IDENTIFYING AND CLASSIFYING DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO ACTING IN SELECTED 
DEVISED THEATRE PRODUCTIONS 

By 

CHRISTELLE NORTIER 

Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree 

Master’s Drama and Theatre Arts 

In the 

DEPARTMENT OF DRAMA AND THEATRE ARTS 

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES 

UNIVERSITY OF THE FREE STATE 

BLOEMFONTEIN 

STUDY LEADER 

Prof. A. van Jaarsveld 

CO-STUDY LEADER 

DeBeer Cloete 



I 

DECLARATION 

I, Christelle Nortier, certify that the content of this dissertation, which I am submitting to the 

University of the Free State, is the result of my independent effort and that I have never 

submitted it to any other school for credit. I, Christelle Nortier, declare that I am submitting this 

dissertation for the first time at this school to receive a master's degree in Drama and Theatre 

Arts. 

Signature: Date: July 2023 



II 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and appreciation to the following individuals who 

assisted me in completing this study: 

• Prof. Anthea van Jaarsveld, my supervisor, for your support, help, and patience. It

was a big honour to be able to work with you. The knowledge and guidance you

have is phenomenal. I hope we will work together again in the future.

• DeBeer Cloete, my co-supervisor, for your support and help. It was a big honor to

be able to work with you. The knowledge and guidance you have is excellent. I hope

we will work together again in the future.

• My parents, Alma and Johan Nortier, for their motivation, love, and confidence in

my abilities.

• My sister, Danielle Nortier, for your love, support, and motivation.

• All my friends, George Nell and Marc Ross, supported me in the study.

• The University of the Free State: Thank you for my education, especially to the

Drama Department faculty and staff.

• The Graduate School for the financial support of my scholarship.

• Finally, my thanks to Heavenly Father, who gave me blessed with the ability to

complete this dissertation



III  

ABSTRACT 
 
 

From a ‘postmodern theatre’1 perspective, the tendency among most when creating theatre 

on stage is often more toward devised theatre than a conventional theatre product. This study 

will focus on identifying and classifying different approaches to acting in selected devised 

theatre productions. 

 
This research’s primary point of departure was to determine the autogenous characteristics 

of each method of acting and to discover which acting style/styles work best or are most 

applicable to the devised theatre. 

 
‘Conventional theatre’ follows a set number of acts. Generally, it adheres to Aristotle's theory 

of plot structure from the fourth century BC (335 BC), with actors reading dialogue on a thrust 

or proscenium stage. The genre and style of where the text originated are predetermined or 

suggested in the playwright's mind. Therefore, the director, as well as the actors, have a 

blueprint of what the play is intended to look like and how it played out during the process of 

creation by the playwright. This intent is reflected in various ways. Firstly, it is reflected in the 

dramatist's notes on acting, writing, characters, costumes, locality, stage lighting, and stage 

directions (Oddey, 1996:16). Horace approaches poetry from a practical standpoint instead of 

Aristotle's theoretical approach. Around 19 BC, ‘Ars Poetica’ of Horace is considered a core 

component of rhetoric literacy through his use of satires, epistles, and odes. ‘Ars Poetica’ 

attempts to create a sense of probability and coherence regarding artistic representation, 

including diction, dramatic characterisation, meter, poetic inventiveness, and the intended 

impact (Hajdu, 2014:28-42). In 1863, Freytag's technique allowed studies to visually examine 

a narrative and acknowledge the plot drama, similar to Aristotle's Poetics (335 BC). His plot 

is divided into five sections: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and denouement. 

(Hajdu, 2014:28-42). 

 
In contrast to conventional theatre, ‘devised theatre’ (frequently labelled as ‘collective 

theatre’) is an approach to theatre-making in which the text or (if it is a predominantly 

 
1 Postmodernism distinguished from Modernism during the 1960s. Postmodernism is a movement 
that allows questioning of established norms and, if necessary, be deconstructed and then suitably 
reconstructed, thus contributing to diversity by influence and relevance of cultural norms and values 
(Samuels, 2008:220). 



IV  

physical theatre-based work) performance outcome develops from collaboration, often 

through a performing group's improvisatory work (Oddey, 1996:1-4). 

 
The study of devised theatre and the exploration of various acting approaches can be linked 

by examining how postmodernism, a movement that questions established norms and cultural 

values, has influenced the evolution of theatre practices. Devised theatre, emphasising 

collaborative and improvisatory work, embodies the postmodern ethos of deconstructing and 

reconstructing traditional theatrical elements, including acting techniques. This intersection 

between postmodernism and devised theatre highlights the dynamic nature of contemporary 

theatre-making, where a diverse range of acting methods, from Stanislavski's realism to 

Brecht's epic theatre, can be adapted and integrated into this innovative and collaborative 

approach to creating performances. The approaches to acting, which will form the basis of the 

theoretical conceptualisation of this study, are based on the writings of Konstantin Stanislavski 

(1863-1938), Sanford Meisner (1905-1997), and Michel Saint-Denis (1897-1971) on classical 

acting, (between the late 1800s and early 1900s), David Mamet (1947) and William H. Macy 

(1950-1984) on practical aesthetics, Lee Strasberg (1901-1982) on method acting and Bertolt 

Brecht (1898-1956), specifically on the Brechtian method (1964). 

 
Three analytical case studies will be undertaken to analyse the applied acting methods to 

construct a reasonably mapped process that suits devised theatre best. The study contributes 

to the academic discussions concerning devised theatre and approaches to acting methods. 

The study also constructs an analytical framework for case study analysis, which could be 

employed by future studies that embark on similar studies or practitioners who aim to produce 

devised theatre productions within a contemporary, postmodern context. 

 
The research aims to identify and classify different approaches to acting in selected devised 

theatre productions. This study's fundamental starting point is to identify each acting 

technique's autogenous traits and ascertain which acting style(s) or styles operate best in or 

are most appropriate for improvised theatre. 

 
The study believes that devised theatre uses a combination of different acting approaches. 

By conducting three analytical case studies, the study proposes to evaluate the hypothesis 

to arrive at a conclusion either in favour or opposed to this statement. 

 



V  

Keywords: Acting styles, devised theatre, Aristotle, Horace, Freytag, practical 
aesthetics, improvisation, classical acting, method acting, Brechtian method 



VI 

TABLE OF CONTENT 

DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... I 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... II 

ABSTRACT ..........................................................................................................................III 

SECTION A: CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY ................................................ 1 

1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 

1.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ....................................................................................................... 1 

1.3 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM .......................................................... 3 

1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS .............................................. 7 

1.5 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................... 8 

1.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ....................................................................................... 10 

1.7 VALUE OF THE RESEARCH ......................................................................................... 11 

SECTION B: LITERATURE REVIEW: CHAPTER 2: DEVISED THEATRE (COMPARED 

TO CONVENTIONAL THEATRE) ....................................................................................... 12 

2.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 12 

2.2 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS ..............................................................................................13 

2.3 HORACE’S ‘ARS POETICA’ .................................................................................................... 18 

2.4 FREYTAG’S PYRAMID ................................................................................................. 21 

2.5 CONVENTIONAL THEATRE ........................................................................................ 23 

2.6 COLLABORATIVE THEATRE (FREQUENTLY CALLED DEVISED THEATRE) ..........  24 

2.6.1 BEGINNING OF DEVISED THEATRE........................................................................27 

2.6.2 THE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DEVELOPING A DEVISED THEATRE 
PIECE ................................................................................................................................ 28 

2.6.3 THE ACTOR’S EXPERIENCES IN A DEVISED THEATRE PIECE ........................... 32 

SECTION B: CHAPTER 3: METHODS OF ACTING ........................................................... 36 



VII 

3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 36 

3.1.1 CLASSICAL ACTING (1800s-1900s) .........................................................................  38 

3.1.1.1 VERSE AND RHETORIC ........................................................................................ 39 

3.1.1.2 BREATH CONTROL AND VOCAL PROJECTION .................................................. 39 

3.1.1.3 GESTURE AND POSTURE ..................................................................................... 40 

3.1.1.4 EMOTIONAL CONTROL AND SUBTLETY ............................................................. 40 

3.1.1.5 CHARACTER ARCHETYPES .................................................................................. 40 

3.1.1.6 STAGE MOVEMENT AND BLOCKING .................................................................... 40 

3.1.2 STANISLAVSKI’S SYSTEM (1933)............................................................................ 40 

3.1.2.1 EMOTIONAL MEMORY ..........................................................................................  43 

3.1.2.2 GIVEN CIRCUMSTANCES ......................................................................................   43 

3.1.2.3 CHARACTER OBJECTIVES AND SUPER-OBJECTIVES ......................................    43 

3.1.2.4 SUBTEXT ................................................................................................................   43 

3.1.2.5 PHYSICAL ACTIONS ..............................................................................................             44   

3.1.2.6 RELAXATION AND CONCENTRATION ................................................................. 44 

3.1.2.7 IMAGINATION ........................................................................................................ 44 

3.1.2.8 ENSEMBLE WORK .................................................................................................       44 

3.1.3 THE MEISNER ACTING TECHNIQUE (1940) ............................................................            44 

3.1.3.1 REPETITION ...........................................................................................................     46 

3.1.3.2 ACTIVE LISTENING ................................................................................................  46 

3.1.3.3 EMOTIONAL PREPARATION ................................................................................ 46 

3.1.3.4 INSTINCT ................................................................................................................46 

3.1.3.5 CHARACTERISATION ............................................................................................ 46 

3.1.3.6 PHYSICAL BEHAVIOUR ......................................................................................... 46 

3.1.3.7 IMPROVISATION .................................................................................................... 47 

3.1.4 PRACTICAL AESTHETICS (1984) ............................................................................. 47 



VIII 

3.1.4.1 BREATHING AND VOCAL QUALITY ......................................................................    49 

3.1.4.2 PRESENCE ............................................................................................................. 49 

3.1.4.3 PHYSICALITY ......................................................................................................... 49 

3.1.4 4 ARCHETYPES AND UNIVERSAL QUALITIES ....................................................... 50 

3.1.4.5 DRAMATIC ENERGY ..............................................................................................      50 

3.1.5 LEE STRASBERG’S METHOD ACTING (1931-1982) ...............................................   50 

3.1.5.1 EMOTIONAL MEMORY .......................................................................................... 52 

3.1.5.2 SENSE MEMORY ....................................................................................................                             52 

3.1.5.3 PHYSICAL ACTIONS .............................................................................................. 53 

3.1.5.4 SUBSTITUTION ...................................................................................................... 53 

3.1.5.5 RELAXATION AND CONCENTRATION ................................................................. 53 

3.1.5.6 INNER MOTIVATION ..............................................................................................53 

3.1.6 BRECHTIAN METHOD (1964) ............................................................................ 53 

3.1.6.1 ALIENATION EFFECT ............................................................................................55 

3.1.6.2 GESTURES ............................................................................................................. 56 

3.1.6.3 HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL CONTEXT ............................................................ 56 

3.1.6.4 EPIC THEATRE AND NARRATIVE STRUCTURE .................................................. 56 

3.1.6.5 CRITICAL CONSCIOUSNESS ................................................................................ 56 

3.1.6.6 ENSEMBLE COLLABORATION ............................................................................. 56 

3.2 CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................. 57 

SECTION C: CASE STUDIES 62 

CHAPTER 4: IN THE DARK ...............................................................................................   63 

4.1 CLASSICAL ACTING ...................................................................................................  64 

4.2 STANISLAVSKI’S SYSTEM.......................................................................................... 67 

4.3 MEISNER’S TECHNIQUE .............................................................................................. 70 

4.4 PRACTICAL AESTHETICS ........................................................................................... 71 



IX 

4.5 LEE STRASBERG’S METHOD ACTING ......................................................................     73 

4.6 BRECHTIAN METHOD .................................................................................................        74 

CHAPTER 5: AROUND ......................................................................................................  76 

5.1 CLASSICAL ACTING ...................................................................................................    76 

5.2 STANISLAVSKI’S SYSTEM ......................................................................................... 77 

5.3 MEISNER’S TECHNIQUE ..............................................................................................79 

5.4 PRACTICAL AESTHETICS ........................................................................................... 82 

5.5 LEE STRASBERG’S METHOD ACTING .......................................................................       84 

5.6 BRECHTIAN METHOD ..................................................................................................86 

CHAPTER 6: THE HATE CRIME PROJECT .......................................................................  88 

6.1 CLASSICAL ACTING ...................................................................................................  89 

6.2 STANISLAVSKI’S SYSTEM ......................................................................................... 89 

6.3 MEISNER’S TECHNIQUE ..............................................................................................92 

6.4 PRACTICAL AESTHETICS .......................................................................................... 93 

6.5 LEE STRASBERG’S METHOD ACTING ....................................................................... 96 

6.6 BRECHTIAN METHOD ..........................................................  ......................................              99 

6.7 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................. 101 

SECTION D: CHAPTER 7: REFLECTION AND CONCLUSION ............................................. 103 

7.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 103 

7.2 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................ 103 

7.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS ......................................................................................... 106 

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 108 



1  

SECTION A 
 
 

CHAPTER 1: ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY 
 
 

1.1 INTRODUCTION 
 
 

The study is introduced in chapter 1 of the study. The research problem, problem overview, 

background information on the research design, problem statement, research questions, and 

study objectives are all included. The field and scope of the study were defined, along with its 

importance and value. A synopsis of the research design and technique of inquiry is also 

provided. 
 

The research methodology and design that will be used in this study are discussed in this 

chapter. There is a contrast in devised theatre techniques that may be seen in the distinctions 

between conventional and devised theatre and a director's essential but problematic role. As 

Heddon and Milling (2007) state in their book Creating Performance: A Critical History, the 

director's role in creating practices ‘complicates the notion of non-hierarchical work of 

democratic participation. To further develop and comprehend the function of the director and 

actor within a collaborative context, the study has come to this topic. The voice and body 

repeatedly came up as priorities as interpreters of not just text but also locality and story as 

the study developed the method and aesthetic first as an actor and then as a director. The 

interest in the physical instruments of actors led the study to investigate acting and directing 

training programs. As an actor, the study aims to develop believable, flourishing characters 

that influence the setting in which they are present. Audiences and fellow actors can express 

relatable humanity in this way. The researcher’s interest in people, capacity to develop 

complex personae, and ability to live freely inside these structures of relationship with other 

actors and audiences are the sources of the characters created and the imagined worlds they 

inhabit. The researcher would like to argue that a close examination that results from 

understanding each person's journey produces a rare and unique reality. Sharing that 

singularity with an audience allows one to gain a new perspective on oneself and others. 

 
1.2 RESEARCH DESIGN 
 
This study will use a mixed-method approach that includes literature reviews within the 



2  

qualitative research framework. The project will develop an analytical framework for the case 

study analysis to recognise and categorise various performing styles in a few chosen created 

theatre productions. Instead of deductively testing a hypothesis, as described by Merriam and 

Tisdell (2016:17), an inductive reasoning approach will be used to develop concepts and 

theories. Inductive reasoning starts with particular concepts and progresses to more general 

ones. Data in the form of themes, categories, and subcategories concerning a particular 

practice component are the source of the findings for qualitative studies. All investigations are 

guided by discipline-specific data that enables the study to target their inquiry and analyse the 

results reliably and transparently (Nicholls, 2009:531-532). 

 
This study may examine views, institutional cultures, and explanations for the successes and 

failures of treatments or practices in-depth thanks to the qualitative research methodology. 

This qualitative study aims to examine and comprehend the participants' experiences 

(Ramani and Mann, 2016:38). Instead of attempting to explain, the study seeks to 

comprehend. An activity, program, or process is carefully investigated in relevant case study 

research to characterise a particular occurrence of interest (Nieuwenhuis, 2014:70–75). 

 
Productions at the University of the Free State are used to identify and categorise various 

acting methods in three different theatre shows using a case study methodology. A ‘case 

study’ is an investigation in which the program, activity, or event is thoroughly examined. This 

study qualifies as a case study since it examines the occurrence in its regular setting 

(Creswell, 2014:191). Utilising various data collection methods and sources is critical to the 

case study approach. The analysis can concentrate on one or two issues crucial to 

comprehending the system. Typically, data collecting comprises techniques like focus group 

interviews, documentation reviews, and nominal group interviews (Nieuwenhuis, 2014:75- 

76). 

 
The literature review includes a basic overview of traditional and devised theatre and the 

many acting styles outlined before. The digital footage of the three plays, In the Dark 

(2019), Around (2019), and The Hate Crime Project (2017), will be analysed to identify and 

classify different acting approaches from rehearsals and the final performances. 



3  

1.3 BACKGROUND TO THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 
 
 

From a postmodern2 theatre perspective, the tendency when creating theatre on stage is 

often more toward devised theatre than a conventional theatre product. This study will focus 

on identifying and classifying different approaches to acting in selected devised theatre 

productions. 

 
Conventional theatre originates from a written text and is often thought of as theatrical works 

that adhere to Aristotle's idea of plot structure from the fourth century BC (335 BC), follow a 

prescribed number of acts, and feature performers reading dialogue on a thrust or proscenium 

stage. The genre, style and the origin of the text, is predetermined, or suggested in the 

playwright's mind. Therefore, the director, as well as the actors, have a blueprint of what the 

play is intended to look like and how it played out during the process of creation by the 

playwright. This is reflected in various ways. Firstly, it is reflected in the dramatist's notes on 

acting, writing, characters, costumes, locality, stage lighting, and stage directions (Oddey, 

1996:16). Compared to Aristotle's theoretical approach, Horace approaches poetry 

practically. 

 
Around 19 BC, ‘Ars Poetica’ 3 of Horace is considered a core component of ‘rhetoric’4 literacy 

through his use of ‘satires’,5 ‘epistles’,6 and ‘odes’.7 ‘Ars Poetica’ attempts to create a sense 

of probability and coherence in artistic representation, covering everything from the genre 

selection to the intended effect, dramatic characterisation, meter, and poetic innovation. 

(Hajdu, 2014:28). In 1863, Freytag's technique allowed studies to examine a narrative visually 

and acknowledge the drama in the plot, like Aristotle's Poetics. His five-part plot 
 
 

2 In the 1960s, postmodernism differentiated itself from moderatism. Postmodernism is a movement 
that promotes challenging accepted norms and, if required, their deconstruction and subsequent 
appropriate reconstruction, fostering diversity through the influence and applicability of cultural norms 
and values (Samuels, 2008:220). 
3 Horace advised poets on composing poetry and theatre in the poem ‘Ars Poetica’, which he wrote 
in the early 20th century. ‘Ars Poetica’ is not a methodical treatment of theory; it covers a wide range 
of subjects, occasionally with sudden transitions and without drawing any conclusive logical 
connections between them (Hajdu, 2014:28). 
4 An expression from ancient Greece that describes the investigation of and practical use of spoken, 
written, and visual language (Hajdu, 2014:28). 
5 Sarcastic poetry that examines literary and human excellence (Hajdu, 2014:29). 
6 An epistle is a letter written in poetry or prose and addressed to a specific person or group. Most 
writing is done to convey morality, philosophy, or love (Hajdu, 2014:29). 
7 A poetic piece was written praising something or someone (Hajdu, 2014:29).  



4  

structure comprises five components: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and 

denouement. 

 
Devised theatre, often referred to as collective theatre, is an approach to theatre-making that 

differs from conventional theatre in that the text or, in the case of predominantly physical 

works, the performance outcome develops through collaborative and frequently improvisatory 

work by a performing group (DeLong et al., 2015). The group is primarily made up of actors. 

However, other theatre specialists, such as visual artists, writers, and choreographers, may 

also play a key role in fostering collaboration. In fact, on many occasions, the subscription of 

collaborating artists may exceed professional specialisation. (Haagensen, 2014:59). This 

process of devising is similar to ‘commedia dell'arte’,8 ‘street theatre’,9 ‘improvisational 

theatre’10 and ‘physical theatre’.11 The creative process involves a long period of creative 

work. The mentioned theatre forms focus on activities that entail physical, philosophical, and 

psychological concentration, allowing ideas to develop by using an embodiment of 

Commedia, miming,12 and clowning,13 allowing the actors to create paintings, sculptures, 

stories, and music, which remains in a fixed or partly fixed form by the time a devised piece 

is presented (Oddey, 1996:125). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

8 The French pantomime, in which actors would depict specific characters with predetermined 
features, is where the Italian theatrical tradition, which dates back to the 16th century, started. The 
actors' acrobatic motions and funny, violent confrontations made up most of the spontaneous 
performances, which were usually comedic. Each player's mask represented a distinct character that 
everyone in the audience would be familiar with. Commedia dell'Arte improved the social climate by 
reinforcing social norms, bringing city residents together across class and religious lines, and 
emphasizing the value of the street. 
9 A theatrical performance that originated in the 1960s to call attention to a particular topic among 
members of a specific group. 
10 Commedia dell'arte was a highly improvised dramatic form. As a result, improvisational theatre was 
influenced by commedia dell'arte during the 1800s. The audience is encouraged to participate in this 
theatrical experience by suggesting ideas and scenarios for the actor to portray. 
11 Physical body movement-based arts, such as dance, drama, miming, slap-stick, or clowning, are 
incorporated within the physical theatre. In the late 1800s, Hozden Swidecoft created physical theatre 
by expressing himself via movement. 
12 An ancient Greek and Roman theatrical style of indicating action, character, or mood solely by 
gesture, expression, and movement. 
13 A theatrical technique for acting funnily or playfully. 



5  

The approaches to acting, which will form the basis of the theoretical conceptualisation of this 

study, is that of Konstantin Stanislavski (1863-1938), Sanford Meisner (1905-1997), and 

Michel Saint-Denis (1897-1971) with classical acting, David Mamet (1947) and William H. 

Macy (1950) with practical aesthetics, Lee Strasberg (1901-1982) with method acting and 

Bertolt Brecht’s (1898-1956) Brechtian method (1964). 

 
‘Classical acting’ (1800s-1900s) is a principle combining body language, voice, 

personalization, improvisation, outside influences, and script analysis. It was discovered that 

Konstantin Stanislavski and Michel Saint-Denis were involved in the opinions and techniques 

of chosen classical performers and directors. 

 
Stanislavski's system (1933) is a structured perspective in training actors developed during 

the first half of the 20th century. His system generates the actor's conscious thought through 

a psychological process that forces the actor to return to emotional experience and 

subconscious actions empathetically and incidentally. During rehearsal, the actor explores 

the inner reasons for establishing actions and the explanation of what the character wants 

to obtain at the given time. 

 
Stanislavski's acting technique has structured methods to train actors. The comprehensive 

study incorporates the dramatic examination of concentration, voice, practical skills, and 

memory of emotion, rhythm, and observation. With the help of their emotions and 

experiences, actors may relate to the character they are playing, thanks to Stanislavski's 

technique. To create a more genuine picture of the character, the actor is made to adopt 

the viewpoint of the role (Benedetti, 2004:1-4). 

 
Stanislavski’s disappointment with his earlier investigation of ‘Memory of emotion’14 (1933) 

led him to evolve an approach that would set off emotions uniquely. 
 

14 He observed innovative and skilled actors, trying to establish common ground among them after 
attempting to explain his recent lack of vitality on stage. As a result, he began to develop concepts 
that he believed were responsible for these outstanding accomplishments. Stanislavski coined this 
phrase during his initial teaching efforts at Moscow's First Studio (1911-1916). Emotional memory 
necessitates an actor reproducing a former occurrence to regenerate the 'feelings' experienced. 
These sensations are then employed in the current acting circumstance to give the role of human 
depth and personal commitment. Despite his system's apparent success, Stanislavski thought it was 
losing integrity and needed to be re-established, so Stanislavski made a fundamental revision to his 
system between 1934 and 1938. 



6  

The basis of his new approach forces emotions to be stimulated through simple bodily actions. 

During Stanislavski's investigation, he noticed an opportunity between the behaviours (physical 

and psychological) of the actor's on-stage vocal and physical performance and psychological 

construction in characterisation. This was why the actor had already found a physicality 

unfamiliar and lacking in theatrical form because of the actor’s emotional process. Stanislavski 

believed that the actor’s bodily and psychological activities were interconnected. He came to 

the idea that physical activities may be used to inspire emotions (Stanislavski, 2008:195). 

 
Reconnecting the actor with his emotional impulses and performing that is primarily motivated 

by instinct is the core idea behind the Meisner technique. When acting, the actor must put all 

his or her attention on the other actor, acting as though that person is in the scene. The actor 

is trained in the Meisner technique to ‘live truthfully under imaginary circumstances’ to express 

genuine emotion and natural human reactions with the utmost degree of accuracy, and to 

establish personally significant points of view concerning the written words (Adair, 2005:1-9). 

The most crucial point of the Meisner technique is for the actor to "get out of their head" to 

the moment when the actor is acting naturally in day-to-day situations. The Meisner technique 

uses a few well-established repetition exercises to compare the words to the primary emotion, 

emphasising the other actor as opposed to one's inner feelings or beliefs relating to the 

character. Since Konstantin Stanislavski's early teachings influenced the Meisner technique 

and Lee Strasberg's method, acting is commonly misunderstood (Adair, 2005:1-9). 

 

In contrast, Practical Aesthetics, developed in 1984 by William H. Macy and David Mamet, is 

a practical acting technique that draws inspiration from various sources, including the 

philosopher Epictetus, Sanford Meisner, and Stanislavski. While the Meisner technique 

emphasizes the actor's presence in the moment, Practical Aesthetics incorporates elements 

from both Meisner and Stanislavski, alongside Epictetus's philosophical principles, to create 

a distinct approach to acting. A few characteristics of the technique includes specific exercises 

for repetition, flexibility, and script analysis similar to those found in the Meisner technique. 

The method focuses on the actor's body and involves breaking down a scene into four parts: 

the ‘as if’, the literal, the purpose, and the emotional. Furthermore, Patsy Rodenburg15 
 
 
 

15 Rodenburg, a multifaceted British professional in voice coaching, acting, writing, and directing, has 
made notable contributions to the industry. She has been affiliated with esteemed institutions like the 
Royal Court Theatre, the Royal Shakespeare Company, and the Royal National Theatre, where she 
held the position of Head of Voice



7  

 
The core tenet of Lee Strasberg’s method of acting (1931-1982) is that actors should draw on 

their own life experiences to emotionally and cognitively connect with their roles. It is based on 

the Stanislavski acting style and other Stella Adler and Sanford Meisner methods (McAllister, 

2018:105-106). 

 
In the Brechtian method (1964), Bertolt Brecht created a style known as ‘epic drama’, where 

he focuses on the depth of indifferences rather than the emotional participation of an 

audience. The audience is tricked into thinking the activity on stage is real’ under 

Stanislavski's system, which is in some ways in opposition to this (Martin and Bial, 2000:35). 

Brecht instructed his actors to create a sense of detachment from the characters they 

depicted. They were advised to disregard their personal emotions and inner thoughts and 

instead concentrate on adopting stylised external mannerisms such as gestures, intonation, 

facial expressions, and interactions with other characters. These artistic choices aimed to 

communicate the overall attitudes of one character towards another and serve as indications 

of their social relationships (Martin and Bial, 2000:35). 

 
The selected productions that will be used in these case studies are In the Dark (2019), Around 

(2019), and The Hate Crime Project (2017).  The reason for these choices is primarily due to their 

digital availability. The selected theatre productions will be discussed in the following process 

to analyse the applied acting methods to construct a reasonably mapped process that suits the 

best-devised theatre. The research will show that devised theatre combines different acting 

techniques. The research proposes to evaluate the hypothesis either in favour or opposed to 

this statement by doing three analytical case studies. This study attempts to discover which 

acting style/styles work best for or are most applicable to the devised theatre. 

 
 

1.4 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 
 

The research aims to identify and classify different approaches to acting in selected devised 

theatre productions. The fundamental starting point for this study is to determine the 

autogenous characteristics of each method of acting and to discover which acting style/style 

is most applicable to the devised theatre. Therefore, the primary research questions that will 

be looked into are: 

• What are the prominent contemporary methods of acting for theatre makers? 

• What are the processes involved in producing a devised theatre piece? 



8  

• How can specific acting approaches be identified in selected devised theatre 

productions? 

• To what extent are specific acting approaches more useful/appropriate when 

developing a devised theatre production? 
 

The study believes that devised theatre uses a combination of different acting approaches. 

By conducting three analytical case studies, the study proposes to evaluate the hypothesis 

to arrive at a conclusion either in favour or opposed to this statement.16 

 
1.5 OUTLINE OF THE STUDY 

 
 

Section A, chapter 1 contains an introduction to provide the reader a general idea of what the 

report covers, the backdrop to the study, the research problem, including the research 

questions, overarching goal and additional aims described, and the research design and 

methodologies that were employed were briefly discussed. 

 
Section B, chapter 2 presents a literature review of devised theatre compared to conventional 

theatre. To explore any potential conflicts and tensions between conventional and devised 

theatre, this chapter will give a historical and theoretical backdrop for the examination of the 

collaborative process of twentieth-century devised theatre. Also in this chapter, the study will 

discuss the notion of the ‘auteur’ director and how, as new theatrical forms emerged in the 

twentieth century, the director began to be seen more as a creator of art than a text interpreter. 

The study will compare this to the notion that the actor's creative contribution was introduced 

along with the growth of actor training in the 20th century to draw attention to potential conflicts 

and inconsistencies between traditional and devised theatre. The evolution of the devising 

process should be seen as a method that acknowledges its connection to the text-based 

theatre rather than completely disconnecting from it. The director's intentions and the chosen 

form can be understood and achieved by closely examining the development of devising 

techniques and the roles played by actors within this structure, with the discussion of 

collaboration regarding the production process. 
 
 

16 A link to the video recordings will be provided 



9  

Chapter 3 will consist of a literature study of different acting styles. The approaches to acting, 

which will form the basis of the theoretical conceptualisation of this study, those of 

Stanislavski, Meisner, that of classical acting, practical aesthetics, those of Strasberg and 

Brecht. 

 
Section C will examine visual footage from the performances to determine how devised 

theatre and various performing trajectories are used throughout the final performances and 

the rehearsal phase. Three analytical case studies are presented to analyse the applied 

acting methods to construct a reasonably mapped process that suits devised theatre best 

within the selected case studies. 

 
Chapter 4: The first case study is In the Dark. This devised theatre production was created 

by the cast working in collaboration with Chris Vorster as the director. In the Dark is a devised 

theatre production that explores and uses methods used in devising, such as a single theme, 

plot, and character. The narrative of this production follows anthropology students who visit 

caves as part of a field trip. The characters venture deep into a mysterious region haunted by 

the spirits of ancient cannibals. In search of specific rock paintings painted in human blood, 

they get lost, separated, and hunted. 

 
Chapter 5: The second case study focusses on an adaptation of Arthur Schnitzler’s La Ronde 

(1897), entitled Around, directed by DeBeer Cloete and Dion van Niekerk. La Ronde is a play 

about sexual morality and the class ideology of its day through successive experiences 

between pairs of characters. Around can be seen as a devising piece even through adaptation 

as it developed from existing written material which still means that the play was 

workshopped, writing and forming ideas collectively. The pre-existing text leads to fascinating 

discussions and thoughts about issues that remain relevant today. From that perspective, the 

characters are modernised and put in a different environment. The narrative reflects the 

society of contemporary South Africa. Relatable characters take the stage, as it is revealed 

that they are part of a never-ending cycle of sex, addiction, and power. 

 
Chapter 6: The last case study focusses on The Hate Crime Project, inspired by The Laramie 

Project written in 2000 by Moisés Kaufman and members of the Tectonic Theater Company. 

The objective of The Laramie Project was to encourage discussion and opportunity for 

audiences to hear many different opinions from those most related regarding the murder of 



10  

Matthew Shepard. This devised theatre performance was developed by a group of third-year 

drama students from the University of the Free State under the direction of DeBeer Cloete 

and Dion van Niekerk, using current events and historical records. The story examines hate 

crimes in South Africa through the fictional instance of a corrective rape that took place in 

Heilbron, a small Free State town. 

 
Section D, chapter 7 will provide a reflection and conclusion on the outcome obtained from 

the chapters, as mentioned earlier. The study contributes to the academic discussions 

concerning devised theatre and approaches to acting methods. The study also constructs an 

analytical framework for case study analysis, which could be employed by future studies 

which embark on similar research or practitioners who aim to produce devised theatre 

productions within a contemporary, postmodern context. 

 
1.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 

 
 

The proposed study will take the form of a desktop/literature study. As such, human 

participation and ethical considerations have been minimised. Additionally: 

• The researcher will plan, carry out, and present research by accepted norms of 

scientific competency and ethical research. 

• The researcher will design the study to minimise the chance that the findings might 

need to be corrected. 

• Only assignments for which the researcher has received the necessary training and 

preparation will be carried out. 

• The researcher will obtain permission from the host institution (University of the Free 

State) and the General / Human Research Ethics Committee (GHREC) before 

conducting formal research, and will provide accurate information about the research 

before formally commencing with the proposed study. 

• The researcher's study will not contain any fabricated data or fabricated findings. If the 

researcher finds substantial flaws in the data, it will be corrected by using the right 

tools. 

• The researcher will not pass off significant pieces, components, or data from another 

work as her own. 

• The researcher only accepts responsibility and credit for work that was conducted or to 

which was she has contributed, including authorship credit. 



11  

• Principal authorship and additional publications will be attributed to appropriately 

reflect the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individual(s) concerned. 

• If data has been published before, the researcher will not publish it or claim it as 

original. This does not prevent data from being published again as long as due credit 

is given. 

 
 

1.7 VALUE OF THE RESEARCH 
 
 

The researcher offers insight into scholarly debates on devised theatre and approaches to 

acting techniques. The researcher also creates an analytical framework through the analysis 

of the case study and a literature review that might be used by future researchers conducting 

related research or practitioners attempting to create improvised theatre plays in a modern 

setting. 



12  

SECTION B: LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
 

CHAPTER 2: DEVISED THEATRE (COMPARED TO CONVENTIONAL THEATRE) 
 
 

2.1 INTRODUCTION 
 
 

This chapter aims to deepen and refine the study's analytical focus by comparing and 

exploring the historical growth and connection between devised and conventional theatre. 

From a postmodern theatre perspective, the tendency when creating theatre on stage is often 

more towards devised theatre than a conventional theatre product. Postmodernism is a 

movement that allows questioning of established norms and, if necessary, be deconstructed 

and then suitably reconstructed, thus contributing to diversity by influence and relevance of 

cultural norms and values (Samuels, 2008:220). 

 
This literature review will primarily focus on tracing the historical development of different 

contexts and objectives, particularly emphasising the history of devised theatre. This part of 

the study demonstrates how Aristotle (335 BC), Horace (19 BC), and Freytag (1863), three 

literary luminaries from different eras, have understood writing or poetry as a way of 

‘representation’ in terms of necessities, style, and moral expansion. De Mendonca asserts that 

comprehending theatre structures as a series of fictional occurrences (plot) has been critical 

to acting theory. These structures allow actors to understand what is expected in performance 

regarding events. He also states that with the mentioned structures, playwriting theory has 

focused on identifying the fundamental characteristics of dramatic writing (De Mendonca, 

2012:2). Early treatises on playwriting, such as Aristotle's "Poetics," established that the core 

element of theatre is the plot, emphasizing its significance in crafting fictional sequences of 

events. These foundational principles in playwriting also directly influence the realm of acting 

theory. Events, the heroes' moral character, the concept of enactment, or the rhetorical and 

poetic qualities of the text were other elements that became important. Later treatises 

preserved these categories but gave each one a different level of emphasis. The statement 

asserts that a core principle in acting theory is that theatre is about crafting and presenting a 

series of fictional events or a plot. This understanding is central to how actors approach their 

roles, interpret characters, and bring the story to life on stage or screen. It highlights theatre's 

artificial and creative nature, where actors and creators are responsible for bringing imaginary 

occurrences to life for the audience's engagement and enjoyment. 



13  

Rehearsal procedures that meticulously determine the sequence of characters' actions in a 

play due to psychological motivations are critical to modern theories and practices 

based on Stanislavski's concepts (De Mendonca, 2012:2). 

 

Saltz concurs with De Mendonca with the idea of psychological motivations and the interplay 

between craftsmanship and emotion in theatre, stating that the possibility of writing either as 

craftsmanship or as an upheaval of sentiments is still a strategy for both enchanting and 

training and that this is not just what they have confirmed but also what they have polished 

as the main rule for their abstract creation, as traditional theatre is centrally concerned with 

the reproduction and interpretation of written texts. Devised theatre (also known as 

collaborative theatre) is a method of creating theatre in which the text or performance, if mainly 

physical activity, evolves from collaborative and often improvisatory work by a performing 

group (Saltz, 2001:299). 

 
 

2.2 ARISTOTLE’S POETICS 
 
 

The Poetics by Aristotle was composed and is one of the most significant works in the 

Western theatre17 tradition (335 BC). Poetics is the first Western work of dramatic theory to 

survive. In this work, Aristotle examines tragedy. Oedipus Rex is an example of one of 

Aristotle's tragedies (about 429 BC) that has persisted as the supreme dramatic work. Wray 

states that Aristotle's classic work on theatre explored some acting-related topics, and formal 

methodological books on the subject only started to appear in the late nineteenth century. 

Some theorists experiment with different acting strategies. Poetics studies the connections 

between character, action, and speech; provides examples of strong storylines, and analyses 

the responses the plays elicit from the audience (Wray, 2013:1). All of his laws are frequently 

connected to ‘the Aristotelian drama’. Aristotle's work, Poetics, delves into numerous 

fundamental dramatic ideas, including anagnorisis and catharsis. Over the past century, 

Aristotle's examination has been instrumental in shaping countless writing guides for mediums 

like stage, screen, film, and television, establishing itself as a cornerstone in the field 

(Emenike and Friday, 2013). 
 
 

17 The first time theatre completely separated itself from religious ritual to become an art form was in 
Greece in the sixth century BC, as the dithyramb was formed. Western theatre has roots in pre- 
classical antiquity and has existed up to the present



14  

Though Aristotle's Poetics is an ancient treatise on theatre in which some elements germane 

to acting are discussed, formal methodological writings on the theory of acting began to 

appear in the late nineteenth century. Some theorists attempt various techniques as actors 

themselves and then report the results; others attempt to watch other performers and analyse 

the success and problems they see. 
 

There is also variation in the style of techniques these theorists find helpful. Some, typically 

Russian and Western theorists, focus on psychological techniques supported by secondary 

physical training. In contrast, Eastern theorists tend to focus on physical techniques that, in 

turn, influence the psyche. The Greek philosopher Aristotle writes the earliest critical paper, 

Poetics, dealing with dramatic practice and theory. Between 384-322 BC, Aristotle reacted 

against Plato's theory, constructing his theory, Poetics. Plato argues that poetry represents 

essential appearances and is misleading and morally suspect; from the point of view of 

Aristotle, the world of appearances is not a transitory replica of changeless concepts. 

Therefore, Aristotle's approach to the occurrence of poetry is quite different from Plato's, as 

he is more interested in the scholarly test of shaping classes and orchestrating them into 

legitimate frameworks. As indicated by Butcher18 (1907:79), Aristotle accepted the fact that 

the substance of things lies not in the magical universe of thoughts but in actual things. As a 

result, Aristotle takes a philosophical approach to literature by examining poetry's inherent 

nature and structural elements rather than its historical origins. In Aristotle's view, his theory 

does not involve falsehood; instead, he posits that things possess nature and an essential 

principle of wholeness that transforms, transitioning from potentiality to actuality. According 

to Aristotle, this transition is a creative force that follows a purposeful direction. 

As stated by Caldwell (2017:17), the Aristotelian rules included the concept of narrative. The 

beginning represents the initial motivating factor, and anything outside the boundaries of the 

game's context is irrelevant. The middle, often known as the climax, must be caused by 

previous events and must lead to subsequent events. The conclusion, or resolution, should 

be brought about by the preceding events but should only prompt other actions within the 

scope of the play. The reasons overshadow the consequences, and the conclusion should 

address or resolve the problem introduced during the motivating moment.  

 
 

18 More current sources primarily rely on this source to demonstrate the study's applicability. Butcher 
gives Aristotle's Poetics a historical backdrop. 
 



15  

 

The cause-and-effect chain that runs from the point of inducement to the climax is referred 

to by Aristotle as complexity. He, therefore, styles the more instant cause-and-effect chain 

starting at the climax and ending at the resolution (Caldwell, 2017:17). 

              Aristotle's dramatic structure: 
 
 
 
 

 
 

Bellinger19 states that within his three-part dramatic plot structure theory is the unity of time, 

place, and action. Aristotle offers the unity of time as the setting and duration of the play, unity 

of place indicating the general locality, and unity of action as a single set of events related as 

cause and effect, with the nature of Greek and all dramas. By this, Aristotle implies the 

occasions are primarily independent, bound together by internal need, each action driving 

unavoidably to the following with no external intervention (Bellinger, 1927:61). 

 
Aristotle asserts that in episodic narratives, where the episodes or acts follow one another 

without an anticipated sequence, the only commonality among the occurrences is that they 

all involve the same character. He also states that writers should exclude similar events from 

their plots. If required, it should have a fated connection to the play's events (Bellinger, 

1927:62). 

 
Based on Bellinger, this aspect contributes significantly to a play's overall significance and 

impact. The more effectively a playwright can evoke and engage the audience's emotions, 

the higher the quality of the play. The plot itself can be either simple or complex.  
 

19 More current sources cite the primary source to demonstrate the study's applicability. Bellinger 
lays the theoretical groundwork for Aristotle. 



16  

Complex plots involve crucial turning points and dramatic changes in intention and recognition, 

leading to a catastrophic outcome. These elements create surprising shifts in both the 

protagonist and antagonist. Aristotle describes a turning point as a moment when a character 

produces an effect contrary to their initial intention. At the same time, a change occurs when 

a character transitions from ignorance to knowledge, resulting in feelings of love or hate among 

the characters and leading to positive or negative outcomes. Aristotle argues that the best 

plots incorporate turning points and changes as essential elements within their cause-and-

effect structure, culminating in a catastrophic event, which is the last occurrence in the play 

(Bellinger, 1927:63). 

Although the development of verse was founded on the instinct of impersonation that is 

natural to man, the original poetical works were unrestricted improvisations, according to 

Butcher (1907:99). The basic organizational structure of poetry is centered on the formal and 

material foundations of literature. Aristotle outlines how the several poetical genres evolved 

toward the ultimate point in the laws of poetry and tragedy. As indicated by Butcher (1907:99) 

Aristotle justified the genesis of the various genres: poetry rapidly divided into two forms, 

namely epic and tragedy. Epic poetry and tragedy possess distinct differences in terms of 

structure. In epic poetry, the beginning and end of the poem must align metrically within a single 

viewpoint. This structure is fulfilled by poems of a smaller scale than ancient epics, and their 

length corresponds to a tragedy performed in one sitting. However, what sets epic poetry 

apart is its remarkable capacity to expand its dimensions. Unlike tragedy, which is limited to 

depicting actions and characters on stage, epic poetry's narrative framework allows for 

describing simultaneous events. If these events are relevant to the theme, they add 

significance and dignity to the poem. By shifting focus and incorporating alternative plotlines, 

the epic poem gains an advantage and enhances its effect. The repetition of similar 

experiences quickly satisfies the audience, an aspect where tragedies often fall short on stage 

(Butcher, 1907:99). 

Dergis has a different opinion as he argues that Aristotle sees comedy and tragedy as 

beautiful sorts since they are ‘more noteworthy and fairer in their structures’ (Dergis, 2006:213). 

The tragedy is depicted as a portrayal of enthusiastic viewpoints to finish the activity which 

has size, in decorated discourse, with every one of its components utilized independently in 

the different pieces of the play, addressed by the artists and not by portrayal; this is cultivated 

through pity and fears the therapy of such feelings. Dergis states that the delight of what is 

addressed on stage derives from the audience's interaction with the sensations of sorrow and 



17  

dread with the tragic saint, as well as a sense of relief that such hardship has not fallen on 

them (Dergis, 2006:213). 

As mentioned in Aristotle's Poetics, tragic events must necessarily follow one another, and 

the structure must have a beginning and a conclusion, with a primary dilemma that the 

protagonist must confront in between. Butcher argues that within the dramatic structure, two 

aspects can be found, namely complexity and disarray. As the knot is revealed during intricacy, 

the protagonist encounters difficulty, yet, the knot is undone during unravelling. Here, two 

scene types stand out: the reversal, which places the action at a fresh turning point, and the 

recognition, which denotes the protagonist's significant epiphany. Reversals should happen 

of the essence and expected cause of what happened before, which suggests turning points 

must be set up effectively. Problems should arise from a weakness in the protagonist. In the 

tragedy, this weakness will be his downfall (Butcher, 1907:95). 

 
Both epic poems offer the outcome even without action; simply reading them reveals their 

power. Suppose it is unrivalled in any other regard, the insufficiency is neither inherent nor 

superior to it, for it contains all the epic characteristics. It may even use the epic meter, with 

the startling results providing the most realistic joys. (Butcher, 1907:96). Numerous forms and 

divisions of tragic and epic poetry can be distinguished with distinct causes that make a poem 

positive or negative: critics' complaints and reactions to these objections. Aristotle's treatise 

was inspired by the Greek poets whose works he was familiar with, but his general ideas and 

conclusions apply primarily to theatre. Aristotle created a basis for today's theatre knowledge 

as his theory narrows down action to moral action, to the exclusion of the production, and the 

plot serves as the foundation (Butcher, 1907:96). 

 
As explained by Wise, Aristotle's narrative structure and literature are essential for the actor 

as it is seen as the groundwork. He gives the following example: The actor Polus' performance 

in the Sophocles play, Electra (in Athens during the fourth century BC) is considered the most 

famous example of purported acting in ancient Greece. As part of the plot, Electra must carry 

an urn that is supposed to hold Orestes' ashes and lament and mourn the destiny she imagined 

had befallen him. As a result, Polus donned Electra's mourning attire and removed his son's 

(recently deceased) urn and ashes from the tomb. Aristotle then embraced them as if they were 

Orestes and expressed genuine sorrow and unfeigned wailing rather than just the look of 

despair. This was not just acting but a true expression of pain (Wise, 2013:117).  



18  

Wise Rival acting traditions can be traced back to antiquity, with one emphasising the actor's 

voice, speech, and gestures and the other focusing on the actor's accurate emotional 

processes. As indicated by Aristotle, acting is ‘the proper manipulation of the voice to express 

the various emotions’, and it is generally acknowledged that the voice is the actor's best 

medium. Aristotle continued: ‘Dramatic talent is an inherent gift and can scarcely be taught.’ 

Wise states that proper diction fundamentals can be taught this way. Aristotle acknowledged 

that, unlike acting, diction can be taught, avoiding the standard error of believing that acting 

is solely good diction. He knew there was more to acting than diction, but he had no idea how. 

Based on Aristotle, outstanding acting comes from a tremendous natural speed of parts or a 

zeal coupled with insanity. With one of these, we easily shape ourselves to mimic any form; 

with the other, we are transported outside ourselves and become what we envisage (Wise, 

2013:122). 
 

 
2.3 HORACE’S ‘ARS POETICA’ 

 
In 19BC, the Roman theorist Horace invented the art of poetry known as ‘Ars Poetica’. He 

took a massive detour in the evolution of theatre by promoting a system of norms that had an 

oppressive influence on playwriting for about 2 000 years, becoming the most prominent 

exponent of classicism. According to Tracy22 (1948:104), rather than the theoretical method 

of his precursor, Aristotle, Horace approaches poetry from an advantageous position as a 

skill. ‘Ars Poetica’23 is undoubtedly not a methodical composition of theory: it is a graceful letter 

kept in touch with his companion Piso and his two children as a recommendation on a 

beautiful structure. It is an intriguing and exuberant excellent letter written in hexameter vers in 

a loose conventional manner 
 
 

By offering a lyrical figure that speaks to many human concerns, Horace has encouraged 

readers to feel they are a part of the poet's circle, a friend they confides in. Horace composed 

476 lines in a flexible conversational format. This term is viewed as a central part of ‘Ars 

Poetica’ as it meant to accomplish verisimilitude in creative portrayal, directing everything 

from the decision of type to style, sensational portrayal, meter, graceful innovation, and the 

planned impact (Tracy, 1948:105). 
 

22 More researchers have examined this source, and based on their analyses and research, they 
have come to the same conclusions. 
23 Horace referred to it as ‘Epistle to the Pisos’, while Quintilian gave it the title ‘Ars Poetica’. 



19  

Le Touze explains verisimilitude as the appearance of truth. When settings, conversation, 

and characters are depicted in a work of fiction, even though they are fictional, it is said to 

have verisimilitude. One of the primary functions of literature are to express a fundamental 

truth about human existence through the ‘deception’ of a made-up story. The audience must 

be prepared to believe the story they are hearing to immerse themselves in it fully. 

Verisimilitude is also one of the essential literary devices of fiction writing; Horace made use 

of this by writing both creative and critical pieces through the use of composed satires, 

epodes, odes, epistles, and his ‘Ars Poetica’ (Le Touze, 2017:11). 

 
From the point of view of Frischer (1991:51-54), ‘Ars Poetica’ is not an efficient composition 

on analysis; the poems can be separated into three sections: the poem (topic), poema 

(structure), and poeta (the artist). Its principal subjects of conversation are verse, idyllic style, 

and dramatization. Horace had no place to consider verse a course of impersonation like 

Aristotle. Horace contended that more than simple impersonation is needed for an artist 

frequently utilise fiction and blend realities with extravagant. To him, the function of verse was 

both to charm and train: 'Artists want either to improve, to please, or to join the pleasing and 

the beneficial and that it is not sufficient for sonnets to have magnificence; they should 

likewise be satisfying and lead the audience's spirit whither they will.' (Frischer, 1991:51-54) 
 
 

The theme of poetry should be straightforward from recognisable material and uniform, 

brimming with completeness. Frischer states that Horace chooses his subject admirably to 

see that neither words nor a clear game plan will bomb, for instinct is the premise and wellspring 

of suitable composition. Horace will consistently be associated with his hypothesis of great 

lingual authority. Excellent lingual authority, he says, can never be inside and out set up and 

fixed undertaking. Language in verse can communicate, yet man's insight, which verse exists 

to communicate, constantly changes since it consistently adds to itself. With the development 

of involvement, the language of the verse should keep pace in case it is to be genuinely 

expressive (Frischer, 1991:90-92). Frischer gives the following example: ‘The language 

resembles a tree, and its words resemble leaves. Old leaves fall as the years pass, fresh 

leaves emerge, yet the tree stays as before. Horace's perceptions of wonderful phrasing 

resemble those of Aristotle’. Following Aristotle, Horace stresses the best selection of words 

and their effective plan in the piece. A writer is allowed to utilise both natural and new words. 

New words persistently continue going to the artist like new passes to the tree. The writer 

should only depend partially on the jargon of his archetypes; he should also coin new words. 



20  

Horace wanted the essayist to notice the rigid structures and shades of style in verse. He 

brought up some of the deficiencies of style. (Frischer, 1991:93-97). 
 
 

Tracy (1948:106) states that the lyrical technique is ‘presenting ideas through action, feeling, 

illustration, allusion, and anecdote, employing descriptive images, symbols, and allegories’. 

She also suggests that a didactic approach differs from a lyrical technique in several ways. 

The didactic method employs abstract and objective definitions, theoretical analysis, logical 

progression of arguments, and a strict focus on relevant evidence. On the other hand, Horace's 

lyrical style is characterised by its impressionistic, evocative, and sensual qualities, appealing 

directly to the senses (Tracy, 1948:106). The didactic approach is analytical, systematic, and 

intellectual, relying on conceptual frameworks. 

 
In contrast, a lyrical exposition surprises the reader with the sudden introduction of critical 

concepts supported by examples or imaginative details. It swiftly transitions between thoughts 

and employs connecting words to summarise or emphasise the argument. These transitions, 

often expressed through contrasts, polarity, and exaggerated aspects, shape the overall 

meaning of a paragraph and influence its imagery and the use of proverbs to highlight the 

argument or provide a summary. These techniques starkly contrast with the formal 

procedures of exposition, which involve careful preparation, a gradual presentation of 

arguments, explicit marking of transitions, and validation through formal review and 

condensation (Tracy, 1948:107). 

 
As explained by Faulkner (2007:218-234), Horace emphasizes the value of politeness in 

poetry and the need to combine the educational and the pleasing. He always compels poets to 

consider their audience and tells authors to either follow tradition or construct tales that make 

sense to them. In the ‘Ars Poetica’, Horace offers clear, actionable guidance on various topics, 

including translation, emotional affect, playwriting, soliciting critical commentary, and the 

conduct of a poet ̶ Horace places particular emphasis on the importance of decorum in poetry. 

Horace influenced theatre makers to ‘either follow tradition or make such myths as are 

congruous to themselves’, he urges poets always to keep their audience in mind. Horace 

offers consistently helpful guidance in the ‘Ars Poetica’ on a variety of craft-related topics, 

including playwriting, emotional impact, translation, the perils of publication (‘a word once sent 

abroad will never return’), soliciting critical criticism, and how to conduct oneself as a poet 

(Faulkner, 2007:218-234). 



21  

Faulkner states that this approach is essential for theatre makers as it is a systematic 

interpretation of poetry that reveals the significance of the fundamental components of drama; 

for example, the elements of character, source, genre, and language are interconnected with 

the notions of structure and storyline. The progression of dramatic theories throughout history 

can be observed, starting from a strict adherence to mythic narratives as outlined in classical 

treatises, then shifting towards a focus on the lyrical expression of individual characters' 

dilemmas in neoclassical theory, followed by an emphasis on portraying specific social types 

in the eighteenth century and culminating in the understanding of the plot as a reflection of 

characters' psychological experiences. The distinction between the two poets lies in their 

approaches to exposition rather than the technical or intellectual aspects of their thinking  

(Faulkner, 2007:218-234). 

 

2.4 FREYTAG’S PYRAMID 
 
 

In 1893, Gustav Freytag, a German novelist and playwright, acknowledged the dramatic 

elements as building blocks of a narrative structure. Freytag argues that these elements can 

be sketched as a pyramid diagram, hence the name Freytag's pyramid. His plot is divided 

into five sections: exposition, rising action, climax, decreasing action, and denouement. 

 
Irvine (2014:54) agrees with Freytag and states that Freytag's pyramid offers a technique that 

allows studies/scholars to examine a narrative visually and to acknowledge the drama that 

occurs in the plot, like Aristotle's Poetics. 

 
 



22  

Glatch and Mahoney also agree with Freytag, mentioning that exposition establishes the plot 

and introduces the setting, characters, and historical background. This event engages the 

audience to understand the meaning of where the storyline is going or what the main issue 

depicte in the story (Glatch and Mahoney, 2020:1). The plot will introduce connected 

situations about the root of the problem during this event. It will essentially lead to what he 

refers to as the ‘rising action', an occurrence that develops tension within he critical events of 

the story because the entire plot relies on these events to bring up the climax and, eventually, 

the pleasant ending of the actual story. Consequently, prompting a struggle between 

characters is shown. An instigating event starts rapidly, building the rising action in one or a 

few phases toward the place of most significant interest. These events are, in general, the 

main pieces of the story as it determines the plot, climax, and ending (Glatch and Mahoney, 

2020:1). 

 
"Within this event, there is a state where the audience will anticipate the final suspense. Here, 

the main characters may have conflict with one another, their environment, or their character. 

This conflict is the most exciting part for the characters. The solution to the conflict is the 

turning point and usually the most emotional part of the story. The protagonist may take 

physical action or make a conscious choice that leads to the incident. 

 
As stated by Glatch and Mahoney (2020:1), the climax defines the play, changing the hero's 

destiny. It involves events from the falling activity's finish to the account's genuine closure 

scene. (Glatch & Mahoney, 2020:1). 

 
 

Card believes that, on the unwinding or loosening of the intricacies of a plot, Aristotle, Horace, 

and Freytag shared some common foci and statutes. Interestingly, while characterising this 

cycle, each has introduced new viewpoints into the traditional theatre. For each of them, the 

specialty of composing addresses man, nature, and fundamental factors of human existence. 

The portrayal of these significant issues are great whether they please readers or audience 

members by allowing them to see and experience other views while adding wisdom and 

information to their cognitive, emotional, and moral understanding. Therefore, their theories 

added to traditional theatre, whereas traditional theatre is another term used for conventional 

theatre (Card, 2010:2). 

 
In conclusion, Freytag's pyramid is still relevant today and is widely used in teaching theatre, 



film, and storytelling. It provides a helpful tool for artists, critics, and students to understand 

the basic building blocks of a dramatic work, and it can be adapted and expanded upon to 

accommodate the needs of different genres and forms of dramatic storytelling. Freytag's 

pyramid is an essential and enduring model of dramatic structure that continues to be valuable 

for artists, educators, and students who seek to understand the fundamental principles of 

storytelling and the elements of dramatic structure. Understanding Aristotle, Horace, and 

Freytag’s views on acting theory provides knowledge and inspiration for actors, directors, and 

theatre-makers who practice conventional theatre. 

2.5 CONVENTIONAL THEATRE 

The Poetics' control over the fundamental notion of literature, performance, and various fields 

is at the heart of much work by Classicists.24 It is beyond the scope of this argument. However, 

one of its consequences was the advancement of sensational structures, such

 as Freytag’s pyramid, which enhanced Aristotle's three-section structure for dramatisation 

with rising and decreasing examples of activity power. These narrative designs approach 

the story from an emotional and explanatory standpoint. The story is organised here by 

its impact on the audience. With its near-universal appeal, this dramatic approach to the 

story focuses on the plot: the undeniable level succession of the events crucial to an 

account. (Oddey, 1996:3-4). 

Conventional, Western theatre stems from a written text. Typically, theatre plays follow a set 

number of acts and often adhere to Aristotle's notion of plot structure during the 4th century 

BC (335 BC), with actors reading dialogue during the rehearsals process on a 

thrust or proscenium stage. The genre and style of where the text originated are 

predetermined or suggested in the playwright's mind. Therefore, the director, as well as 

the actors, have a blueprint of what the play intends to look like and how it played out 

during the process of creation by the playwright. This reflects in various ways. This 

reflects in various ways like in notes on acting, writing, characters, costumes, locality, 

stage lighting, and stage directions (Oddey, 1996:6).  

The state from which the content began in the psyche of the writer is as of now given. 
The director, just like the artists, has a sort of outline of what the play resembles and how it 
24 Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, were a few of these classicists. 
worked out during the dramatist’s creation cycle. 23



24 

Horace approaches verse from a reasonable point of view (as an art) as opposed to the 

hypothetical methodology of Aristotle. Around 19 BC, ‘Ars Poetica’ of Horace is viewed as a 

central part of the way of talking about education through his utilisation of parodies, epistles, 

and tributes as it tends to a broad scope of issues of specialty concerning the interpretation, 

enthusiastic effect, playwriting, and the type of writer (Hajdu, 2014:28). 

In 1863, Freytag's strategy began, permitting specialists to inspect a story outwardly and to 

recognize the show that happens in the plot, like Aristotle's Poetics. His plot structure 

comprises five sections: work, rising activity, peak, falling activity, and result (Glatch & 

Mahoney, 2020:1). 

2.6 COLLABORATIVE THEATRE (FREQUENTLY CALLED DEVISED THEATRE) 

As indicated by Herman, Phelan, Rabinowitz, Richardson, and Warhol (2012:3), the 

mentioned theories' dramatic plot structures narrative may appear overly simplistic for the 

modern needs of many scholars, but it is precisely because of this simplicity that it has been 

valued for so long by those seeking a platform to start from. Anderson agrees when he states 

that the development of dramatic structures like Freytag's pyramid, which adds rising and 

falling patterns of action intensity to Aristotle's three-part structure for drama, is one of Poetics's 

many outcomes. However, the full extent of Poetics's influence on critical thought for 

literature, drama, and other fields is outside the proper scope of this dissertation (Anderson, 

2015:8). According to Herman et al. these principles of the structure view the story from a 

dramatic, rhetorical standpoint. In this case, the story is organised based on how it will affect 

the reader. The plot, or the high-level sequence of the events essential to a narrative, 

emphasises this dramatic narrative approach, immediately appealing to a broad audience 

(Herman et al., 2012:5). 

Conventional theatre stems from a written text and is typically seen as theatrical 

performances with actors reciting dialogue on a thrust or proscenium stage with a set number 

of acts and typically follows Aristotle's notion of plot structure from the 4th century BC (335 

BC). The genre from which the text originated in the playwright's mind is already given. So is 

the style of the performance predetermined or suggested by the genre style (Oddey, 1996:6). 

Oddey states that the director, as well as the actors, have a kind of layout of what the play 



25 

intended to look like and how it played out during the process of creation by the playwright. 

This reflects in various ways, such as the reflection in the dramatist's notes on acting, writing, 

characters, costumes, locality, stage lighting, and stage directions (Oddey, 1996:12). Hajdu 

means that in contrast to Aristotle, Horace views poetry from a practical point of view. Around 

19 BC, ‘Ars Poetica’ of Horace is considered a core component of rhetoric literacy through 

his use of satires, epistles, and odes as it addresses a wide range of technical issues relating 

to playwriting, emotional effect, translation, and the poetic form (Hajdu, 2014:28). 

Hancock argues that theatre is a collaborative creative form that conveys meaning through 

voice, movement, words, and visuals. The term ‘devising’ has been used for a very long time 

in the English language (Hancock, 2002:1). The phrase ‘coordinated effort’ is used more 

frequently than ‘devising’ in the United States (Heddon and Milling, 2006:2). Kjolner calls 

attention to another distinction; he clarifies 'coordinated effort' as an aggregate angle, while 

'devising' features the innovative and imagining part of the interaction (Kjolner, 2009:208). 

Jackson has a different option when defining devised theatre; Jackson states that devised 

theatre is challenging to define due to its extreme diversity in terms of aesthetics, philosophy, 

and approach. The ways of coming up with ideas are numerous, only limited by one's 

creativity, and frequently different from project to project. Its form is flexible, diverse, fleeting, 

and frequently unrecorded (Jackson, 2006:5). 

As explained by Saito (2015:1), devised theatre is challenging to characterise due to its 

extreme diversity in aesthetics, philosophy, and approach. The ways of coming up with ideas 

are numerous, only limited by one's creativity, and frequently different from project to project. 

Therefore, devising is closely linked to a historical context and can be identified as a term 

incorporating a wide range of practices, like performance art, political theatre, execution 

craftsmanship, and political theatre, to specify a couple. Heddon and Milling (2007:2) imply 

that the simplest way to understand composing is to see it as a collection of systems that 

emerged inside many dramatic and social fields, e.g., in local area expressions, execution 

artistry/live craftsmanship, or political theatre. Inside these fields, a scope of contriving 

measures developed comparable to explicit and ceaselessly changing social settings, 

personally associated with their snapshot of creation. Govan, Nicholson, and Normington 

(2007:7) additionally examine most devisers' systems and techniques to ensure they do not 

aim to create a comprehensive understanding of what devising is. They argue that design 

should be portrayed as assets of inventive procedures and cycles of experimentation. As 

indicated by Haagensen, this implies that devising neutralises having a perfect definition and 



26 

a solitary arrangement. Since formulating appears in various settings and is not viewed as 

one arrangement, technique, or structure, it is hard to give a definition or a portrayal that can 

incorporate every one of its practices and viewpoints (Haagensen, 2014:58). 

However, many devised practices share some characteristics with devising (Haagensen, 

2014:59). Any definition of devised theatre, according to Oddey, must also take into account 

the process of sharing an artistic journey through means and ways of collaboration, and multi- 

vision incorporating different convictions, educational encounters, and perspectives to 

changing global events, as well as the creation of an imaginative item (Oddey, 1996:160). 

Oddey states that the distinguishing characteristics of each group's process and final output 

involved making devised theatre a distinct genre worth considering. The significance of this 

theatre style is in its emphasis on a mixed interaction that calls for advancement, creativity, 

creative mind, risk, or more of each of them, a general group responsibility to the creating 

work (Oddey, 1996:160). When every professional company or group works independently 

with diversity, it is impossible to express any theory of how theatre is invented (Oddey, 

1996:103). This is because of the character and eclecticism of the designing experience. 

Many organisations developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s to investigate various 

methods of producing theatrical performances (Oddey, 1996:2). 

From the point of view of Oddey, when referred to as the dominant form, there are many 

different types of traditional theatre. Devised theatre is not always opposed to ‘traditional’ 

theatre. The direct relationship, message-based theatre, naturalism, and challenges with the 

widespread belief that another should carry one person's message, are all addressed in 

devised art. In devised theatre, the focus has switched from the author to the creative artist 

since it is more concerned with the overall construction of craftsmanship than the playwright's 

singular vision. Thus, a designed performance is frequently seen as a sub-genre of 

theatre 

It is not created according to the recognized, accepted method of creating theatre for the 

playwright, director, and actors to perform (Oddey, 1996:4). 



27  

Devising was an option in contrast to earliar theatre creation methods with the director and 

dramatist establishments. Rather than progressive as starting point, they were conceiving 

offered cooperation of the creative interaction. ‘Conceiving’ as a community- oriented 

interaction offered new and revolutionary approaches to coordinating fine art in a politically 

appropriate and valuable manner. It acquired the manner of speaking utilised in political 

development: individual and aggregate rights, self- assurance, local area, cooperation, and 

equity (Heddon and Milling, 2006:12). As stated by Heddon and Milling the collaborative 

character of creating presented the possibility for numerous complicated representations and 

interpretations. As a result, the invention evolved into a model suitable for self-representation 

and a method of making visible what was previously hidden or unexplained. (Heddon Milling, 

2006:17). 

 
 

2.6.1 BEGINNING OF DEVISED THEATRE 
 
 

The avant-garde is cited as the place where devised theatre first emerged. Parsons (2010) 

followed it back to the 1920s, while Heddon and Milling (2006) generally followed it to the 

1950s and 1960s. Therefore, it is suggested that the beginning of devising can be found in 

five diverse dramatic settings: inside the historical backdrop of theatre experts from the mid- 

1900; inside the practice of dramatisation instruction; from the setting of social execution; 

inside the avant-garde, and from the traditional theatre and well-known structures. As Parsons 

(2010:10) contends: ‘any endeavour to build up a straight beginning of impact from prior 

dramatic developments is perilous’ in that the extension is immense and the settings of the 

dramatic practice assume an important part in the emergence of new structures an important 

part in the emergence of new structures. Haagensen (2014:60) states that some chronicled 

highlights impact contriving rehearses today. This foundation likewise illuminates the 

arrangement regarding the inventive strategies for the situation concentrated in this 

examination. 

 
According to Craig (1980:144), during the start of the 19th century, the significance of using 

and researching every aspect of the theatre was regarded as equally important. This 

viewpoint was a reaction to the text-based theatre and authenticity in fashion at the time. 

Craig argues that theatre should not solely rely on having a play to present; instead, it should 

eventually perform parts of its expertise. Craig emphasises the significance of researching all 

art forms, such as scenography, lighting, and puppetry. This technique expanded the quantity 



28  

and complexity of ideas and materials that make up the craftsmanship of the theatre (Craig, 

1980:144). 

 
Heddon and Milling state that contemporary devising can be unfathomably not quite the same 

as our archetypes; its essential elements were generated in the verifiable vanguard time 

frame during the 1920s, yet fundamentally formed in the neo-cutting edge time frame during 

the 1960s and the 1950s. To develop a stronger connection between art and life during this 

time, specialists started pushing the boundaries of conventional dramatic bounds and 

conducting numerous tests with execution-making techniques (Heddon and Milling, 2006:17). 

 
2.6.2 THE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN DEVELOPING A DEVISED THEATRE PIECE 

 
 

In devised theatre, the rehearsal process focuses on exploration and collaboration, where the 

director and actors work together to develop and shape the performance. As the 

investigations get more complex, the director must use compelling visuals and innovative 

ways to encourage the actors to push their boundaries and experiment with the material. This 

highlights the importance of a dynamic and flexible rehearsal procedure that can change as 

the performance's requirements and demands change (Milling and Heddon, 2015:17). 

Numerous studies (Syssoyeva and Proudfit, 2019; Oddey, 1996) show that a conceiving cycle 

ordinarily begins without a pre-composed text. As mentioned by Worthen, at the time, 

audience acceptance was used to gauge a play's production success rather than the 

scrupulousness of following the written script (Worthen, 1997:28). The main changes in the 

late 19th century concerning the methods and reception of theatre-making were expanding 

the publishing industry, the increasing marketing of plays to readers, and the subsequent 

professionalisation of the playwright. Devised theatre can begin from anything for example a 

group of people who establish an overarching plan to examine and explore various theatres 

about thoughts, images, ideas, subjects, or overt improvements that may include music, 

movement, text, articles, works of art, or development (Worthen, 1997:31). 

 
Milling and Heddon (2015:18) have a different meaning; they state that the group creates 

atheatrical performance as they work on it rather than beginning with a pre-written text that 

must be interpreted. Oddey (1996:1) agrees with this statement as he confirms that a 

formulated theatre item is work that has arisen out of, and created by a gathering of individuals 

working in a joint effort. Conceiving is a method of creating theatre that enables a group of 

artists to be truly imaginative in sharing and creating a unique item that emanates from 



29  

gathering, modifying, and, once more, cooperating with people's varied experiences of the 

globe. Everyone who needs to find an accentuation in their work that supports intuition, 

promptness, and a gathering of thoughts has plenty of options. The incomplete experience of 

comprehension, culture, and environment are all topics covered in formulating. The 

method represents a series of sessions in which each group member's unique perspective of 

the world is captured in a series of images, which were later analysed and categorized. 

Members figure out themselves inside their social settings by examining, coordinating, and 

changing their encounters, dreams, exploration, creation, and experimentation. Devising is 

tied in with thinking, considering, and sharing thoughts, being inventive and unconstrained. It 

ties in with designing, adjusting, and making what one does collectively (Oddey, 1996:1). 

 
Oddey also mentions that the devising process enables the artist to communicate concepts, 

ideas, and feelings using their voice, body, and imagination. The process comprises 

developing narratives and ‘imagined worlds’ conveyed via language, voice, dance, and other 

aural and visual components (Oddey, 1996:1). The creative process includes several steps, 

which are now and again iterative, rehashed, or repetitive. Regardless of whether stories are 

prearranged or made do, the inventive strategy in theatre starts with a creative mind; either 

independently or cooperatively, understudies seek after a thought through innovative 

investigation and request. The guidelines for theatre ‘making’ emphasize that theater artists 

make decisions as their thoughts are created. Regardless of whether for the advancement of 

content, plan, or character, understudies' insight into the inventive flow in theatre ought to 

incorporate an investigation of the ‘how, when, and why’ decisions get made (Oddey, 1996:1). 
 

The inventive strategies finish with practices during which understudies rehearse and refine 

their thoughts just as they discover answers for plans and specialised issues. At the most 

punctual stages, theatre making includes progressing from reality to a fanciful somewhere 

else with ‘directed help’. The unfurling of a directed show experience will occur continuously 

with breaks to assist youthful artists with contributing to the unfolding narrative and the 

interpersonal problems it raises. 

As understudies gain experience, theatre making could involve writing plays, designing sets, 

costumes, and sound, participating in community cycles to create original theatre, or all of the 

above. Understudies conduct research, analyse data, make plans, compose, practice, 

change, and present their work as writers, artists, fashioners, and directors. Despite the level, 

the process of creating in theatre gives a vehicle to understudies to ponder significant parts of life 



30  

and, in the process, foster affectability to others' perspectives (Oddey, 1996:3). 

 
The core process of creating theatre recognises that theatre work occurs in an intricate 

setting, including cultural, individual, and chronicled powers, all of which affect the other 

imaginative cycles of creating, performing, and reacting. The norms incorporate an expansive 

scope of associations that can be made, including creating accounts, individual experiences 

or beliefs, culture, other disciplines, and relevant research. 

 
Elliott (2003:212) presents a distinct perspective on devised theatre, highlighting its departure 

from the traditional notion of form and content, which often involves power struggles, rivalries, 

or hierarchical parallels. Instead, devised theatre considers both the explicit and underlying 

elements of the adapted text. Furthermore, Eliot suggests that each art form shares 

grammatical, conceptual, and sensory positions within the rhetoric of the other. This broadens 

the staging concept by allowing for metaphorical theatrical expressions of concepts drawn from 

various media, including text. These theatrical metaphors can be conveyed through spoken 

language and physical movements without the literal replication of the original ‘text’. Whether 

led by a director or a collaborative ensemble, the process necessitates developing a shared 

stage vocabulary, serving as a means of ‘translation’ (Elliott, 2003:212). 

 
Oddey (1996:30) states that the primary process of interfacing in theatre perceives that 

theatre work occurs in an intricate setting, including cultural, individual, and chronicled 

powers, which affect the other imaginative cycles of making, performing, and reacting. The 

guidelines incorporate an expansive scope of associations that can be made, including 

creation narratives, individual experience, culture, different disciplines, and significant 

exploration. At younger ages, understudies distinguish likenesses between stories, 

characters, and feelings in a show to individual experience. Oddey also states that at more 

complex levels, understudies associate ‘show’ with culture and local area, join points of view 

in theatre work and explore what social viewpoints and individual convictions mean for how a 

theatre work is seen. Exploration is one more part of the centre cycle interfacing. Contingent 

upon grade levels, understudies may explore elective ways to deal with similar stories to 

advise inventive decisions or study a period where a show happens. At its centre, the 

associating guidelines guarantee that understudies investigate, perceive, and consolidate the 

many impacts that sway theatre work (Oddey, 1996:30-41). Elliott (2003:214) agrees with 

Oddey as they both assert the specific notion of where devising starts, through an unlimited 



31  

number of options, such as a thought, picture, idea, object, sonnet, piece of music, or artwork. 

Elliott provides the following illustration: In traditional theatre, everyone is aware that the play 

is, say, Hamlet by Shakespeare. The duration, setting, character count, stage directions, and 

narrative of a play are all established by the text itself. In contrast, devised theatre offers a 

spectrum of possibilities. At one end of the spectrum, there may be a relatively straightforward 

and accessible document, while at the other end, there could be a detailed diagram outlining 

the envisioned production (Elliot, 2003:214).  

Decisions regarding the starting point and approach are crucial for devised theatre which 

stands in contrast to text-based theatre, where the script, no matter how abstract the subject 

matter, specifies and defines the parameters of the performance (Oddey, 1996:7). In chapter 

2, the researcher explores the process of determining the initial steps and stimuli for creating 

theatre within a group. The researcher discusses various factors, such as form, content, and 

audience, and how they collectively influence the path to devising a theatrical production. 
 

In contrast, traditional theatre selects artists based on specific jobs or roles rather than 

considering political, educational, or aesthetic convictions. However, in devised theatre, 

personal and collective politics play an implicit role, reflecting in creating a company statement 

or policy. Oddey suggests that participants and their life experiences contribute to both the 

creative process and the final product. A group statement or policy outlines a unique style, 

language, shared ideals, or a commitment to a theatrical outcome. Within a devised theatre 

group, there is flexibility for members to integrate and interchange ideas or roles within a project 

(Oddey, 1996:8). According to him this form of theatre provides broader opportunities and 

possibilities for all group members. Devised theatre encourages and facilitates new working 

relationships between the roles of writer, director, designer, technician, musician, and 

performer (Oddey, 1996:9). Text-based theatre typically operates within precise job 

specifications and defined roles, whereas in devised theatre roles, and responsibilities are 

not necessarily restricted or rigidly defined. Conventional theatre often compartmentalises 

tasks, assigning specific roles like acting or stage lighting to individuals. In contrast, devised 

theatre requires a group of versatile individuals with multiple talents. In conventional theatre, 

an actor's responsibility is limited to playing a specific character, following the playwright's 

original vision, the director's interpretation, and ultimately delivering the final portrayal. 

However, in a devised theatrical group, members may engage in administrative tasks or 

contribute to research and development with the audience (Oddey, 1996:10). 

 



32  

According to Heddon and Milling (2006:27), there are three strands regarding how devising 

was created: performances dependent on the visual expressions; performances about the 

actor, the political and local area-based strand; and making among craftsmanship and life the 

ordinary a tasteful encounter, a refracted picture of life. Using chance strategies freed 

‘affectability towards reality, prompting a consciousness of the unforeseen or “the incidental” 

‘(Heddon and Milling, 2006:64). Chance strategies, like roulette, are still up in the air. The 

number of individuals was essential for the compositional action (Kaprow, 1965:177). 

 
Kaprow25 indicates that the goal was to erase old qualities and reveal new interactions to 

liberate humans from conventional and ongoing reasoning. In this way, the use of chance 

was a protest middle-class society based on reason and logic. Chance methods offered new 

important associations with ‘theatre happening’ by developing irregularity and 'mishaps' 

rather than customary explanatory structures which are presently not compared to the more 

significant advances in the public arena (Kaprow, 1965:1