategiee om dit te vermy 5. Die identifisering van monitor-strategiee en aanwysers van sukses 6. Die voorstel van strategiee vir die verbetering van EAGPs vir eerstejaar universiteit studente Kritiese Vrymakende Navorsing (KVN) is die verkose teoretiese raamwerk waarbinne hierdie studie die bogenoemde doelstellings wil bereik. KVN se agenda van regverdigheid, sosiale geregtigheid , vryheid, vrede en hoop maak dit 'n geskikte model vir hierdie studie. Fasiliteerders en studente is die belanghebbendes van die studie. Hui direkte betrokkenheid sal aan hulle 'n mate van eienaarskap oor die proses gee, en sal verder bydra tot die demokratisering en geldigheid van die studie . Deur gebruik te maak van KVN as lens, het ek gekyk na die bestaande literatuur oor EAGPs van eerstejaarstudente wat Engels as tweede, derde, vierde of vreemde taal studeer. Die omvang van die literatuur is beperk tot dft wat studente in Suid-Afrika, Australie, Kanada, die Verenigde Koninkryk en die VSA bestudeer. Die rede hiervoor is omdat hierdie lande se onderrig van akademiese geletterdheid die beste is, e nook omdat hul sosio-ekonomiese kontekste goed strook met die van die studente op die UV se Qwaqwa kampus. Die bestudering van die literatuur bring 'n aantal uitdagings aan die lig, asook meganismes wat in plek gestel is om dit te oorkom. Vanuit 'n teoretiese agtergrond en VII met die doelstellings van die studie in gedagte, het ek verder gekyk na die komponente en aspekte wat noodsaakl ik is vir die verbetering van EAGPs, die toestande wat hierdie oplossings operasioneel maak, sowel as bedreigings vir die sukses daarvan en strategiee om probleme op te las. Die doel was om monitor-strategiee en aanwysers van sukses daar te stel en in ans eie konteks te implimenteer. Verder is daar 'n stel empiriese data opgestel deur gebruik te maak van Deelnemende Aksie Navorsing (DAN ) as navorsingsmetodolog ie. Dit het die studie in staat gestel om KVN in aksie te sit en kwessies van ongelyke magsverhoudinge tussen die belanghebbendes te identifiseer. Dit wil voorkom asof hierdie ongelykhede in mag die meeste probleme veroorsaak in die implimentering van EAGPs op die betrokke kampus. Te danke aan die DAN- benadering kon die griewe van die gemarginaliseerdes gehoor word . Die empiriese data het bevestig dat daar probleme en uitdagings is met die implimentering van EAGPs op die Qwaqwa-kampus. Een van die mees prominente uitdagings is die uitsluiting van fasiliteerders en studente as praktisyns van EAGPs. Daar was oak probleme wat betref die opstel van 'n algemeen aanvaarbare visie. Gevolglik bestaan daar geen gekoordineerde plan van implimentasie of behoorlike monitor-prosedures nie. Om hierdie uitdagings te oorkom, is daar sewe komponente en aspekte wat noodsaaklik vi r die verbetering van EAGPs is, vasgeste l. Verder is agt toestande waaronder EAGPs kan verbeter, ge'i'dentifiseer. Moontlike bedreigings tot die proses, sowel as strateg iee om dit te vermy, is oak bepaal. Op grand van die bogenoemde is monitor-strategiee en aanduiders van suksesvolle verbetering van EAGPs ondersoek. Die stud ie sluit af deur strategiee vir die verbetering van EAGPs vir eerstejaar universiteit studente voor te stel. Sleutelwoorde: Engelse Akademiese Geletterdheid, Engelse Akademiese Geletterdheid Kursus, Engelse Akademiese Geletterdheidsprogramme, Engels Tweedetaa/, Verlengde Graadprogram, Verbetering/Bevordering, Kritiese Vrymakende Navorsing, Vrye Houding Onderhoud, Narratiewe Analise, Deelnemende Aksie Navorsing VIII TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ....................................................................................................... .. .. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............. ....... .. ............. ...... ..... .... ...... .. .................... ........ .... . ii DEDICATION ... .... ........ ......... ............. .... ..... ..... .. .................. .. .. ............ .. ............... ..... iii ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ............. ................................................... ... ..... iv SUMMARY OF THE STUDY .... ..... ... ... .. ................. .............................. .. ....... ....... ...... v OPSOMMING VAN DIE STUDIE ............ ... ........................ ........... ...... .... .... ... ... .. .... .. vii LIST OF TABLES ... ... ........ ..... .. ... ... .. ... ... ... ... .......... .... .. ...... ...... ... ............ ..... .. .... .. .... xiv LIST OF APPENDICES ................................. ......... ............. .... ..... .... ... ..... .... .. .... .. ..... xv CHAPTER 1 .... .. .... .. ..... .. .. ..... .. .... ... .... ..... ...................................... ... ......................... . 1 ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY ON ENHANCING EALPs FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS .. ......................... ...... ... ... ... ............... .... .......... ............... ... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTORY BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY .... ... .................. .... .. ..... ... 1 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION AND AIMS .................... ......... ... ............ ... ..... ......... .. .. 5 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT .................... ............... ................................. ... ...... ... . 6 1.4 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY ..... .. ... .................. ... .......................... ... ............ 7 1 .4.1 My academic journey .................................. ..... .. ..... ... .... .............. .............. 7 1.4.2 Motivation for this study ...... .. .... .. .... ..... .................................. ...... ........... . 11 1.5 ALIGNMENT OF THE AIM AND OBJECTIVES .... ... .. ... ... ...... ...... ........ .. ......... 12 1.5.1 Challenges demonstrating and justifying the need to enhance EALPs for first year university students .. .... ............ .................. .... .... ... .... ... ..... .. .. .... ... ........ 12 1.5.2 Identification and the discussion of the components and aspects necessary for such enhancement of EALPs .............. ...... ...................... .. ......... .................. 13 1.5.3 Conditions conducive to the successful enhancement of EALPs ... .......... 13 1.5.4 Plausible threats to the operationalization of enhancement of EALPs and strategies to circumvent them ... ......................... ....... .............. ...... ..... ... ... ..... .... 14 1.5.5 Monitoring strategies and indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs ..... ...... .... ... ...... .... ... .. .. .... ..... .. .... .. ..... ... .... .. .... .... .. .... .......... .. ................. .. .... ..... .. 14 1.5.6 Proposed strategies for enhancing EALPs for first year university students ........................ ..... ... ................... .. ................................... ..... ..... ........................ 14 1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ........................................... ...... ... ............ ...... 14 1.6.1 Theoretical framework informing this study .............................................. 15 1.7 SYNOPSIS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW ......... .................. ..... .... .. ... ....... . 16 1.7.1 Challenges demonstrating and justifying the need for EALPs enhancement ···· ··· ···· ······· ······ ······· ····················· ··· ········--·············"···· ······ ······················ ·········· 17 1. 7 .2 Components and aspects necessary for enhancement of EALPs used in the five countries including South Africa .... ... ..... ...... .... ..... ...... ......... ... ..................... 18 ix 1.7.3 Conditions under which EALPs enhancement worked .......... .. .............. ... 19 1.7.4 Plausible threats to operationalisation of EALPs enhancement and strategies to circumvent them ............... .. ............. ...... ..... ..... .................... .. ....... 20 1.7.5 Monitoring strategies and indicators that showed that EALPs enhancement worked ..... ..... .... ... ........ .. ........ .... ........... .... ............. ....... .. .......... ... ....... ....... .. ..... 22 1.8 METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN ...... .... .. ............... .. ... ......... ..... ... ... .. .... .. ........ 24 1.9 ANALYSIS OF DATA. ..... ....... .. ... ......... ..... ............ .... ......... ....... ... ... ........ ........ 25 1.10 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND PROPOSED STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING EALPs ... ..... .. ........ ................... ... .................... 25 1.10.1 Challenges justifying the need for EALPs enhancement.. .......... ........ ... . 25 1.10.2 Components and aspects needed for EALPs enhancement ............. .. ... 26 1.10.3 Conditions conducive for the operationalization of EALPs enhancement ··· ··· ···· ································· ·· ········································ ·· ···· ······ ··········· ········· ··· ··26 1.10.4 Threats to the EALPs enhancement and strategies to circumvent them 27 1.10.5 Monitoring strategies of EALPs enhancement and indicators that they worked ........ .. .. .. .... .. ............. .. .. .. ....... .. ...... .. .. ... ... .. ......... ..... .. ... ... ... .. .. .. .... .. ... .... 27 1.10.6 Proposed strategies for enhancing EALPs ................. ......... .... ..... ... ...... . 28 1.11 VALUE OF THE STUDY ... ........ .... ........ ... ...... ..... ............ .. .... .. ............ ..... ..... 34 1.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ........................................ .. ...... ... ... ............... 34 1 .1 3 LAYOUT OF CHAPTERS ........................ .......... ..... ....... ... .. ......... .. .... ........... 35 1.14 CONCLUSION ..... .............. .. ............................ .............. ........... .. .................. 36 CHAPTER 2 ................................ ............................................ .. ......... ...................... 37 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RELATED LITERATURE THAT INFORM ENHANCING EALPs FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSIY STUDENTS .. ...... .. .............. . 37 2.1 INTRODUCTION ..... ..... .. .............. .. .. ...... .. ................ .. ................. ... .... ..... .... ... 37 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS (TFS) ......... ......... ...... ... .. ........... ........ ....... .. 37 2.2.1 Positivism ...... .. .......... .................................... .. ...... ............ ......... ........ ...... 39 2.2.2 Phenomenology ......... ... ... .. ... ......... .... .. ......... ... ......... .... .... .............. ... .... .. 42 2.2.3 Critica l Emancipatory Research (CER) ...... .. ... ......... ... ............................. 45 2.2.4 The choice of Critical Emancipatory Research over Positivism and Phenomenology ............... .. ....... ...... ..... ...... .. ................. .. .. ... .. ...... ......... .... ....... . 52 2.3 DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS .. .............. ........... .. ........... ..... . 54 2.3.1 Enhancement ................ ....... ... ...... ............ ..... .. .......... ...... ..... .... ...... ........ . 54 2.3.2 English Academic Literacy Programmes (EALPs) .. ... .... .... ... ......... .... ...... 55 2.3.3 First year university students .................................................................... 57 2.3.4 Extended Degree Programme (EDP) ....................................................... 57 X 2.4 LITERATURE PERTAINING TO EALPS FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ... ... ...... .. ...... ....... ... ... .. .. .. ......................... ......... ... ............ .................. 59 2.4.1 Academic Literacy Background ................... .................... .... .. ... .. .... ......... . 59 2.4.2 Academic Literacy Models .................................................. ... .............. .. .. 64 2.4.3 Related Literature aligned to the five objectives of this study ................... 71 2.5 CONCLUSION ...... .. ........ .. ....... ..... .. ..... .. ......... .. ... .......... .. ..... ....... .. ... ... ... .. .... .. 97 CHAPTER 3 .... .... .......................... .......... .... ........ ......................... .. .... ............ ...... .. 102 DATA GENERATION FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF EALPs FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ..... ... ... ..... ...... ....................... ...... ... .......... ..... ..... .. .. ...... . 102 3.1 INTRODUCTION ............... ... ........ ...... ..... .... ..... ........ ... .. ... ...... ... .... ...... .. .... .. . 102 3.2 RESEARCH QUESTION AND SUB-QUESTIONS ....................................... 102 3.3 PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH AS AN APPROACH ..................... 103 3.3.1 PAR historical origins ....... ..... ................ ............ ... ......... ........ ... .............. 104 3.3.2 PAR objectives ................... .. .. .. ... ... ...... .. .......... ... ...... ......... ................... . 105 3.3.3 Characteristics of PAR ... ... .................................................................... . 107 3.3.4 The PAR Process .... .. .. .... ... .... .. ............ ....... ... ..... ...... .... .... ..................... 114 3.3.5 Ontology .. ... ... .. ....... ...... ... .... .... ... ....... .. ....... ................................... .. ....... 120 3.3 .6 Epistemology .......................................................................... ..... .. .... .. .. . 121 3.3 .7 Data Instrumentation and generation .. ..... ............. ........... ........... ........... 124 3.3 .8 Data analysis ............. .. ... .............................. ................... .... ............. ...... 126 3.3.9 Ethical considerations ... ......... .. ............................ ................... .. ............. 132 3.3.10 Research site profi le ................................... ...... .... ..... .... .. .. .. ... ......... .... 133 3.3.11 The participants ...... ... ................. ..... ... ....... ... ... ... ... ... ...... .. ..... .. ...... ...... . 134 3.3.12 The study leader's professional background ................. ....... .. ..... .. ....... 134 3.3.12 ALC 108 Students ................... .... .. ....................... .... .. ................ ...... ... .. 135 3.3.13 ALC108 Facilitators ........ ..... .................... .... ..... ................... ................. 136 3.3.14 ALN108 Students ........................... .. .... ............ .. .... ............ .... ... ....... .... 136 3.3.15 ALN Facilitators .............................. ...... ...... ................. .... ..................... 136 3.4 CONCLUSION ........... ...... ................. ... .. .... ..... .. ..... ............ .. .... .... .. .. ..... .. ... .. . 137 CHAPTER 4 ...... ......... ..... ... ... .... ...... .................... ...... ... ..... ....... ......... .. .. ............. .... 138 DATA PRESENTATION , ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION ON ENHANCING EALPs FOR FIR$T YEAR UNIVERSIY STUDENTS ............... .. ....... .................... . 138 4.1 INTRODUCTION .. ............. .. .. ..... .................... ............ .................... .. ... .. ....... 138 4.2 DATA ANALYSIS ALIGNED TO THE EMPIRICAL DATA JUXTAPOSED WITH THE LITERATURE ........ ... ... .... .... .... ......... .. .... ...... ... ........... ......... ........... ..... .. .. ... 138 xi 4.2.1 Challenges justifying the need for enhancing EALPs for first year university students .... .... ..... ................ ... .............. .. .. .... ..... ....... .. .. ... .. .... ... ... ............ .. .. ... .. 138 4.2.2 The components and aspects necessary to address challenges towards enhancing EALPs for first year university students ........ ...... ........ ................... 158 4.2.3 Conditions favourable to the success of enhancing EALPs for first year university students ..... .... ... .... .......... .. ......... ........ ........ ................ .... .... ...... ... .... 173 4.2.4 Plausible threats to the successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students and strategies to curb them .......... ..... .. .. .. ... .. .. .................. 189 4.2.5 Monitoring strategies and indicators that successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students occurred ................. .. .... ........... ... .... .. .... ... ...... 219 4 .3 CONCLUSION ... ............... ..... .... .... .. .......... ............................................ .. .. ... 231 CHAPTER 5 ........ .............. ..................................... ... ...................... ......... ........ .. ... . 233 FINDINGS, ASPECTS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS ON ENHANCING EALPs FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ... .. .... .... .............................. .. ................ ..................... ......... ................. 233 5.1 INTRODUCTION ... ... .... ... ................. .............................. .. .. .... .... ... ... .. ...... ... . 233 5.2 FINDINGS ALIGNED TO THE STUDY OBJECTIVES ... ... .. ......................... 234 5.2.1 The need for enhancing EALPs for first year university students may be justified . : ... ................ .... ............................................................ ... ... ................ 234 5.2.2 There are some important components and aspects needed to enhance EALPs for first year university students ............ .. ... ....... .... ............... ..... ..... ...... 238 5.2.3 Some conditions are necessary for successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students according to the findings in this study ..... .. ...... ... 244 5.2.4 Some of the plausible threats and strategies to circumvent them in the effort to enhance EALPs for first year university students are highlighted and discussed below ........... ... ............. ......... ........ .. .. ..... ........ ... ... .................... ... .... .. ... .. ... ....... 250 5.2.5 Some monitoring strategies and indicators that there is successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students are discussed below as follows: .... ... ...... ............ ............................................ .... ... ......... .... ....... ........ .... 262 5.3 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS .. ...... .... .......... ...... ... .............................. ... ........... 267 5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ... ............................... ..... .......... ...... .. ........... 268 5.5 ASPECTS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... .... ........ .. ... .... ........... ... .. .. ............ .... .... ... ..... ....... .. .... ... 268 5.6 CONCLUSION .............. ....... ........... .... .................... ......... .. .. .. ... .... ............. ... 268 CHAPTER 6 .. ... ........... ........ ... .... .............. ...... .......... .. ............... ....... ... ... .... ..... ....... 270 PROPOSED STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING EALPs FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ....... .......... ...................... .............................................. 270 6.1 INTRODUCTION ........ ......... .. ...... ................ .... ......... ....... .. ... .......... ............ .. 270 xii 6.2 PROPOSED STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING EALPs FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS ..... ...... .. ........ ..... ..... ............ .... ......... ..... ................ ..... 270 The proposed strategies are presented below in a table and further discussed and elaborated upon in details .... ........ .... ... ... .... .. ......................... ..... ... .................. 270 6.2.1 Class level .............. ....... ... .......... .......................... .. .. ..... ... .. ........ ............ 272 6.2.2 Discipline level ........... ......... .... ... ... ........ ............... ....... .. ......................... 273 6.2.3 Faculty level ............. .... ... ..... ... .. .... ... ..... ................ .... ...... ..... ..... ............. 275 6.2.4 Institutional level. ................ ...... ......... ........... ...... ...... ... .... .................... ... 276 6.3 CONCLUSION ..... .......... ....... ........................................................................ 278 REFERENCES ............................................. .......................................................... 279 LIST OF APPENDICES ............................................ .... .......................................... 311 xiii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Academic Literacy Models illustrated 60 Table 2.2 Lea and Street's Academic Literacy Model Of and For Diverse 65 Society: Genre/mode switching Table 2.3 Gee's Social Linguistics and Literacies Model: Ideology in 66 Discourses Table 3.1 Evolving research perspectives 115 Table 6.1 Different stakeholders and their roles in enhancing EALPs for first 252 year university students xiv LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A Ethical Clearance Appendix 8 Letter requesting Gate Keeper's permission Appendix C Letter granting permission 281 282 283 Appendix D Advertisement for recruitment of ALC108 and ALN 108 student 284 participants Appendix E Advertisement for recruitment of ALC 108 and ALN 108 facilitator 285 participants Appendix F Consent forms for students 286 Appendix G Consent forms for facil itators 287 Appendix H Interview with ALC 108 participants 288 Appendix I Interview with ALN108 participants 301 xv CHAPTER 1 ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY ON ENHANCING EALPs FOR FIRST YEAR UNIVERSITY STUDENTS 1.1 INTRODUCTORY BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY "Literacy arouses hopes, not only in society as a whole but also in the individual who is striving for fulfilment, happiness and personal benefit by learning how to read and write. Literacy .. . means far more than learning how to read and write ... The aim is to transmit ... knowledge and promote social participation." -UNESCO Institute for Education , Hamburg, Germany In recent years many higher education institutions have experienced high numbers of student enrolment never anticipated before. This has also led to many challenges faced by institutions of higher learning, of which one amongst those challenges is the students' inabilities to peruse and write academic text with comprehension and coherence especially at first year level. Baik and Greig (2009: 401) claim that the increasing enrolment of English Second Language (ESL) students in Australian universities has led to increased competition among universities to attract these fee­ paying students. They further argue that the said enrolments have led to concerns about bettering standards and the minimum English language requirements for entry into university. This view is also supported by Birell , Bretag and Warty in Baik and Greig (2009: 401 ). On the other hand , some studies have showed that even when ESL students have achieved minimum entry requirements for university, many of them struggle to meet the demands of their mainstream university courses (Birell & Breitag in Baik & Greig 2009: 401 ), and their language skills, or lack thereof can cause considerable frustration for academic teaching staff (Bretag & Watty in Baik & Greig 2009: 401 ). According to Ransom, Larcombe, and Baik in Baik and Greig (2009: 402), international students themselves have also expressed concerns about the level of their English 1 proficiency and the linguistic demands of tertiary studies. Therefore, as the quote above suggests, ESL students who are entering universities and most of them are first generation university students from their families, academic literacy, in particular academic reading and writing become a huge challenge for these students to transmit knowledge and promote social participation in their different disciplinary discourses. Therefore, in this study we (myself as the researcher and participants in this study) intend to make a contribution to the enhancement of English Academic Literacy Programmes (EALPs) for first year university students. Ransom and Greig (2007) in Baik and Greig (2009: 402) found that almost all the Language Academic Skills (LAS) units surveyed offered considerably more generic skills services than discipline­ specific ones in some universities in Australia. Hence, they argue for a discipline­ based academic skills approach to teaching academic literacy as opposed to traditional de-contextualized one. Their study used questionnaires for surveying students' perceptions of the program, analysis of students' academic results on the first-year European Architecture subject, and tracking and analysis of students' academic progress through the course. However, in Canada Marshall and Moore (2013: 472) conducted a longitudinal study interviewing 45 ESL students, five Academic Literacy instructors, five key university administrators, observations of classrooms, and ethnographic field notes of students' usage of English in class. This was a qualitative longitudinal study of interplays between the social, cultural, and linguistic in multiple languages and literacy practices of transnational students at a university in Canada. The findings question the role of academic English as the sole conduit to success for participants in higher education. The study further suggest that this relates back to how plurilingualism is defined and integrates the key idea that learning skills, multilingual literacies, (inter)cultural experiences, and different forms of knowledge are transferable and thus constitute assets and tools for better learning (Castellotti & Moore in Marshall & Moore 2013: 472). Furthermore, Marshall and Moore posit that through plurilinguistic approach to teaching academic literacy, ESL students in their study moved from contexts in which they mixed different languages and scripts freely to contexts which they adhered to 2 more normative senses of discrete monolingual practices in English and community languages. In the UK, an ethnographic study was done by Lea and Street (1998: 160) using interviews for staff and students, participant observation of group sessions, attention to samples of students writing , written feedback on students' work, and handouts on essay writing data generation methods at two universities: one traditional and one new. Ten interviews were conducted with staff in the older university and 21 students were interviewed, either individually or in small groups. At the new university, 13 members of academic staff and 26 students were interviewed in the same way. The interviews at both institutions included the Directors of Quality Assurance Units and 'learning support' staff. The results of this study showed contrasting expectations and interpretations of academic staff and students regarding undergraduate students' written assignments. Therefore, Lea and Street (2006: 368) advocate for an "academic literacy" framework which takes into account conflicting and contested nature of writing practices as opposed to traditional models and approaches of skills-based and deficit models of student writing . Gutierrez, Hunter and Arzubiaga (2009: 1) conducted a study in the USA at the University of California that was aimed at providing a framework for the development of robust learning ecologies organized around the cultural historical concept of "re­ mediation" in contrast to traditional "remedial" approaches to students from non­ dominant communities. Remediation involves a transformation of the learning ecology, including a shift in the way tools and forms of assistance function to incite and facilitate learning. Gutierrez, Hunter and Arzubiaga make a case for three key concepts, namely: re-mediation, a historicizing education, and Socio-critical Literacies and are discussed in the context of two cases that illustrate two learning ecologies developed for students historically excluded from robust learning and higher education. Luke (2003) in Gutierrez, Hunter and Arzubiaga (2009: 2) argue for a fundamental change in the education of students from non-dominant communities and illustrate the transformative potential of learning ecologies oriented toward powerful literacies and learning. This study was undergirded by a more expansive theoretical orientation, a 3 critical cultural historical approach (CHAT) that privileged robust forms of learning and powerful cognitive tools that transcend the boundaries of school learning. This CHAT approach focused on re-mediating a history of reductive learning by promoting the development of contexts of productive criticism in which participants could come to know why something is taught in the first place and how history and use of rules and tools come to be in their local setting. Studies conducted on academic literacy in higher education institutions are not distant, international and immune to South Africa . South Africa is not an exception in as far as academic literacy challenges are concerned at universities. Jacobs (2005: 475) did a study of a literacy-as-social-practice approach at Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT) to Academic Literacies (ALs) which was implemented through an institution-wide project focusing on integrating language and content to transgress narrow disciplinary boundaries that characterize tertiary curriculum. To make the case for literacy as social practices embedded in context, as a new literacy studies, focusing on discipline-specific strategies, rather than approaches that decontextualize academic literacy, 20 Academic Literacy practitioners and disciplinary specialists integrated AL teaching into various disciplines. The participants in this study reflected on their experiences of changing approaches to AL development over a three year project using a narrative methodology to produce data which was drawn from the work of Denten and Rip in Jacobs (2005: 479). This three year integrated approach to teaching academic literacy institutional project involved collaboration between different disciplines and Academic Literacy Practitioners (ALPs) who formed ten collaborative (language discipline) partnerships, exploring discursive practices of disciplines (ALPs & Disciplinary Specialists partnerships, transdisciplinary 'transaction space' institutional project where nineteen project participants were interviewed. Data generation involved stimulated recall; free writing , visual representation, and narrative interviews. The results of this study suggest higher education should create discursive spaces for collaboration of AL practitioners and disciplinary specialists to facilitate the embedding of AL teaching into disciplines of study. 4 In the context of the South African higher education terrain , there currently exist a renewed sense of urgency and vigour in debates regarding the language proficiency of students at universities (Van Rensburg & Weideman in Butler & van Dyk 2004: 1 ). This challenge of low levels of proficiency particularly in the language of learning and teaching (English) is viewed as a primary reason for lack of success at universities in South Africa. This challenge of students who arrive at tertiary institutions underprepared requires clear, bold , consultative and sustainable academic literacy programmes to ameliorate the situation. The EALPs are especially designed for this very purpose of orientating underprepared first year university students enrolled in the Extended Degree Programme (EDP) to familiarize themselves and adjust to the reading and writing discourses within their respective academic disciplines. My observation of previous studies (studies mentioned in the preceding pages) done in academic literacy research at universities have been more of longitudinal institutional projects that involved administrators, academic staff, discipline specialists and students using surveys, interviews and analysis of students' written work. However, this study will be different in the sense that it follows a Participatory Action Research (PAR) methodology focusing on students and facilitators ' experiences of academic literacy programmes and collaboratively working with students and facilitators as equal partners through focus groups Free Attitude Interviews (FAls) to collectively converse and develop strategies for enhancing EALPs for first year university students on the Qwaqwa Campus of the University of the Free State through the guiding lens of Critical Emancipatory Research (CER) as a theoretical framework and Participatory Action Research as the methodology and design. Hence, this study aims to make a contribution in enhancing EALPs for first year university students through proposing strategies for enhancing such programmes through the juxtaposition of empirical data and literature. 1.2 RESEARCH QUESTION AND AIMS Based on the above background , the following research question was posed : How can we enhance EALPs for first year university students? 5 The aim of this study was to enhance EALPs for first year university students on the Qwaqwa campus of the UFS. In order to achieve this aim , the following objectives were formulated : 1. To identify challenges justifying the need to enhance EALPs for first year university students 2. To identify and discuss the components and aspects necessary to provide solutions to such challenges 3. To determine the conditions under which such enhancement above could be successfully achieved 4. To identify plausible threats that may hamper the operationalisation of the enhancement of EALPs so that mechanisms are put in place to circumvent them 5. To monitor that enhancement of EALPs takes place so as to show indicators of successful enhancement. 6. To propose strategies for enhancing EALPs for first year university students 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT EALPs for first year university students are offered in the institution where this study is undertaken within the content and context of mainstream disciplines (Content Based Instruction) as suggested and recommended by many previous studies (Ransom & Greig, 2009: 402; Jacobs, 2005: 475; Purser et al. , 2008; James, 201 O; van Wyk, 2014: 212). These EALPs (ALC108 and ALN108) for all first year students enrolled in the Extended Degree Programme (EDP) are offered to scaffold these students to cope and master academic literacy especially academic reading , writing and critical thinking within their disciplines. Despite all these efforts, students continue to struggle and fall short in reading , writing and their overall academic success at university and this is a cause for concern (UFS Integrated Report, 2012: 26). Hence, the relevance of this study to identify strategies that are conducive towards enhancing EALPs for first year university students. 6 1.4 RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY 1.4.1 My academic journey I was born , bred and buttered in a farm area in the Mopani District Municipality near Tzaneen in Limpopo province. I began my primary schooling in 1983 and dropped and went back the following year and dropped again. In 1985 I never bothered going back to school and in 1986 I became serious and never dropped again until I passed my Grade 7 in 1992 (formerly standard 5). I grew up in a single parent family composed of seven siblings. Since my parents divorced when I was around three or four years old, things were very tough at home as we had to learn survival skills at an early age. After completing Grade 7, I had to relocate to my village to pursue my education at a secondary school. At that time my mother was struggling to make ends meet and to take me and my other two siblings to school was very tough. In terms of choosing which better secondary school to attend , I had to attend the only school available at my village irrespective of its bad reputation because that was the only school I could afford to attend as they only needed my school fees without expecting the building fund as I am the resident of the village. I could not afford to pay school fees and building fund in the so-called better schools and I had to settle for the one that was affordable in my village. Since I always excelled in my academic work since primary school days when I was still attending farm schools , I replicated that academic performance even at my new secondary school in my village. Through the survival skills I learned at an early age growing up in a single parent family of seven siblings, I knew at that age that education was the only opportunity I could use to improve the conditions at home. My secondary school was characterized by student protests, shortage of qualified teachers, demotivated educators and students and a high level of ill-discipline amongst students. Five students had to share a textbook in a class of 150 students. Five students shared a desk or a table with two chairs. Despite all these challenges and obstacles, during and after school , I developed a habit of picking old newspapers and magazines written in English to improve my reading and writing skills as I realized that our school did not have educators who were qualified to teach many subjects 7 including English. Educators, parents and learners used to blame one another for the chaos and protests that were prevalent in our school. In other cases both sides were justifiable on the basis that on one hand teachers were sometimes not committed to their work in the school , because learners were ill-disciplined; and on the other hand parents as members of the community were not supportive and always blamed the school for all chaos that occurred. The blame was shifted by everyone from pillar to post without a single one of them taking ownership and responsibility for turning things around for the better. At some point the Representative Council of Learners (formerly Student Representative Council) would assemble all of us and march to the neighbouring primary schools to demand educators who would come and teach us and in most cases we succeeded in finding educators who came to teach us and left the primary schools. Some of us had to devise strategies to cope with the situation as nobody seemed to care about our plight starting with the SGB, parents and the Department of Education . We even had to organize and form after school and weekends study group with students from those so-called better schools to share with them what they have learned and had discussions. Though there was always this perpetual reminder from the community and students from other schools that no one will pass Grade 12 in our school, I took this challenge personally that despite the challenges my school was facing, I wanted to prove critics wrong that "Where there is a Will , there is a Way" as long as one is focused , determined and working hard to achieve one's goals. My regular reading of English newspapers and magazines helped me to do very well in English and History to an extent that my fellow students requested that I teach them specifically English and History in Grade 12 in 1998. At the end of the year, out of the 45 Grade 12 students who sat for the final examinations, only three of us passed and 42 failed . Out of the three, I was the only one who qualified to go to university on the basis of my Grade 12 results . Despite the unbearable circumstances we were confronted with in our school , some of us did not give up and we used our own goals and dreams to motivate ourselves to overcome those challenges and we were able to utilise whatever that was available at our disposal in order to perform well academically. The shortage of resources and educators did not dissuade some of us as we realized that we could use the little 8 resources we had and take advantage of each individual student's skills and capabilities to turn things around and teach each other for our own benefit and it worked like a charm. The testimony of my academic journey gives credence to the idea that people naturally prefer top-down approaches to getting help than bottom-up approaches wherein they themselves as communities take the centre stage and are in the forefront of initiatives to improve their circumstances. The academic success of three of us out of the 45 students who sat for the Grade 12 examinations in our school confirm and attest that if we truly need serious changes in our lives, we must be the first to be willing to sacrifice to achieve that change. Nobody is going to come from anywhere and solve our problems except ourselves. That is a very powerful lesson I learned throughout my academic journey that operating from a 'deficit' perspective is not helpful and not sustainable. We need to generate home-made solutions by ourselves for ourselves if we need serious and practical empowerment and emancipation in our daily work. Fast forward to my University of Limpopo studies as a Bachelor of Education (Senior Phase & Further Education & Training) student from 2003 to 2006 majoring in English and Life Orientation and 2007 when I did my Honours degree majoring in Curriculum Studies, the same 'deficit' mentality was the order of the day wherein academics always complained about students as being underprepared for university studies even when they met university entrance requirements . As students we had to rely on ourselves through formulating groups and allocating each other tasks for presentations during group meetings on different courses and modules. This strategy of group work and self-reliance assisted most of us to complete our degrees in record time despite some negative comments by some of the academic staff who claimed that we would not make it as according to their observations , we were underprepared from high schools and our chances of succeeding at university were slim if not non-existent. Through sharing ideas as students in groups and allocating each other roles and responsibilities on our academic work , we overcame all the challenges and completed our degrees in record time both undergraduate and Honours degrees. All these experiences attest to the fact that many hands make light work. Therefore, instead of us going far seeking solutions to our immediate problems, we need to utilize the 9 manpower and resources at our disposal to find long lasting sustainable solutions to our own challenges. Homemade solutions seem to work better than imported ones. Moving on to my Master's degree in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (MA TESOL) at SIT Graduate Institute in the United States of America in 2008, I was introduced to Experiential Learning wherein awareness was central and core to the learning processes in the classroom. According to the Experiential Learning approach, students have to be aware of what they know and what they do not know in order for real learning to take place (Kolb, 2014: 27). Students are taken through a learning experience, thereafter reflect on it and rethink how they would have handled it if they were teachers facilitating such learning experiences. In this manner, awareness leads to more conscious and quality teaching and learning. In all these processes, team work has always been emphasized so that students are able to reflect on what they experienced and share each other's understanding and perspectives. Through such engagements, many of us completed our Master's degree in one year and half or two instead of the stipulated two and half years. Indeed working together and sharing ideas as students or individuals in a community enriches the work that is being done, unlike when only one person is doing the work. Playing solo does not help to improve conditions in the communities and society we live in. By coming together and sharing ideas on the challenges we are confronted with as students or communities , we will be able to come up with home grown ideas and solutions to our everyday challenges without relying on the outsiders to provide solutions for us. The experiences of these institutions put team work and home made solutions as key to the success of any community rather than soliciting expertise from elsewhere that is detached and not familiar with the context of the community and the challenges experienced thereof. These experiences and the motivation for this study that follows below are consistent with Critical Emancipatory Research anchoring this study as it seeks to emancipate and empower communities (Lincoln, Lyn ham & Guba, 2011: 102) to take actions and find solutions to their immediate challenges and thereby experience ownership. 10 1.4.2 Motivation for this study After joining the University of the Free State, Qwaqwa Campus as a lecturer, researcher and coordinator for the EALPs (ALC108 and ALN108) for first year university students, I began to read and engage in conversations with colleagues on the language challenges confronting us as a university campus and our students in particular. To my expectation, many of the discourses we engaged in around students especially first years and their language challenges centred around 'deficit models' wherein colleagues blamed students for being undereducated and underprepared for university studies especially on academic reading and writing. Week in and week out colleagues always complained that the kind of students we have are a burden to lecturers because they are 'deficit' in as far as engaging them in university discourses is concerned. Colleagues even went to an extent of claiming that students cannot utter a word in English in their classes and they felt that it is really unfair to expect lecturers to go through that kind of torture wherein their students cannot even say a word in English, let alone conversing in English unless they do so in lsiZulu or Sesotho. What perplexed me more was my own experience with these first year students that everybody labelled in 'deficit' terms. In my classes they were always articulate and at times I felt intimidated by their fluency in spoken English. That is when I realized that our students, contrary to a popular narrative on campus that they lack both Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) according to Cummings (2008: 487), many of our students only lack the latter as it is an academic and more sophisticated language relevant to academic disciplines and not the former. Realizing that the voices of the students are missing in this merry-go-round blaming game, I decided that I should conduct a study that would seek to get both sides of the story simultaneously so that solutions would be sought by all the stakeholders involved . The saying that 'nothing about us without us' guided me in my endeavour to conduct a study that would accommodate both first year students and their facilitators for them to collectively generate ideas on how EALPs for first year university students can be enhanced without blaming one another nor shifting responsibility. I wanted the study to promote empowerment and emancipation of the marginalized on issues that 11 affect them. Hence the birth of this study titled Enhancing EALPs for first year university students guided by CER as the theoretical framework and PAR as a methodology and design anchoring this study. The narrative from my academic journey as a student and as a lecturer elaborated above point to the fact that role players or stakeholders need each other to address the common challenges they experience in their daily work . Without bottom-up approaches to addressing common issues in communities, the consequences are that different stakeholders will continue to label each other in 'deficit' terms rather than being proactive and pro-solutions working together to generate such solutions. Instead of looking at students as 'deficit' and not ready for university, we should rather work with students and have conversations in order to help them achieve their academic goals. As lecturers we are all aware that many of our schools are failing our children and we should not be party to that agenda of seeing students in 'deficit' terms while we know that the system is the one that is deficit, not students. As lecturers, we know the kind of schools our students come from and instead of blaming them, we must rather find ways to assist them academically and if we need more training to effectively teach such students, let us do so without labelling students and blaming them (Lea & Street, 2006: 368; Dei , 2007 ; Harklau, 2010). 1.5 ALIGNMENT OF THE AIM AND OBJECTIVES The following subsections explain how each of the objectives assisted in achieving the aim of the study. 1.5.1 Challenges demonstrating and justifying the need to enhance EALPs for first year university students The first objective of the study discusses challenges that demonstrate and justify the need to enhance EALPs for first year university students. Chapter two discusses what the pol icy documents say juxtaposing with what the literature say. The disparities between the Minimum Requirements for Teacher Education Qualifications (MRTEQ) Policy Revised document requirements and those found in the literature justify the 12 need to enhance EALPs for first year university students. Chapter four explores what is entailed in the MRTEQ Policy Revised document in contrast to what the collected data say (4.2.1 ). The disparities revealed by both the literature and the data justify the need to enhance EALPs for first year university students. 1.5.2 Identification and the discussion of the components and aspects necessary for such enhancement of EALPs The second objective of the study in 2.2.2 looks at the components and aspects conducive for enhancing EALPs for first year university students used in five countries including South Africa . This is achieved through looking at conducive components and aspects used in Australia , Canada, UK, USA and South Africa. Section 4.2.2 scrutinises the operationalisation of the seven components and aspects which resulted in the successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students. The seven components are the provision of background about the textbook before classes commence or provision of localized textbooks; creating harmony between teaching academic reading and writing and language usage; reduction of reading reactions from eight to five with more focused paragraph writing with clear and detailed feedback; providing assurance and clarity at the beginning of the year that both British and American English are acceptable or one is acceptable; inviting facilitator or lecturer behaviour; acceptable student behaviour in class ; and an improved institutional leadership, guidance and support. Section 4.2 .2 further highlights and juxtaposes the distinguishing features in the seven components and aspects in 4.2.2 and 2.2.2. 1.5.3 Conditions conducive to the successful enhancement of EALPs Section 2.2.3 explores the conditions which enabled the enhancement of EALPs in the five aforementioned countries from the literature. On the other hand, section 4.2 .3 looks at the conditions which favoured the successful enhancement of EALPs in this study juxtaposed with those from the literature in 2.2.3. One of the conditions that supported the effective enhancement of EALPs for first year university students was facilitators treating first year university students as learners, not students. For the students, being treated as learners in their first year rather than students was an 13 enabling factor for them. Differences in conditions between section 2.2.3 and 4.2.3 are also pointed out. 1.5.4 Plausible threats to the operationalization of enhancement of EALPs and strategies to circumvent them The fourth objective of the study is explored in sections 2.2.4 and 4.2.4. The threats in the enhancement of EALPs and mechanisms put in place to circumvent them are clarified. Section 4.2.4 examines the threats to the enhancement of EALPs in the campus under study. Mechanisms utilized to offset their effect are also cited from a literature perspective (chapter two) and through the empirical data (chapter four) . 1.5.5 Monitoring strategies and indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs The fifth objective of the study is interrogated in sections 2.2.5 and 4.2.5. Section 2.2.5 provides the evidence of the enhancement of EALPs through the literature review. Additionally, the evidence on the operationalisation of the enhancement of EALPs under study unfolds in 4.2.5. Furthermore, section 4.2.5 also highlights the differences in the evidence produced in sections 2.2.5 and 4.2.5. Having presented the aim and objectives of this study, the ensuing section concisely discusses the framework informing it. 1.5.6 Proposed strategies for enhancing EALPs for first year university students The sixth objective summarized and presents proposed strategies for enhancing EALPs for first year university students drawn from the literature and findings of this study. The subsequent section discusses CER as the theoretical framework underpinning this study. 1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK This study is guided by Critical Emancipatory Research (CER). The rationale for the choice of this framework is discussed below. 14 1.6.1 Theoretical framework informing this study The study is informed by Critical Emancipatory Research (CER). CER is aimed at creating space for empowerment and change for the oppressed (Lincoln, Lynham & Guba, 2011: 102). As the researcher, I applied CER as a transformative framework clarifying my relation with the participants in all facets of the study. According to Mertens (2010: 8) CER emphasises the agency for change which rests in the persons in the community, working side by side with the researcher toward the goal of social transformation. Furthermore, Jordan (2003: 190) argues that CER places me as a researcher in a position to understand that human beings, unlike objects, have feelings and attitudes, and that these need to be considered when dealing with them. Human beings are therefore abled and empowered to interpret their words. From an ontological lens, positivism assumes that there is one knowable reality, driven by natural laws. From a positivist perspective, the researcher is the only one who can determine the need to enhance EALPs for first year university students. In contrast, Mertens (2010: 32) argues that CER on the other hand contends that there are multiple realities shaped by social, cultural , economic, ethnic, gender and disability values. Social reality is ruled by unseen underlying structures. By employing CER in determining that there is a need to enhance EALPs for first year university students, I automatically place myself in a position to understand that participants' points of view need not just be heard, but also be considered. Moving from this perspective, it therefore becomes lucid that participants have the ability to express and interpret their opinions in determining the components and aspects necessary to enhance EALPs and that their views and opinions will be considered . From an epistemological standpoint, positivism upholds the objectivity of the researcher, thereby dislodging and separating the researcher and the object of study as they are presumed to be independent of each other. From the CER perspective, the assumption is that there must be an interactive relationship between the researcher and the participants. In this study, the CER perspective placed me in a position of knowing and understanding that in order to determine the conditions conducive to successful enhancement of EALPs, I needed to consider and 15 acknowledge that there is a relationship between myself as the researcher and the participants. In order to determine the threats in the enhancement of EALPs, I also considered that I was not independent of the participants. According to Higgs (1995: 49-50) and Mertens (201 O: 10) Positivism uses quantitative methods and surveys in the collection of data while Chilisa (2012 : 253) argues that CER uses dialogical methods of generating data. My choice of GER is based on the position of the researcher in relation to the participants in trying to hear the views, opinions and voices of the marginalized , and not only those in positions of authority, such as DHET officials. I wanted the voices of facilitators and students to be heard and captured . My aim was to bring to the fore the perspectives of the facilitators and students who are the direct people affected by these EALPs. My interaction with participants did not involve an expert and novices relationship, with the former having all the solutions to the challenges encountered or raised. Moreover, thorough and more elaborative argument for the choice of CER is provided in the subsequent chapter. After interrogating the framework informing this study, the next section concisely looks at the literature review. In-depth details of the literature review are presented in chapter two. 1.7 SYNOPSIS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW Enhancement of EALPs for first year university students is necessary since there is no educator training that can train one for a life (Moswela, 2006: 626). Ongoing tra ining is essential to the business of teaching and learning at any level. The first part of the synopsis of the literature review looks at the challenges encountered in the enhancement of EALPs for first year university students . The rest of this section scrutinises and examines how Australia , Canada , UK, USA and South Africa experienced and attempted to solve the challenges that justified the need for enhancement of EALPs. These countries were chosen because they are globally regarded as developed countries with South Africa falling between developing and developed countries. Therefore, they are mostly sharing more or less similar socio­ economic and educational experiences and challenges. This section is anchored by the five objectives of the study. 16 1.7.1 Challenges demonstrating and justifying the need for EALPs enhancement The challenges that demonstrated and justified the need for enhancing EALPs for first year university students drawn from the literature are deficit models of EALPs implementation which were mostly experienced in the UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 368; Kress, 2003; Kress & Street, 2006) and South African universities (Jacobs, 2005: 476). Ells and ESL students tended to be labelled in deficit terms by academic lecturing staff in Australian universities (Birrell, Hawthorne & Richardson, 2006), USA universities (Harklau , 2010) and South African universities (Jacobs, 2005: 476). According to Birrell (2006a; 2006b), Birrell , Hawthorne and Richardson (2006), Callahan (2005), Gandara and Rumberger (2009) and Jacobs (2005: 476) the lack of academic success and high attrition for EAL students at universities in Australia, UK, USA and South Africa was a serious issue and an indictment on the universities concerned regarding the improvement of academic progress for ESL students. The need for Ells and ESL students to work long hours limited their engagement in collegiate activities in Canada (Jacquet, 2008) and the USA (Kanno & Varghese, 2010). Ells and ESL students often had less than helpful guidance from the college in Canadian universities (Keat, Strickland & Marinak; Smythe & Toohey, 2009) while low Post Secondary Education participation and other academic underachievement issues were in the USA and South African universities respectively (Callahan , 2005; Gandara & Rumberger, 2009; South Africa, Jacobs, 2005: 476 ; Chireshe, Shumba, Mudhovozi & Denhere, 2009: 866). Moreover, colour blindness and denial of differences between monolingual mainstream English speaking students and ESL students were experienced in Canadian universities (Keat, Strickland & Marinak, 2009; Smythe & Toohey, 2009) and USA universities (Bunch & Endris, 2012). Additionally, ESL students failed to meet the demands of mainstream university courses despite the availability of EAL courses in Australia (Birrell, Hawthorne & Richardson, 2006), Canada (Keat, Strickland & Marinak, 2009) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476). Having highlighted the challenges that demonstrated and justified the need for enhancing EALPs for first year university students, the subsequent section provides the solutions in a form of components and aspects employed by the abovementioned countries to counteract the challenges raised. 17 1.7.2 Components and aspects necessary for enhancement of EALPs used in the five countries including South Africa The first step towards addressing the challenges raised in the above section involved the adoption of content/subject/discipline/faculty-based EAL courses as was the case in Australia (James, 201 0; Ashton, 2011 : 80; Purser et al. , 2008), Canada (Lea & Street, 2006: 376) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 475). While ESL students were labelled in positive terms, rather than deficit terms in Canada (Sleeter, 2004; Dei, 2007) and the USA {Alderman, 2006), ongoing training for EAL practitioners and discipline specialists was conducted in order to arrest the challenges raised in the previous section by Australian (Ashton, 2011 : 81) and Canadian universities (Nieto, 2002; Dei, 2007). EAL students' stay at college was extended by one year in the USA and South Africa (Alderman, 2006). Treating students in a fair manner and celebrating diversity through adjusting pedagogical practices to suit the academic needs of EAL students in Canada (Sleeter, 2004; Dei, 2007) and the USA Alderman, 2006). Saturation of educational institutions with educators of similar educational experiences with EAL students as they are likely to be familiar with issues, perspectives, and discourses of minoritization was done in Canada (Sleeter, 2004; Castelloti & Moore, 2010) while the appointment of trained academic staff that understand embedded systemic prejudices, oppressive discourses, and injustices reproduced within educational institutions excluding minoritized students was done in Canada (Nieto, 2002; Dei, 2007) and Australia {Ashton, 2011: 81 ). Collaborations between EAL practitioners, discipline specialists and faculty lecturers were initiated in Australian (Ambery, Manners & Smith, 2005; Crosling & Wilson , 2005; Kift & Nelson, 2005: 226; Lamb & Visnovsa, 2012; Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 167), UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 376) and South African universities (McKenna, 2013: 64) as components and aspects necessary to address the challenges that justified the need for enhancing EALPs for first year university students. Having outlined the components and aspects needed to address the challenges raised in the first objective of this study, the next section highlights the conditions that made these components and aspects to succeed in addressing the challenges. 18 1. 7 .3 Conditions under which EALPs enhancement worked The conditions under which the components and aspects raised in the previous section in addressing the challenges justifying the need for enhancing EALPs, bottom­ up approaches on university-wide curriculum initiatives from Australian (Evans et al., 2009: 600) and South African universities (Jacobs, 2005: 475; McKenna, 2013: 64) and the initiation of faculty and discipline committees involving all the stakeholders on consultations, planning, implementation and monitoring of curriculum initiatives formed a strong basis for the successful implementation of the components and aspects discussed above especially from the Australian universities (Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 167; Dennison et al. , 2009). Institutional leadership that communicate clear and bold steps to all campus stakeholders framing EAL facilitators and students in positive terms, as opposed to deficit terms was experienced in Australia (Birrell , Hawthorne & Richardson , 2006), USA (Harklau, 2010) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476) while a shared and common vision amongst all the stakeholders involved in the collaborative project occurred mostly in Australian universities (Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 166; Dennison et al. , 2009). The other important condition for successful implementation of components and aspects for enhancing EALPs involves institutions being explicit on modularity, assessment, and university procedures on student writing as was the case in Australia (Kift & Nelson, 2005: 226) and the UK (Lea & Street, 1998: 170; 2006: 370). On the other hand, a coordinated and well developed plan of action was tried in Australia (Ashton, 2011: 600; Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 166) including processes for identifying and recognizing good practice ( Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 166). Funding to develop initiatives at the local level was provided in Australia (Harris & Ashton , 2011: 79; Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 166) while authentic support from a high level champion was experienced in both Australia (Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 166) and South Africa (McKenna, 2013: 64 ). Lastly, embracing academic advisors and treating them as experts with much to contribute as a condition for the successful enhancement of EALPs were done in Australian (Harris & Ashton , 2011 : 79 ; Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 167) and South African universities (Jacobs, 2005: 475; McKenna, 2013: 64). 19 1.7.4 Plausible threats to operationalisation of EALPs enhancement and strategies to circumvent them In the process of addressing chal lenges through components and aspects together with the conditions necessary to enhance EALPs for first year university students, there were threats and strategies employed to circumvent them in an effort to enhance EALPs. This section starts with the threats that were encountered and ends with strategies employed to circumvent those threats to enhancing EALPs. 1. 7.4.1 Plausible threats to enhancement of EALPs The first two key threats to successful enhancement of EALPs are that it is very difficult to facilitate a whole of university initiative as seen in Australia (Evans et al. , 2009: 600) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 475; McKenna, 2013: 64) while also the lack of a common shared vision or collaborators not sharing the same vision of the collaboration threatens the successful enhancement of EALPs as affirmed in Australia (Cummings et al. , 2005 ; Burnett & Larmar, 2011 ), UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 376) and South Africa (Jacob, 2005: 475). Additionally, lack of institutional leadership in resolving contentious issues in Australia (Bunch & Endris, 2012; Burnett & Larmar, 2011 ; Cummings et al. , 2005) and the marginalization of EAL practitioners posed threats to successful enhancement of EALPs in Austral ia (Kift & Nelson, 2005: 226) and the USA (Callahan , 2005; Gandara & Rumberger, 2009; Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 167). Furthermore, top-down approach to initiate whole-of-university EAL programmes posed a serious threat in Australia (Evans et al. , 2009: 602), UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 376), USA (Alderman, 2006) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 475) while lack of the necessary preparation to serve minoritized ESL students was a threat in Australia (Keat, Strickland & Marinak, 2009; Smythe & Toohey, 2009) and the USA (Bunch & Endris, 2012). Students' lack of attendance of EAL classes in the USA (Harklau , 2010) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476); colour blindness and denying differences in Canada (Sleeter, 2004; Jacquet, 2008) and conflicting advice or feedback students receive from academic teaching staff in Australia (Cummings et al. , 2005) and UK (Lea & Street, 1998: 170) posed serious threats to successful enhancement of EALPs. Moreover, institutional labelling of ESL students in 'deficit' terms in the UK (Lea & 20 Street, 2006: 368; Kress, 2003; Kress & Street, 2006) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476); EAL students often having less than helpful guidance from the college as in Canada (Keat, Strickland & Marinak, 2009; Smythe & Toohey, 2009), USA (Bunch & Endris, 2012) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476); coupled with decontextualized and deficit models of EALPs in the UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 368; Kress , 2003; Kress & Street, 2006) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476) posed very serious threats to successful enhancement of EALPs. Finally, lack of faculty committees to address the collaborative process in Australia (Ashton , 2011: 80 ; Purser et al. , 2008), Canada (Jacquet, 2008), USA (Alderman , 2006) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 475, McKenna, 2005: 64) posed a threat towards successful EALPs enhancement. Given the threats highlighted in this section , the subsequent sub-section deals with strategies necessary and needed for circumventing threats to successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students. 1.7.4.2 Strategies to circumvent threats to enhancing EALPs In an attempt to circumvent the threats posed in the above sub-section , the strategies employed that made the enhancement of EALPs successful as mentioned in the literature include an understanding that whole-of-university initiatives develop over time, need nurturing and leadership as occurred in Australia (Evans et al. , 2009: 600) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 475; McKenna, 2013: 64) ; common shared vision amongst collaborators as was the case in Australia (Cummings et al. , 2005; Burnett & Larmer, 2011 ), UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 376) and South Africa (Jacob, 2005: 475); and the provision of institutional leadership on contentious issues in Australia (Bunch & Endris, 2012; Burnett & Larmar, 2011 ; Cummings et al. , 2005) amongst other strategies employed. In add ition , embracing EAL practitioners as experts with much to contribute as in Australia (Kift & Nelson, 2005: 226) and the USA (Callahan , 2005; Gandara & Rumbereger, 2009; Pourshafie & Brady, 2013: 167) while bottom-up approaches to initiate whole-of-university EAL programmes were strategies tested in Australia (Evans et al. , 2009: 602), UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 376), USA (Alderman, 2006) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 475). The necessary preparation to serve minoritized ESL students as a strategy to circumvent the threats indicated above was tried in Australia (Keat, Strickland & 21 Marinak; Smythe & Toohey, 2009) and the USA (Bunch & Endris, 2012) while students' lack of attendance of EAL classes in the USA (Harklau , 2010) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476) were employed as strateg ies for ci rcumventing the threats identified in the sub-section above. Making EAL class attendance compulsory in the USA (Harklau, 2010) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476) while treating ESL students fa irly and celebrating diversity through adjusting pedagogical practices to suit their academic needs in Canada , Sleeter, 2004; Jacquet, 2008) were strategies employed to circumvent the threats. Clear, common and consistent advice or feedback given to students by academic staff in Australia (Cummings et al. , 2005) and UK (Lea & Street, 1998: 170); institutional labelling of students in positive terms, as opposed to 'deficit' terms in UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 368; Kress , 2003; Kress & Street, 2006) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476); and sufficient and necessary preparation on the part of academic staff to adequately serve minoritized students in Canada (Keat, Strickland & Marinak, 2009; Smythe & Toohey, 2009), USA (Bunch & Endris, 2012) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476) served as strategies to circumvent the threats highlighted above. Finally, the adoption of faculty/discipline/subject/content-based EALPs in UK (Lea & Street, 2006: 368; Kress, 2003; Kress & Street, 2006) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 476) together with the initiation of faculty committees involving all stakeholders in the collaborative process in Austra lia (Ashton, 2011: 80; Purser et al. , 2008), Canada (Jacquet, 2008), USA (Alderman, 2006) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 475, McKenna, 2005: 64) were also employed as strategies to curb the threats posed in the literature. This section has identified and highlighted threats towards the enhancement of EALPs and strategies that were employed by different institutions local ly and internationally to circumvent such threats . The following section addresses the monitoring strategies and indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs as indicated in the literature reviewed in this study. 1. 7.5 Monitoring strategies and indicators that showed that EALPs enhancement worked As a way of devising and generating strategies for monitoring EALPs and indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students , early 22 identification and intervention for ESL students with weak academic language skills in Australia (Baik & Greig, 2009: 414; Peacock, 2008); comprehensive longitudinal studies to trace effectiveness and impact of faculty/discipline-based language programmes in Australia (Baik & Greig , 2009: 414) and the USA (Kanno & Cromley, 2013: 89-92); faculty committees involving all stakeholders in Australia (Burnett, 2006; Doham & Green , 2004: 314; McRoy & Gibbs, 2009) and the USA, Gutierrez, Hunter & Arzubiaga , 2009:); and support and monitoring of ESL students in Australia (Baik & Greig, 2009: 414; Burnett, 2006; Purser et al. , 2008), USA (Kanno & Cromley, 2013: 89-92) and South Africa (Scott, 2001 : 5) were employed as monitoring strategies as well as indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs. Additionally, student and lecturer course evaluation at the end of the year in Australia (Baik & Greig, 2009: 414) and South Africa (Butler & Van Dyk, 2004: 7) ; strong institutional structures that support academic development and professionalism in Australia (Burnett, 2006; Scott, 2003 ; Doham & Green , 2004: 314; Cummings, 2005; McRoy & Gibbs, 2009), the USA (Gutierrez, Hunter & Arzubiaga , 2009: ) and South Africa (Scott, 2001 : 5) served as monitoring strategies and indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs. There was availability of support from a high level champion in Australia (Cummings, 2005; McRoy & Gobbs, 2009; Burnett & Larmar, 2011 : 25) , USA (Kanno & Cromley, 2013: 89-92) and South Africa , (Scott, 2001 : 5) while a coordinated and well developed plan of action for implementing whole-of-university initiatives in Australia (Greig & Baik, 2009: 414; Burnett, 2006; Dohan & Green , 2004: 314), the USA (Gutierrez, Hunter&Arzubiaga, 2009 : ) and South Africa (Jacobs, 2005: 479-80) were utilized as strategies for monitoring the success of EALPs and as indicators of successful enhancement of these programmes. Lastly, bottom-up management approach of whole-of-university initiatives in Australia (Baik & Greig, 2009: 414; Cummings et al. ,, 2005 ; McRoy & Gibbs, 2009; Burnett & Larmar, 2011 : 25), the USA (Kanno & Cromley, 2013: 89-92) and South Africa (Scott, 2001: 5); and adequate and timely support given in Australia (Baik & Greig , 2009: 414; Purser et al. , 2008; Burnett & Larmar, 2011 : 25), the USA (Kanno & Cromley, 2013: 89-92) and South Africa (Scott, 2001 : 5) were also some of the strategies used for monitoring the success of EALPs as well as indicators that EALPs were successfully enhanced . 23 Having provided a concise summary of the literature aligned to the five objectives of the study, the next section looks at the methodology and design adopted in this study. 1.8 METHODOLOGY AND DESIGN In order to fulfi l the aim of this study, which is to enhance EALPs for first year university students on the Qwaqwa Campus of the UFS, I employed Participatory Action Research (PAR) as a methodology and design guiding this study. Dworski-Riggs and Langhout (2010: 216) posit that PAR is a research approach that seeks to promote social justice by creating conditions that foster empowerment. It addresses the differences between power structures and allows researchers to put critical emancipatory research into practice by ensuring that everyone who has a stake in the outcome of the partnersh ip has a voice in the process of decision-making . Participants in this study participated in problem identification and defin ition . Myself as the researcher and the participants defined the problems to be examined , co-generated relevant knowledge about them , learned and executed social research techniques, took actions, and interpreted the results of actions based on what they had learned (Dentith, Measor, O'Malley, 2012). Empowerment of participants, problem-solving, active participation and recognition of inputs happened as the research process unfolded as advocated in CER (Mertens, 2010 : 30). Free Attitude Interviews (f Als) were administered in this study, by which participants had an opportunity to say more than they would have said in responding to a closed questionnaire (Buskens, 2011 : 1 ). For anonymity the participants were given the pseudonyms ALC Participant 1 and ALC Participant A; ALN Participant 1 and ALN Participant A for both students and facilitators respectively (ALC108: 2 facilitators and 10 students and ALN 108: 2 facilitators and 10 students). The 24 participants constituted two separate teams of 12 each (each group with 2 facilitators and 10 students) for both ALC108 and ALN108 groups driving the process of enhancing EALPs for first year university students in the mentioned campus and their views constituted empirical data for this study. 24 1.9 ANALYSIS OF DAT A For analysis of the collected data, I drew up a coding frame. Bell (1993:107) and Monyatsi , Steyn and Kamper (2006: 219) encourage verbatim reporting of responses where appropriate, therefore I transcribed tape-recorded data for coding. From the codes (categories) I looked at the patterns, identified and described themes in an effort to have an understanding of the meanings from the perspectives of the participants. To get a better understanding of the meanings from the perspectives of the participants, I used Narrative Analysis (NA) which Riessman (2008: 1) defines as a multidisciplinary qualitative analysis that comprises the analysis of text and talk in all disciplines of the humanities and social sciences. While there are different kinds of data that can be used in narrative inquiry, Riessman focuses on interviewing and the process of transcribing interviews. She positions her discussion of interviewing and transcription on the premise that "interviews are narrative occasions" (Riessman, 2008: 23), and that transcription inevitably involves interpretation. She argues for interviewing methods that afford participants the opportunity to tell their story in their own ways, therefore sharing power within the conversation. The issue of power relations is of paramount importance in narrative inquiry (Connelly & Clandinin, 2000; Flicker, 2004) and narrative researchers need to create an atmosphere that fosters "reciprocal and empowering interaction" (Cohn & Lyons, 2003: 41) if they are to produce rich and meaningful data. NA matches CER in that both seek to find the origins of a problem and find solutions to the problem at hand (Riessman, 2008: 1; Chase, 2005). To avoid misinterpretation of the spoken words, member checking was carried out. 1.10 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND PROPOSED STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING EALPs In the presentation and discussion of data, the five objectives anchoring this study are used as organising principles in order to systematise the discussion. 1.10.1 Challenges justifying the need for EALPs enhancement Chapter five justifies the need for enhancing EALPs for first year university students by unpacking the challenges participants' experience. The words of students and 25 facilitators involved in the teaching and learning of EALPs are analysed using the NA, and the generated data showed disparities between what the policy documents like Norms and Standards for Educators and recently MRTEQ Policy Revised stipulate and what takes place in the classes. The challenges justifying the need for enhancing EALPs include irrelevant module content to students' background and life experiences; EAL courses ' focus on academic reading and writing at the expense of language usage or grammar; EAL classes scheduled late in the evening ; confusion brought by EAL courses' content which is taught through American English while the assessment is done in British English ; lecturer behaviour, student behaviour, and lack of institutional leadership, guidance and support for EALPs and students. 1.10.2 Components and aspects needed for EALPs enhancement In order to counteract the challenges alluded to above, the following were generated by participants as components and aspects necessary to respond to the challenges above: provision of textbooks background before classes commence or opt for localized textbooks; creation of harmony between teaching academic reading and writing and language use or grammar; reduction of reading reactions writing from the current eight per semester to five with more focused paragraph writing with clear and detailed feedback; assurance and clarity provided at the beginn ing of the year that both American and British standard English are acceptable for assessment or one is acceptable; inviting lecturer/facilitator behaviour in class; acceptable student behaviour in class; and an improved institutional leadership, guidance and support for EALPs and EAL students. 1.10.3 Conditions conducive for the operationalization of EALPs enhancement The conditions that made the enhancement of EALPs practical as alluded to by the participants in this study are the increased schema activation and building about the course content; provision of more language practice activities through classroom presentations, language usage, and vocabulary building exercises; creation of an engaging and active classroom environment; competent and interactive lecturer with a positive attitude towards students and the course; facilitators treating first year university students as learners, not students; availability and provision of engaged and 26 improved institutional leadership, guidance and support; creation of collaborative work between subject lecturers in faculties and English academic literacy facilitators ; integration of English academic literacy reading and writing skills within disciplines in faculties through collaborative curriculum planning and shared teaching ; and alignment of academic reading and writing activities in English academic literacy courses, other subjects in the faculties and the Write Site. 1.10.4 Threats to the EALPs enhancement and strategies to circumvent them The threats to successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students were lecturers/facilitators' negative attitude and low expectations from students; students' negative attitude towards the facilitator/lecturer and the course ; lecturer and students' lack of regular class attendance and coming late to class; traditional teaching that does not embed technology in the class ; uncomfortable learning environment for students ; uninterested and de-motivated students; clashes between English Academic Literacy courses and mainstream courses (Timetabling); and negative attitude of university management towards students and lack of proper guidance, support and leadership for EALPs and EAL students. The strategies for circumventing the above threats were alluded by the participants as follows: lecturers/facilitators' positive attitude and high expectations from students; students' positive attitude towards the facilitator/lecturer and the course; lecturer/facilitator and students attending class regularly and being punctual ; innovative and up to date teaching that embed technology in teaching and learning ; comfortable learning environment for students; interested and motivated students; clashes free timetable between EAL courses and mainstream courses; and positive attitude of the university management towards EALPs and students coupled with the provision of proper guidance, support and leadership. 1.10.5 Monitoring strategies of EALPs enhancement and indicators that they worked The monitoring strateg ies and indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs for first year university students dealt with the challenges experienced through the saying that 27 'many hands make light work' or alternatively, from Tabane's perspective in chapter two where he talks about 'confluent thinking ' wherein a team come up with better ideas than one person. The monitoring strategies and indicators of successful enhancement of EALPs included course evaluation by students and facilitators/lecturers; monthly evaluation of students' performance by facilitators/lecturers; selection of specific books (graded readers) to be read for reading reactions ; continuous assessment with early detailed feedback; general reviews of assessment on student feedback; facilitator monthly or quarterly individual interviews with students to check progress and students' experiences of the course; and facilitators encouraging the spirit of a healthy academic competition in class through extrinsic motivation (rewards, incentives). 1.10.6 Proposed strategies for enhancing EALPs The aim of this study was to enhance EALPs for first year university students on the Qwaqwa Campus of the UFS. Guided by the findings from both the literature and empirical data emanating from the previous chapters, strateg ies are proposed for enhancing EALPs for first year university students. The strategies proposed in this study may not be limited to EALPs alone. Those who are involved and affected by the teaching and academic progress of first year university students may also test and put into practice the strategies proposed in this study. The proposed strategies consist of four levels, namely: class level, discipline level, faculty level and institutional level. At all these levels, the strategies involve concrete experience, reflective observation , abstract conceptualization and active experimentation extracted from Kolb and Kolb (2005: 198)'s experiential learning cycle. 1. 10. 6. 1 Class level The findings from the literature and empirical data aligned to the five objectives of this study informed the following proposed strategies at classroom level informed by concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization , and active experimentation. 28 The content of EAL courses must be disciplines and faculties-based to help students to transfer skills they learn in the EALPs to their mainstream courses in their respective disciplines and faculties. The need for establishing classroom rules agreed upon by all students and the facilitator in the class is central to enhancing EALPs. Regular class attendance and punctuality by both students and facilitators must be adhered to and in cases of inconveniences, protocols have to be observed as outlined in the EAL course guides. In order to comply with the MRTEQ Policy Revised (2015) regarding teacher competence and expectations, ongoing training and upgrading of skills for facilitators is encouraged. Giving students early and detailed feedback on their assessment coupled with whole class general reviews of common and prevalent on assessment must be done. Facilitators mus