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Blind harpist
.\1., t • li, '1'1.,,"1\ ri" (Esser, 1961)
THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CONTRIBUTION OF BLIND ~ruSICIANS TO THE GRO\ITH
OF CLASSICAL MUSIC IN WESTERN CIVILIZATION WITH A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT
OF THEIR PRESENT POSITION IN THE USA, UK AND RSA
Christie Marius Frans Kruger
The thesis is' submitted to satisfy the requirements for the. degre'é.~~~
of Doctor Musicae in the Facul ty of Arts (Music Departmen t) of the
University of the Orange Free State.
30 November 1988
Promoter: Prof
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Grateful acknowledgement is hereby made to
the librarians and personnel of the following South
African institutions: Pioneer School, Worcester; South,
African National Council for the Blind, Pretoria; South
African Library for the Blind, Grahamstown; University
of South Africa, Pretoria; University of the Orange
Free State, Bloemfontein; Education Centre, Bloemfontein,
and in the United States the National Library Service
for the Blind and Physically Handicapped, Washington
DC for their assistance and their professional efficiency
in supplying data and information relevant to this
research project;
the South African educationists: mr W JOdendaal,
director, OFS Education Department, Bloemfontein; dr
V H Vaughan, Potchefstroom; prof Theo Pauw, Strand;
members of'the Department of Education and Training,
Bloemfontein, and in the USA dr K M Huebner at the
American Foundation for the Blind, New York for their
friendly co-operation;
·the director of the Lighthouse Music School, New York;
the director of the Music Department of the Royal Na-
tional College for the Blind, Hereford;
the executive director of the South African National
Council for the Blind, Pretoria;
the headmasters and members of staff of the following
South African schools: Pioneer, Worcester; Prinshof,
Pretoria; Athlone, Bellville; Filadelfia, Shoshanguve,
ii
and in the USA the Academy for the Blind, Macon, Georgia
for their contributions towards this research;
the personnel of the American Foundation for the Blind,
New York and the Royal National Institute for the Blind,
London for their kind assistance in granting access
to research sources;
Sharp Electronics and mrs M Pieterse for helping with
the preparation of this manuscript.
The author is particularly indebted to his British
friends and colleagues: mrs Christine Gerrard,
Dunstable; messrs Robert Hoare and David LiddIe, London;
the Americans: messrs Tom Ridgeway, Macon, Georgia;
Floyd Cargill .and Carlton Eldridge, Springfield,
Illinois; the South Africans: ms Antonnette Botha,
.Worcester; messrs Jan Basson, Richmond, CP; Marti'n
Oosthuizen, Pretoria and S C Ferreira, Bloemfontein,
as well as the Australian, ms Barbara Williams, for
their goodwill and encouragement.
A special word of gratitude is due to mrs 'Magriet van
Niekerk, wife of the Minister of National Health and
Population Development, .RSA for her personal interest
and to prof J L K Human (promoter) for his advice and
guidance.
Finally the author wishes to express his most heartfelt
appreciation towards his children for their loving
encouragement and to his wife, Adelheid, for her
inspiration, dedication and assistance.
Praise to the Lord who granted the opportunity to plead
the cause of fellow blind musicians.
iii
INT ROD U C T ION
This thesis concerns the part played by blind musicians in the
development of serious (classical) music in Western civilization.
Initially this research project was motivated by the complete
absence of a thorough and representative biographical catalogue
and directory of blind musicians of the past and present
generations. Although several names of blind musicians are
included in music lexicons and books dealing with music, no
attempt has as yet been made either to assess their contribution
in the evolution of music or to compile a representative
biographical dictionary, with the result that the names of many
of them, however internationally famous they were during their
own lifetime, were more or less relegated to obli vion.
Consequently a large number of these musicians did not receive
due credit for their role in the music-making process in Western
civilization. Although- the directory does not claim to be a
complete list in every respect, it is as accurate as possible.
'\
Moreover, the catalogue aims at a scientific assessment of the
significance of the contribution of blind musicians to the growth
of Western music. It is meant to initiate further investigation
and to be a nucleus for research on blind musicians. The
directory is based on more than two hundred biographies, about
one hundred and sixty from abroad and more than fifty from the
Republic of South Africa.
Both the composers JSBach and G F Handel were not included
in the text of this thesis for an obvious reason: they completed
the bulk of their compositions before turning blind relatively
late in their lives. Despite the interesting theory of the
iv
Australian researcher, Barbara \Villiams, who suggested the
possibility of visual impairment in the case of the Danish
composer, Dietrich Buxtehude (his compositions not being in his
own handwriting), no further proof could be found to substantiate
her theory. Consequently Buxtehude with his work was not
considered in this thesis. Existing doubts concerning the visual
capability of Paul Hofhaimer, the famous Austrian composer and
organist, rendered a consideration of his musicial contributions
unnecessary. However, Arnold Schlick, Frederick Delius and some
other composers who contributed considerably to music after they
had become blind, were accounted for in this research.
·The thesis is divided into two sections. Part One is devoted
to biographical sketches arranged in various chapters, starting
with Antiquity to 400 AD, followed by a discussion of the
significant musical contribution of the blind bards from Antiquity
to the nineteenth century. All subsequent chapters correspond
with the various stylistic periods in the history of music.
It may be anticipated that the relevant data will supply ample
proof of the s~gnificance of the achievements. of blind composers,
performers and teachers.
Part Two clarifies the meaning of music in the lives of the blind.
Thereupon follows a survey of the development of printing used
e
for blind readers and scholars, education for the blind, the
establishment of the first schools for the blind and a historical
overview of the era of the institutions. Finally a critical
v
assessment of the current situation in the lives of blind
musicians furnishes an indication of the future of blind musicians
in the United States, United Kingdom and Republic of South Africa.
Part Two ventures some suggestions to policy makers, educationists
and the blind themsel ves. Guidelines gleaned from the research
made possible the identification of problem areas and possible
measures that may be adopted towards the improvement of the
present position of blind musicians in these countries. Above
all Part Two is a plea for the sympathetic understanding of the
autogenous problems of the blind, endeavouring to evoke from
society and its leaders a more realistic approach to 'the blind
musician's capabilities documented and described in Part One.
The blind want the .world to realize that they do not ask sympathy
which will place them in" an inferior position and that they do
not expect any lowering of standards on their behaLf which will
degrade their dignity. They received their. affliction from the
hand of God and by the grace of God they intend serving his
purpose. Their educators should heed their request:
"Il faut cultiver notre jardin." (Voltaire, Candide)
It is a plea that blind musicians be allowed and encouraged to
partake in the development of music in the future. From policy
makers and employers they expect a more realistic approach to
their merits let the abilities and qualifications of each
individual be the criteria.
vi
The data for this thesis were compiled from books, magazines,
brochures, widespread correspondence and, as a consequence of
the very nature of the subject, a large number of personal
interviews including, as a matter of geographical necessity,
numerous telephone calls. The research project was conducted
over several years, 1986-1988. This comprised personal visits
abroad during the year 1986, to facilitate an on the spot
investigation of the present situations in the United States
and United Kingdom. Similar personal investigations were
conducted in the Republic of South Africa, during 1987-1988.
Furthermore, research necessitated fifty-nine questionnaires
posed to blind musicians. The feedback of the latter amounted
to a reliable 79,7%. Discussions with the personnel of various
organizations representing the blind produced invaluable
information and revealed genuine interest in the cause of the
blind.
vii
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements i
Introduction iii
PAR TON E
BLIND MUSICIANS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO THE ART OF MUSIC:
A HISTORICAL SURVEY
CHAPTER 1 FROM ANTIQUITY TO 400 AD 1
1. Antiquity 1
2. The Christian er'a 4
CHAPTER 2 THE BLIND BARDS - FROM ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY
NINETEENTH CENTURY 6
1. The identity of the bards 6
2. Blind bards active during the Middle Ages (800-1400) 9
3. A decline in the widespread activity of the bards 10
4. The last of the famous blind bards 10
5. The significance of the contribution of the blind bards
to the development of music 13
CHAPTER 3 ARS NOVA AND THE RENAISSANCE (1300-1600) 14
1. Ars Nova 14
2. Renaissance instrumental music 17
3. The significance of the contribution of blind
instrumentalists to the Ars Nova and to music
in the Renaissance 26
viii
CHAPTER 4 THE BAROQUE AND THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (1600-1820) 27
1. Famous blind musicians of the Baroque and the classical
period 27
2. The contribution of blind musicians to the development
of music during the Baroque and the classical period 42
CHAPTER 5 THE ROMANTIC PERIOD AND CONTEMPORARY MUSICIANS
(1820-1988) 43
1. General considerations 43
2. Blind musicians and their contributions to the develop-
ment of Western music during the 19th and 20th centuries 44
3. Conclusion 96
4. A directory of blind musicians from abroad 98
.PART TWO 112
THE PROFESSIONAL TRAINING, EMPLOYMENTAND STATUS OF BLIND
MUSICIANS IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, UNITED KINGDOM
AND REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA IN THE PRESENT TIME
CHAPTER 1 THE BLIND AND MUSIC 112
1. The blind 112
2. Music 114
CHAPTER 2 EDUCATION OF THE BLIND WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO MUSIC TRAINING 130
1. The pre-braille era 130
2. Formal education for the blind 134
3. Music education for the blind 137
ix
CHAPTER 2 (continued)
4. Integration and its effects on the education and music
training of the blind in the USA, UK and RSA 145
5. Education at residential schools 149
6. Future education 150
CHAPTER 3 SYSTEMS OF READING AND WRITING 152
1. The pre-braille era 152
2. The braille system 156
3. Alternative printing systems 157
4. Uniformity in the braille music code 160
5. Printing presses for the productión of braille music 161
CHAPTER 4 INSTITUTIONS 163
1. Attitudes toward the blind 163
2. Schools for the blind 167
,3. The era of the institutions 172
4. Music education at institutions 176
5. The future 184
CHAPTER 5 THE PRESENT POSITION OF BLIND MUSICIANS IN THE
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 186
1. A historical survey 186
2. The decline of the institutions 187
3. Integration of blind children into ordinary schools 189
4. The present situation 189
5. The Lighthouse Music School 191
6. Supporting organizations for the blind 193
x
CHAPTER 5 (continued)
7. An analysis of the current situation 194
8. Statistics based on questionnaires employed in research
for this thesis 199
CHAPTER 6 THE PRESENT POSITION OF BLIND MUSICIANS IN
THE UNITED KINGDOM 205
1. A historical background 205
2. The present situation 206
3. Statistics based on questionnaires employed in research
for this project 213 .
CHAPTER 7 THE PRESENT POSITION OF BLIND MUSICIANS IN
THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA 217
1. Some historical facts and figures 217
2. The- South African National Council for the Blind 219
3. Scho6ls for the blind 219
4. Education for the blind 222
5. Music education 222
6. Popular music 229
7. Amateur musicians 230
./ 8. Reasons for the biographies and directory 231
9. Deductions 252
10. Statistics based on questionnaires posed to blind
musicians in the Republic of South Africa I 253
xi
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 262
1. Attitudes toward the blind 262
2. Psychological disposition of the blind 26.4
3. Specialized training 266
4. General education 269
5. A thing of beauty 270
6. The noblest profession 270
7. Quo vadis 273
8. Deduction 282
QUESTIONNAIRES (Appendix A, 1986, 1987)
SUMMARY 284
BIBLIOGRAPHY I
PAR T 1
C HAP TER 1
FROM ANTIQUITY TO 400 AD
1. Antiquity
Among the primitive and ancient peoples the blind were either
eliminated or venerated. IBy applying the law of the survival
of the fittest, the blind were in many instances eliminated
together with the crippled and the monstrous. (French, 1932,
p 33), When venerated, the blind were held in high esteem on
"
account of the alleged compensation in exchange for their loss
of sight. (Booyens, 1981, p 6)
Neither education nor social welfare was provided for the blind,
with the result that those who survived were 'either doomed to
beggary'or had to seek their own instruction. (DSE, 1981, _ p
11)
The blind were always better at music at their own peculiar level,
whether good, bad or indifferent, than they would have been had
they been sighted, because of the emphasis placed on sound.
(Eldridge, 1986) The two arts, music and poetry, most directly
dependent for its appreciation on the sense of hearing, had always
been of special interest to the blind. The talented blind with
skill in music or recitation, expressed themselves from the
earliest days in song and drama, enjoying their own art as well
as that of others.
2
Numerous ancien t Greek poets and singers were blind. (Booyens,
1981, p 6) Xenocritos, who was born blind, reformed with others
the early Greek music and created the poetic musical accompaniment
for the gymnastic festivals. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 19) The ancient
Greeks, in whose civilization superstition fulfilled a major
function, believed that Tiresias and Phineus owed their gift
of prophecy, and Demodocus his gift of song to some divine
compensation from the gods in exchange for their loss of sight.
(French, 1932, p 38) The supreme gift of the Greek poet, Homer,
who lived in the ninth or eighth century BC, was also attributed
by his countryman to his blindness. Thamyris was a blind singer
of note who accompanied himself on the kithara or harp. (Esser ,
1961, p 97) In ancient Greece the blind as rhapsodist, travelled
widely with his guide, reciting the cycles of heroic poems to
the accompaniment of his lyre. Homer pictured him in the person
of the singer Demodocus, in his famous Odyssey VIII, verses 38-40
"Now came the herald along, leading the much revered
singer,
The Muse's beloved to whom both evil and good had been
granted,
For she took the sight from his eyes but gave him the
gift of sweet music." (French, 1932, p 64)
The following was written with regard to blind musicians in Greece
and Egypt:
3
"Bei der starken Yerb itidung , wel.cbe von frlih her zwischen
Griechenland und ifgypten bestand, nimmt es nicht wutider ,
dass auch in Agypten der Stand des blinden Harfners
bLutit:«, ••• "
Due to the strong' link which existed since early times
between Greece and Egypt, it [is] not surprising that
also in Egypt the position of the blind harpist
flourished, ... (Esser, 1961, p 97)
As far back as the second millenium BC blind singers and court
minstrels were active in China and Egypt. (French, 1932, p 63)
In the ancient Egyptian tomb of Amenophis IV at Tell-Amarna,
an example of a blind harpist accompanying some blind singers,
had been found. (Esser, '1961, p 96)
In ancient Israel the educated blind were employed as private
tutors. They were expected to possess a comprehensive and
reliable memory, displaying a rich mass of learned material to
their scholars; thus they became living libraries, members of
that learned class known under the names Shone-halachoth, Sadran
or Thana and were nicknamed baskets of books. (French, 1932,
p 37)
Most of the oriental kingdoms were far ahead of the Romans in
their treatment of the blind. (French, 1932, p 39)
4
2. The Christian era
During the first centuries Christianity spread very rapidly across
the countries surrounding the Mediterranean sea. Congregations
were established at various places, grouping people together
as in large families. Elimination was forbidden by the Christian
faith, with the result that the deacons took over the care of
the poor and many of the blind assembled under the auspices of
the church. (French, 1932, p 41)
2.1 Didymus of Alexandria (308-98)
Didymus was an eminent teacher of his time, a contemporary of
St Ambrose of Milan (340-97). He lost his sight at the age of
five and was dependent on his initiative for his own instruction.
He carved an alphabet out of wood and learned to form words and
sentences. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 30)
Didymus travelled extensively, visiting renowned schools and
teachers of his time, employing people to read their leading
articles to him. Didymus succeeded in accumulating a vast
repertoire of knowledge and eventually succeeded Origen as the
head of the Catechetical School (university) of Alexandria.
(French, 1932, p 66)
Didymus was widely recognized as an intellectual with a prodigious
memory, a profound knowledge of theology, pagan philosophy,
mathematics, music and astronomy. One of the great doctors of
the early Christian church, St Jerome, was a pupil of Didymus.
5
St Jerome, a great theologian, who translated the Greek and Hebrew
Scriptures into Latin (called the Vulgate) , and author of many
ecclesiastical works, marvelled at the inspiration of a blind
\
man to so many scholars of the church. (Farrell, 1956, p 6)
Apart from Diodorus, a well-known teacher of geometry, who lived
in the first century BC (Zahl ed, 1962, p 391), Didymus
represent.ed an excellent example of the ability of the educated
blind intellectual. About fourteen centuries elapsed before
the next blind intellectuals could equal his feats. Didymus
proved that the blind, when educated, could equal and even surpass
some of their sighted colleagues.
6
C HAP TER 2
THE BLIND BARDS - FROM ANTIQUITY TO THE EARLY NINETEENTH CENTURY
1. The identity of the bards
Bards were active from antiquity to the early nineteenth century.
They were itinerant singers, accompanying themselves on stringed
instruments. They contributed considerably to the dissemination
and popularization of folk music. Some were attached to royal
courts, houses of the nobility or inns:
"The harpists formerly took an important place in social
life. In the court of a prince there would be a Court
Bard who, to his harp, sang genealogies, battles, and
heroes; and a Domestic Bard, attached to the princess,
who sang of love, of nature, and of minor events, and
was not bound by the strict rules of composition of
his colleague, but used a quasi-ballad style . There
.were also vagrant, free-lance bards, of quite another
class and subject to the hardships that come to those
whose profession is not always kindly looked upon by
authority. In more recent (say post-Tudor) times harpists
were less exactly classified, but they were still
important in the life of the country, and well into
the nineteenth century most great houses and most inns
had a harpist." (Scholes, 1956, p 1109)
7
Among the ancien t Celts the Druidic cu I t was in the hands of
the bards who, in their songs celebrated the gods, extolled the
deeds of their heroes fallen in battle, and helped to stir up
hatred against the foreign oppressors. Since the Druidic religion
forbade the use of any kind of writing, the blind could hold
their own amongst the bards. (French, 1932, p 64) The activity
of the bards, and in particular that of the blind bards, was
not confined to one country only. The essential unity of the
continental Celts and those in Britain, and of their Druidic
customs, with which the acti vi ty of their bards was bound up,
was alluded to in Caesar's Gallic War (55-54 BC). (Scholes,
1956, p 1108)
The important role of the blind bards during this entire period
should not be underestimated.
1.1 Ossian (c 300 AD)
The most famous of the early blind bards was Ossian who flourished
around 300 AD, about the time of the birth of Didymus of
Alexandria in 308 AD. Ossian was the son of the Caledonian king,
Fingal. Not blind since birth, he went blind after. having fought
in many battles as a sighted hero. Ossian was a true bard,
singing his own poetry while accompanying himself. (Lowenfeld,
1975, p 38)
1.2 Hervaeus (d 565 AD)
Another blind bard was St Hervaeus, also known as St Hervé, who
was born in Bretagne and buried in the Cathedral of Nantes, some
twenty-five years after the birth of Pope Gregory. He was con-
8
verted to the Christian faith and became the patron saint of
all blind bards. At a monastery founded by him in Bretagne
shortly before his death, the Feast of St Hervé is still
celebrated every year on the second day in June. To this day,
blind musicians bring their instruments there for a blessing
by their patron saint. (Farrell, 1956, p 7)
The activity of the blind bards was not confined to one country.
They travelled throughout the United Kingdom, Europe and Asia.
It was reported from China that blind men were wide disseminators
of folklore during the seventh century. In neighbouring Japan.
the blind were recorders of history, capable of reciting upon
req uest chapter and verse of annals of the past. (Farrell, 1956:,
p 5)
1.3 Hitoyasu (843-?)
Prince Hitoyasu , son of the Emperor Ninmyo, lost his sight at
the age of twenty-eight. \vell versed in t.he .Chinese and Japanese
literature, and with a keen interest in music, he was as a young
man appointed the governor of two provinces. Upon the loss of
his sight, which was attributed to grief following the death
of his beautiful wife, Prince Hitoyasu turned his attention to
the blind and gathered them in his court. At parties held at
his palace in Kyoto, then the capital of Japan, the young Prince
took delight in sharing the music of his new· friends and in
reciting poetry. (Farrell, 1956, p 7)
9
1.4 Berulef (fl 800 AD)
At the beginning of the ninth century there lived in Friesland
a notable blind singer, Berulef. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 38)
Although he is historically recorded as a musician, no further
information regarding Berulef could be traced.
2. Blind bards active during the Middle Ages (800-1400)
During the Middle Ages blind bards were active in many countries
across Europe, frequently accompanying themselves on special
instruments. These bards included the Bandurists in Russia who
played the bandura, a mandolin-like instrumen t with many strings,
and the Guslars in the Balkans who played the guslar, a variation
of the violin. In France itinerant singers accompanied themselves
on special violins; in Rumania, shepherds' pipes were used,
and in the Ukraine, the blind bards sang in public houses at
the crossroads of the steppes. In Spain they gathered at church
ceremonies and were famed for their religious songs, while in
Armenia, Georgia, and Czechoslovakia, sightless minstrels were
in demand for weddings on account of their knack for
improvisation. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 38; Farrell, 1956, p 5;
French, 1932, p 62) Thus the blind bards toured Europe and
Central Asia, enriching considerably the folklore and folk music
of almost every country.
"In nearly all countries, Christian, Moslem, and
Buddhist, the blind bards, often led by a dog with a
bell at its neck to herald their arrival, found favor
as they sang the praises of the countries' heroes and
of the ruling kings." (Farrell, 1956, p 5)
10
2.1 Henry the Minstrel (fl after 1300)
Many of the nobility indulged in music-making and received
itinerant musicians at their courts. A well-known blind Scottish
bard was Henry the Minstrel. (Zahl ed, 1962, p 400)
2.2 Blind Harry (fl after 1480)
Blind Harry, a contemporary of Josquin Despres (c 1440-1521),
was a poet and harpist who visited the court of James IV of
Scotland in 1490 and again in 1491. (Scholes, 1956, p 942)
3. A decline in the widespread activity of the bards
Cutenberg l s ' invention.· of the printing press in 1454, the
subsequent publication of books, and more travel, curtailed the
activity of the blind bards, for people lost interest in their
entertainment and their lore. (Farrell, 1956, P 5) Henceforth
their activity was confined to certain areas such as Ireland,
Wales and the Balkans. Their diminishing role on the
international scene in Europe coincided with the last of the
Meistersinger, Hans Sachs (1494-1576).
4. The last of the famous blind bards
The last of the historically recorded famous blind bards were
Carolan and Hempson. Although their travels were mainly
restricted to their own countries, they contributed greatly to
the popularization of folk music. The Irish song Eileen Aroon
was popularized as Robin Adair in Scotland about 1715 by the
blind Irish harper, Hempson, then touring there. (Scholes, 1956,
p 889)
II
4.1 Carolan (1670-1738)
Turlough, also known as Turlogh 0'Carolan, the son of Erin, was
born at Newtown in the county of Meath, Ireland. He was born
some fifteen years before the birth of Handel in Germany. Carolan
was blinded by smallpox very early in life. He showed great
musical talent and learned to play the harp. He became an
itinerant musician, one of the last of the celebrated Irish bards.
He travelled on horse-back, accompaInied by his servant on another
horse, carrying his harp. (Lowenfeld , 1975, p 50) His visits
to the various courts and great houses brought him into contact
with Italian and German music which had a marked influence on
his own compositions. (Blom, 1954, vol 4, p 238)
Carolan wrote more than two hundred compositions, sacred "and
secular, and greatly enri.ched Irish folk music. The Irish poet,
Thomas Moore (1779-1852) adapted ten of his poems. (Farrell,
1956, pp 5, 6)
In 1985, with the tricentennial commemoration of the birth of
Bach, Handel and Scarlatti, several countries issued series of
music stamps. On one of these stamps from Eire, Carolan was
depicted in recognition of his contribution to Irish folk music.
4.2 Hempson, Denis (1695-1807)
Hempson (Hampson) was born at Craigmore, Londonderry, Ireland.
JSBach and Joseph Haydn lived during his lifetime. At the
12
age of three he lost his sight as a result of smallpox. When
tweI ve years old he began to learn the harp. Among others, he
studied under Garragher (a blind travelling 'harper). Hempson
became an Irish bard and travelled extensively through Ireland
and Scotland. During his second visit to Scotland in 1745, he
played before Prince Charles in Edinburgh. He settled at
Magilligan where he died at the age of 112. (Scholes , 1956,
p 469)
In his book, Ancient Music of Ireland, published in Dublin in
1840, Bunting recorded the following observations on the
performances and style of Denis Hempson: .
"He was the only one of the harpers at Belfast in 1792
who literally played the harp with long crooked nails,
as described by the old writers. In playing he caught
the string be~ween the flesh and the nail; not like
the other harpers of his day, who pulled it by the
fleshy part of the finger alone. He had an admirable
method of playing Staccato and Legato, in which he could
run through rapid divisions in an astonishing style.
His fingers lay over the strings in such a manner, that
when he struck them with one finger, the other was
instantly ready to stop the vibration, so that the
Staccato passages were heard in full perfection. In
fact, Hempson's Staccato and Legato passages, double
slurs, shakes, turns, graces et~, comprised as great
a range of execution as has ever been devised by the
most modern improvers." (Blom, 1954, vol 4, p 238)
13
4.3 Philipp der Blinde (fl 1800)
Philipp der Blinde, who died during the first half of the
nineteenth century at Semli.n, Serbia, in the Balkans, knew all
the Serbian poetry by heart. Until recently the blind in Serbia
were active as singers. (Esser, 1961, p 97) Although no more
is historically recorded about Philipp der Blinde, these facts
suffice to indicate an artist and intellect of superior quality.
5. The significance of the contribution of the blind bards
to the development of music
A tradition of more than two milleniums of blind bards was brought
to a close during the nineteenth century. Despite possible
differences in motivation and social background, the similarity
in procedure and the ultimate achievements acquired in enriching
the folklore and music of European countr i es led to the thesis
that the contribution of the blind bards to the growth of Western
music was no less significant than that of the troubadours,
trouveres, Minnesanger and Meistersinger.
Apart from their prowess as performing artists, they also excelled
as poets and as composers. These attributes were almost
necessitated by their lack of vision, since they were ac.tive
before the accessibility of printed versions of these art forms.
The most remarkable feat and also a factor which adds to their
usefulness and indeed stature, is the fact that they functioned
as living sources of historical data. It would, indeed, be
plausible to surmise that they also carried with them the
historical data concerning the art of music itself.
14
CHAPTER 3
ARS NOVA AND THE RENAISSANCE (1300-1600)
During this period the blind were involved in developing the
new instrumental style. Landini was the most celebrated musical
personality of the trecento (the 14th century in Italian art).
His works represent about a quarter of all the Italian trecento
music known to have survived. (Roche and Roche, 1981, pp 108,
109) Paumann was one of the first instrumental virtuosi of
European fame and the author of the oldest book on organ playing.
(Moser, 1956, p 17) One of Schlick's publications heralded the
beginning of the volumino~s literature for th~ lute which
continued throughout the sixteenth century. (Moser, 1956, p
19) Fuenllana's music for the vihuela ranked with that of Luis
Milán. .(Apel, 1973, p 801) The grandeur and inventiveness of
Cabezón's music led to its comparison with the great works of
JSBach himself. (Hindley ed, 1983, p 139) Furthermore Schott
and Chatelain were two of several accomplished blind musical
instrument builders. (Moser, 1956, p 21; Lowenfeld, 1975, P
50) The substantial contribution of blind musicians to the
development of Western music during this period will become
apparent in this chapter.
1. Ars Nova
"The 14th century in music is referred to as the Ars
Nova (the New Art). While it represents the end of
the Middle Ages in music, it also foreshadows some
renaissance trends." (Miller, 1973, P 34)
15
In Italy the Ars Nova flourished from 1330-1410, in the trecento.
The music was essentially secular, based on contemporary Italian
poems, vocally conceived but performed on instruments. It was
an exclusively social art, which featured at the Florentine
courts. The music was somewhat lighter in téxture than the French
modal style and reflected a love of melody and clear chord
progressions. The brevis was subdivided into smaller units,
providing new rhythmic patterns beyond those of French mensural
notation. In trecento music the notes were written on six instead
of five lines. (Warner, 1973, pp 138, 141)
1.2 Landini, Francesco (c 1325/35-97)
The Italian, Landini (Landino), was born about one hundred years
before Hans Sachs (1494-1576), the last of the Meistersinger.
Landini was blind since early childhood. He was the principal
composer of the Italian Ars Nova (Miller, p 37), which flourished
in his home town, Florence. Landini was the most celebrated
musicaL personality of the trecento. He was a brilliant player
of several instruments, including the lute, and especially the
portative organ, and at the same time a distinguished poet,
writing some of the texts he set and being awarded poetic honours
in Venice. (Roche and Roche, 1981, pp 108, 109)
Landini is traditionally believed to have been awarded the laurel
wreath for his organ playing by the King of Cyprus. (\varner,
197'3, p 140) He gained such renown that he was invited with
the great Italian poet Petrach, to grace a festivity. (Hertz,
1932, p 40)
16
Landini was buried at the church of San Lorenzo in Florence where
he had been organist from 1369-96.
After adopting the typical French discant song (cantilena, or
French ballade form), he created a mixed form when he assigned
these parts to two singing voices and the contratenor to an
instrument. (Worner, 1973, p 139) The Landini cadence (the
insertion of the sixth degree of the scale between the leading
note and the tonic at the cadence) was peculiar to many of his
works. (Miller, 1973, pp 34, 35)
Landini left behind a total of 154 compositions (mostly ballate),
his extant works including: nine two-voiced and two three-voiced'
madrigals, two cacce, ninety-one two-voiced and forty-two
three-voiced ballate and eight bal.Lat.e in versions for two or
three voices. (Worner, 1973, p 140) Landini's technical prowess
was demonstrated in the canonic madrigal De! dimmi tu. (Roche
and Roche, 1981, p 109)
"Some of his beautiful madrigals were later found and
used as proof that three-part harmonies were already
known in the 14th century." (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 53)
It could be concluded that Landini, although a poet like so many
blind bards before him, was also a theoretician and composer
of great achievement.
17
2. Renaissance instrumental music
Although instrumental music in the Renaissance never matched
the quantity or quality of vocal music, it is important because
it reveals the rise of interest in instrumental media and the
first realization of an independent instrumental idiom. (Miller,
1973, P 61)
2.1 Paumann, Conrad (1410-73)
Conrad Paumann, the blind organist from Nurnberg, was the leading
figure of the ever-growing ins,trumental music in Germany during
the fifteenth century. (Lang; .1983, p 206) He was a contemporary
of the Franco-Flemish composer, Dufay (b before 1400; d 1474).
Paumann owed his ear Ly musical training to a rich patron in' his
home town" where he started his ~usical career as organist of
the Sebalduskir~he. In 1451 he became court organist at Munchen.
(Hindley, 1983, p 114)
Paumann was an eminent musician who played the lute, flute, harp
and viola, but above all he was a virtuoso on the portative organ,
then in use in Europe. He gave many concerts at various courts
in Bavaria, Spain and also in Italy where he was knighted by
the pope. (Lovenf eLd, 1975, p 55)
His greatest achievement was his book Fundamentum Organisandi
(published in 1452), the oldest textbook on organ playing, con-
taining some compositions, partly didactical and partly impro-
visatory in character. The collection contained three Preembel.n
18
as original compositions, the first written in the style of a
toccata. The indications were written on the upper staff in
mensural notation and on the lower staff in letters. (Horner,
1973, P 541) These pieces represented the earliest type of
idiomatic keyboard music, containing from ten to twenty measures
each. They were remarkable for their free keyboard' style, made
up of passages and chords, in marked contrast to the strict
contrapuntal style of contemporary vocal music. (Apel, 1973,
p 692) In this treatise Paumann showed how to wiite counterpoint
to a tenor and also gave instruction in the art of decoration
by diminution. (Hindley, 1983, p 114)
The French texts of the popular Burgundian ,/ chansons were
unintelligible to the Germans, who then resorted to instrumental
arrangements and paraphrases, eventually leading to an independent
keyboard style. (Lang, 1983, P 206) To this effect CQnrad
Paumann was a leading figure of his time and a monument was
erected over his grave in honour of his memory. (Hertz, 1932,
p 40)
2.2 Schlick, Arnold (1455-1527)
Arnold Schlick was a contemporary of Josquin Despres (c 1440-
1521). He lost his sight at the age of fifty-six, but his best
known works appeared after he had turned blind. Apart from being
a well-known organist at Heidelberg, a lute player, a composer
and a staunch advocate for the mean-tone system, he also took
a keen in terest in the mechanical func tioning of the organ, and
19
his advice was sought by the church authorities in the
construction and maintenance of their instruments.
In 1511, the same year in which he turned blind, his famous book
Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten, appeared. This work
consisted of ten chapters on organ building. In 1512 Tabulaturen
etlicher Lobgesange und Liedlein auf die Orgel und Lauten
appeared. This book contained a Salve Regina, church music,
a keyboard arrangement of a secular Dutch song, twelve tricinia
for voice and lute and three compositions for the lute. This
work heralded the beginning of the voluminous literature for
the lute which continued throughout the sixteenth century. In
1520 some other compositions appeared, including. a magnificent-
piece for the organ consisting of ten voices, six on the manuals
and four on the pedals. (Maser, 1956, pp 17-21) With regard
to his contribution to the development of music in the sixteenth
century, the following was written about his compositions:
"Many of his compositions, which stand second only to
those of the great Hofhaimer, are contained in his
Tablatures of songs of praise and little songs for the
organ and the lute, published in 1512. In these the
old manner of composing to a slow moving tenor drawn
from a plainsong melody still lingers, but the style
is unmistakably an instrumental one." (Hind1ey, 1983,
pp ll4, ll5)
20
2.3 Fuenllana, Miguel de Cc 1500-?)
Fuenllana, the ingenious virtuoso on the gui tarlike Spanish lute
Cvihuela), was born blind near Madrid. (Moser, 1956, p 29)
He was born some ten years before the English composer, Tallis
(c 1505-85).
Fuenllana participated in developing a new independent
instrumental style in Spain. The few songs with lute
accompaniment by the great lutenist song composers of the first
half of the sixteenth century - among others Don Luis Milan and
Miguel de Fuenllana - that are now available in modern editions
disclose a musical art of such grace and finish as elevates Spain
among the leading musical nations of the Renaissance. (Lang',
1983, p 262)
In 1554, when Fuenllana's masterpiece, the tablature book
Orphenica Lyra for guitar and lute appeared, he was a court
musician in Spain. This book was dedicated to King Philipp II
of Spain. (Moser, 1956, p 29) Orphenica Lyra indicated not
only the remarkable technical progress made since the appearance
of El Naestro (1535), the first printed tablature book in Spain
by Don Luis Milan, but a grasp of a truly instrumental style
that was unique in his time. (Lang, 1983, p 263)
Fuenllana used red ciphers to indicate a singing line in his
tablatures for the vihuela, a six-course Spanish guitar, tuned
like the lute. (Apel, 1973, p 902)
/
21
His music was considered to be very important, even by modern
writers:
"Fuenllana's fantasies are the utterances of a virtuoso
instrumentalist who not only knows every technical secret
of his vihuela but invents his expressive and bold music
in a style that is the perfect medium for his
instrument." (Lang, 1983, p 263)
2.4 Tanzl (c 1506-?)
The blihd German musician, Tanzl, was a contemporary of the
Spaniard, Fuenllana. He was such a bright musician, that he
was introduced at the age of eleven to the' Emperor Maximilian .,
In 1540 he became organist at Schwaz. (Moser, 1956, p 30)
2.5 Cabezón, Antonio de (1510-66)
Cabezón was born blind at Castrojeriz near Burgos and died in
Madrid. He was' a Spanish composer and organist, a contemporary
of Fuenllana and the English composer, Tallis (c 1505-85). He
served Empress Isabella from 1526, and from 1539 was royal court
and chapel musician to Charles V and later also to Philipp II.
He travelled through Europe as a member of the royal Spanish
household and this brought him into contact with the best
musicians of his day. He accompanied Philipp II on a visit to
London (1554-56) and his music and playing might have had a
significant effect upon the English virginalists.
22
Cabezón's music was published posthumously in 1578 by his son
Hernando (Apel, 1973, p 801) as a pedagogical collection, Obras
de musica para tecla, arpa y vihuela. Of these the most
significant were the four-voiced tientos , or fantasies, a form
related to the Italian ricercar. In the art of the variation
Cabezón excelled the English virginalists, being responsibl~
for the first extant keyboard variations, called differencias,
on dance-like and folksong-like themes in highly developed
variation technique. (Warner, 1973; p 543) He was indeed the
first to develop the keyboard variation, each variation being
linked without a break to the next, and he infused the plainest
secular material with a lofty seriousness of manner.
His affliction did not deter him from composing keyboard music
of such stunning originality as was entirely unknown before or
immediately after his time:
,
"His admirable variations, bold chromatic fugues, and
clever transcriptions display a nobility of melody. and
polyphony which we shall not meet again until the advent
of the great organists, many years his juniors, who
appeared at the close of the century." (Lang, 1983,
p 264)
His style, which was better adapted to the organ than that of
most of his contemporaries, made use of all the technical
possibilities of counterpoint, while remaining essentially instru-
23
mental in character. Its grandeur and inventiveness led to its
comparison with the work of JSBach himself. (Hindley, 1983,
p 139)
2.6 Sallnas, Francisco (1513-90)
Salinas, a contemporary of Fuenllana and Cabezón, was a
distinguished 'Spanish keyboard performer, teacher and
theoretician. He went blind at the age of ten, and after
completing his training as musician, he served under the
archbishop of Campostella. In 1538 Salinas accompanied his
employer on a visit to Italy where he remained for about
twenty-three years. After becoming a monk, he was employed as
organist .by Duke Alba. During his stay in Italy he became an
authority on ancient- music and on his return to Spain in 1561,
he was appointed as professor of musicology at Salamanca. In
1577 his seven books on music appeared. Salinas was a staunch
supporter of the musical theories of Zarlino (1517-1590) (Moser ,
1956, pp 28, 29), who not only recognized the importance of the
major and minor harmonies with reference to the modes, but put
far greater emphasis on their place in music than any former
theoretician. (Hindley, 1983, p 132)
2.7 Ferdinandes, Johannes (d 1596)
Johannes Ferdinandes, also known as Carolus Fernandus, was a
blind poet, philosopher and musician of Spanish descent. He
settled in a monastery at Bourges where he composed some psalms
and also wrote two books. Michael Praetorius (1571-1621) was
24
very impressed with his four-part writing and mentioned
Ferdinandes's works in his Vol I, p 178. (Moser, 1956, pp 7,
30)
2.8 Valente, Antonio Cc 1520-?)
Valente was an Italian composer and organist, blind from early
childhood. He was a contemporary of Palestrina (c 1525-94).
Valente served as organist of St Angelo a Ni.do (or Nilo) from
1565-80. In 1601 he was listed by Scipione Cerreto as one of
the deceased organists of Naples, indicating that he was
Neapolitan by residence rather than by birth. He was one of
a few Italian composers who", during the sixteenth century, tried
to establish an independent keyboard style. Valente's
Intavolatura de cimbalo had almost the same notation as the
compo~itions of Cabez6n - the numbers one to 23 represented white
keys (with a short octave); an X above a number meant the note
was to be raised a semitone.
His compositions were assembled in two books. The first book
Intavolatura de cimbalo (1576) was among the earliest collections
in the form of opera omnia, containing most of _the keyboard forms
of the time - one fantasia, six ricercares, Salve regina, three
intabulations, six sets of variations, three dances. The second
book Versi spirituali per organo (Naples, 1580) contained church
music. (Sadie ed, 1980, vol 19, pp 492, 493)
25
2.9 Krumbhorn, Kaspar (1542-1621)
Krumbhorn was born in Liegni tz, Germany. He was a con temporary
of the English composer, William Byrd (1543-1623). He went blind
at the age of three. When he became older, he learned to play
the flute, violin and clavichord. Krumbhorn also composed and
made such good progress as a musician, that he was summoned to
Dresden by Augustus of Saxony. He denied the invitation to stay
in Dresden and returned to Liegnitz where he became organist
of the Peter-Paul-Kirche in 1565 and was also active as composer
and conductor. (Moser, 1956, pp 30, 31)
2.10 Chatelain, Martin (fl after 1550)
Chatelain was also known as Castelein or Castellanus . He was,
a contemporary of Krumbhorn. Although blind from infancy, his
father who was a turner,' taught him his craft. Eventually he
became such a dexterous craftsman, that he produced several
musical instruments, especially organs with wooden pipes. He
settled in Antwerp, Belgium where he became famous and enjoyed
the friendship of many outstanding contemporaries. (Lowenfeld,
1975, p 50)
2.11 Thomas (fl 1556-59)
Thomas was a blind singer who lived at the same time as Krumbhorn
and Chatelain. He was attached to the Marienkirche in Danzig
from 1556-59. (Moser, 1956, plO)
26
2.12 Schott, Konrad (1562-1630)
Schott was a blind musical instrument builder of great renown.
He was a contemporary of the Dutch organist, Sweelinck
(1562-1621). Schott lived at Stuttgart, where he built an organ
with 1079 pipes and 16 registers. He also built organs at Ulm
and Freudenstadt, as well as one for Archduke Maximilian. (Moser,
1956, pp 21~23)
3. The significance of the contribution of blind instru-
mentalists to the Ars Nova and to music in the
Renaissance
The majority of blind musicians dealt with in this chapter were
essentially instrumentalists. Apart from Landini who gained
international fame on account of his vocal compositions, the
other blind musicians were all participating in developing a
new keyboard style. During this period, the golden age of
polyphonic choral music, while composers such as Josquin Despres
(c 1440-1521), Palestrina (c 1525-94) and Roland de Lassus
(1532-94) devoted themselves entirely to choral music, blind
musicians were already searching for and establishing a new
keyboard style. Contributions by Paumann (1410-73), Schlick
(1455-1527) and Cabezón (1510-66) culminated in the music of
great instrumentalists such as Corelli (1653-1713), Couperin
(1668-1733) and Vivaldi (1678-1741) during the Baroque.
27
C HAP TER 4
THE BAROQUEAND THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (1600-1820)
The aesthetic ideal of the Baroque (1600-1750) permeated virtually
all aspects of European culture, although the Baroque, as did
(
the Renaissance, began in Italy. Drama, painting, architecture,
and music were characterized by grandiose concepts, magnificent
effects, contrasts, ornate design, and overall theatrical quality.
The years from 1750 to 1820, representing the rise and culmination
of classicism in music were also marked by momentous events in
general history. (Miller, 1973, pp 81, 115) The classical period
in art 'co i.nc i ded with the period of intellectual awakening when
philosophers such as Voltaire, Rousseau, Mpntesquieu and Diderot
pleaded in their wri t i.ngs for the rights of man, Lnc Ludi ng the
less privileged. These philosophies led among others to the
establishmen t of the first school for the blind in Paris in 1784.
(DSE, 1980, pIl)
1. Famous blind musicians of the Baroque and the classical
period
During the Baroque and the classical period instrumental music
flourished in the works of some of the greatest masters - J S
Bach (1685-1750), H~ndel (1685-1759), D Scarlatti (1685-1757),
Haydn (1732-1809) and Mozart (1756-91). Apart from some blind
musicians who experimented with sound (Van Eyck with the overtones
28
of bells and Pesenti with the violin and enharmonic instrumen ts),
there were amongst the blind musicians some brilliant performers
on a variety of instruments - Parry on the harp, Stanley on the
organ, Frixer on the violin, Paradis on the piano, Kir chgas sner
on the glass harmonica and Dulong on the flute.
1.1 Van Eyck, Jacob (c 1589-?)
Jacob van Eyck, the famous blind Dutch musician, who died at
Utrecht, was a contemporary of the German composer, Heinrich
Schutz (1585-1672). Van Eyck was one of the first musicians
to discover the relationship between bells of various shapes
and sizes and the, overtones produced by them. He assisted
Fran~ois and Pieter Hemony in their research in this field.
Van Eyck recognized that a pure tone with the correct overtones
was determined by the right choice of the shape of the bell.
Besides being a famous carillonist , he also played the recorder.
Van Eyck wrote three books containing his compositions. The
first book was Euterpe; the .ot her , Der Fluyten lust-hof comprised
two volumes containing 144 pieces based on Dutch folk tunes for
the treble recorder. (Sadie ed, 1980, vol 6, pp 337, 338)
1.2 Pesenti, Martino (1600-47)
Pesenti was born in Venice the same year in which Peri's first
opera, Euridice was produced. He studied music with Giovanni
Battista Grillo. Pesenti, a blind musician, was not regularly
29
employed and he devoted much of his time to composition. He
was so proud of overcoming his handicap that he signed his
compositions cicco (the blind).
In 1621 his op 1, a set of madrigals, written for from two to
four voices, appeared. His· madrigals· were joyful and artistic.
Pesenti's later works also included some chamber music. In 1645
he experimented with the violin in his
diatonic-chromatic-enharmonic dances, following the enharmonic
keyboard instruments of Vido Transentino (Vitus de Transuntinis)
and Zarlino (whose instrument was built by Domenico de Pesaro
in 1548). By these acoustical experiments Pesenti paved the
way for later blind musicians who were interested in tuning and
acoustical research. (Moser, 1956, pp 32, 33)
1.3 Schonberger, Hulder~cus (1601-49)
Huldericus (Ulrich, Henricus) Sch~nberger was a very famous blind
intellectual. He was a contemporary. of Heinrich Sch~tz.
Schon ber ger was born at Weiden, Germany and blinded by smallpox
at the age of three. After attending an ordinary (public) school
from the age of eleven, he enrolled at the uni versi ty of Leipzig
where he obtained a Master's degree in philosophy and languages
in 1625. Apart from German he gave tuition in Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic and French. Sch~nberger stayed for a
while in Copenhagen and eventually settled in K~nigsberg, Prussia.
He took a keen interest in music and not only built organs and
other musical instruments, but also played on them. (Moser,
1956, pp 23-25)
30
1.4 Schmidt, Jakob (fI after 1600)
Jakob Schmidt was born blind. He was a contemporary of Heinrich
Schut z . Schmidt was organist in Danzig, Germany, from 1602-1610.
He studied music by means of wax tablatures. (Moser , 1956, pp
10-11 )
1.5 Bruna, Pablo (c 1611-79)
Pablo Bruna was born at Daroca near Saragossa in Spain. He was
blinded by smallpox early in childhood. Bruna was a contemporary
of Schut;z . He was a Spanish composer and organist known as El
ciego de Daroca (the blind from Daroca). He became organist
of the collegiate church of Daroca in 1631 and was named its
choirmaster in 1674. Bruna was honoured as one of the foremost
organists and organ teacners in Spain. He was the leading Spanish
keyboard composer between Correa de Arauxo and Cabanilles . His
pupils included Pablo Nassarre (blind) and a nephew Diego Xaraba
y Bruna who succeeded him at Daroca and eventually became the
principal organist of the royal chapel at Madrid. Bruna' s music
was sonorous and well suited to the keyboard. Due to the
imaginati ve figuration and dense, close imitation his works were
peculiarly Spanish in character.
His compositions included thirty-two known organ works, such
as seven Pange lingua settings, psalmodia, gaytilla, batalla,
clausulas, tientos for divided keyboard, tientos for undivided
keyboard and sacred vocal compositions. (Sadie ed, 1980, vol
3, p 381)
31
1.6 Linnemann, Hans (fl after 1650)
Linnemann was a blind German musician who not only performed
on, but also built various musical instruments. He was a
contemporary of Heinrich Schu tz. He was active at Halberstadt
in 1682. Linnemann could sew as well as any person with sight.
(Moser , 1956, p 25)
1.7 Nassarre, Pablo (c 1654-1730)
Nassarre, the Spanish musician, was born at Aragon and died at
Saragossa. As already stated, he was a pupil of ,Pablo Bruna
and a contemporary' of the Italian, Alessandro Scarlatti
(1660-1725). Although Nassarre was blind from infancy, he became
a famous theorist, composer and organist. He entered the
Franciscan order at the age of twenty-two and served throughout
his career as organist of the monastry of St Francis at Saragossa.
Nassarre remained faithful to the conservative Spanish tradition,
defending it against Italian innovations; his work maintained
unquestioned authority among later Spanish theorists until the
attacks of Eximeno, who referred to him as an organist by birth
and a blind man by profession. His works included two theoretical
publications Fragmentos musicos (Saragossa, 1683), dealing with
plainsong, mensuration, counterpoint and dissonance treatment,
and Escuela musica (1723-4) two volumes comprising more than
I 000 pages dealing with definitions, effects of music, plainsong,
the' metres and modes of polyphonic music, an exhaustive
description of instruments, harmonic combinations, strict
counterpoint and free composition, performing practices such
as embellishments and the activities of the church musician.
32
Nassarre's compositions included a villancico, three toccatas
for organ, a tiento and Sanctus versets for organ. Of his few
remaining compositions one is a toccata surprisingly in the style
of an Italian concerto. (Sadie ed, 1980, vol 13, pp 43-44)
\
1.8 Waldkirch, Esther Elisabeth von (1660-?)
Elisabeth von Waldkirch (Jungfrau Valkierin) was the first blind
woman recorded in history as a musician by Kaspar Printz in 1690.
(Moser, 1956, p 43) She was a contemporary of the English
composer, Henry Purcell (1659-95). Elisabeth was born in Geneva,
Switzerland. She was a blind girl of exceptional intelligence
and her father and his Swiss friend, Bernouilli, took a delight
in teaching her. Because of his pupil's achievements, Bernouilli
gained international fame as a teacher of the blind. He incised
the alphabet on a thin wooden board; Elisabeth traced out the
form of the letters with her fingers, then with a pencil, and
by this means learned to write correctly on paper with a pencil,
and even with ink. She was taught Latin, French and German and
kept up a voluminous correspondence with her family and friends
in all three languages.
Besides being a very fine singer, she played the organ, flute
and violin. (Wagg, 1932, p 4)
1.9 Grave, Johann Jakob (c 1670-?)
Grave was born in Amsterdam, Holland. He was blind and a
contemporary of Elisabeth von \.Jaldkirch. He became a famous
33
organist at Amsterdam and he could play the most recent Italian
concertos and sonatas on his organ. (Maser, 1956, p 35)
1.10 Leopold, Achilles Daniel (1691-1753)
Leopold was born in Lubeck , Germany, six years after his famous
contemporary, JSBach. He received an exc eIlent education since
he and his bother, who was also born blind, were sons of a wealthy
family. He learned Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and studied law
and theology. His contemporaries considered him the miracle
of the century because of his thorough and wide knowledge. He
published some scholarly works,. among them a treatise on those
born blind. Besides being a good singer, he was also a skilful
musician, playing the flute, violin and viola. "(Lowenf eLd, 1975,
pp 53-54)
1.11 Jacobi, Christian Gotthi1f (1696-?)
Jacobi was blinded by smallpox early in childhood. He was a
contemporary of JSBach. Jacobi became a famous organist of
the St Katharinenkirche in Magdeburg, Germany, where he was still
active in 1732. He was highly acclaimed as a performer and
composer and visited several royal courts in Saxony as well as
the universities of Leipzig and Jena.
Among his compositions his Inventiones were of special interest.
(Maser, 1956, pp 35-36)
34
1.12 Erlach, Friedrich von (1708-57)
Erlach was born in Berlin about the time of the invention of
the pianoforte by Cristofori in Florence. He was a blind German
musician who composed trios Ifor recorder, violin and piano.
The instrumentation of these trios was said to have been excellent
with each individual instrument handled in a masterly way. It
was reported that Erlach could play on two recorders of different
lengths simultaneously. (Maser, 1956, pp 39-40)
1.13 Parry, John (c 1710-1782)
Parry was born at Bryn Cynan in Wales and died at Ruabon. He
was a famous blind Welsh harper, a contemporary of Handel. Parry
was considered to be the .gr eateet master of the triple harp;
(telyn) in Britain. In his youth Parry received the patronage
of the ancient family of Griffith, before he became domestic
harper to the family of Wynnstay, Ruabon. The Prince of Wales
became his patron. Parry, a master of the triple harp was
according to one source, head harpist of Britain. Handel composed
a concerto for triple harp and a London daily newspaper of 1741
advertised a performance which included a concerto of mr Handel's
on the harp by mr Parry. (Braille Musical Magazine, January
1983, p 53) Parry composed four volumes of instrumental music,
including one volume of twelve airs for one or two guitars, as
well as four sonatas for the harp. He was also editor-collector
of early Welsh folk-songs. The Welsh air Brenhines Dido, an
adaptation of an English song Queen Dido, appeared as such and
with its Welsh title in a publication by Parry in 1781. (Scholes,
1956, P 127)
35
1.14 Stanley, John (1713-86)
John Stanley, a contemporary of Handel, was a well-known English
musician. He was scarred and blinded at the age of two in an
acciden t with a broken vase. When he was seven he began wi th
organ lessons and he received his .first appointment at ten.
He became organist in London at fourteen of St Andrew's and
in 1734 of the Middle Temple Church,. where he worked for nearly
fifty years.\ In 1729, at, the age of sixteen, he was the first
blind student and the youngest ever t~ receive a Bachelor's degree
in music from the University of Oxford. Stanley afterwards
regularly directed concerts at two London taverns. When his
close friend Georg Friedrich Handel died in 1759, Stanley gave
up teaching and carried on directing Handel's Lantern Oratori'.o
Concerts. After the death of. William Boyce 'in 1779, Stanley
became Master of the King's Band of Musicians, the greatest honour
bestowed on him.
John Stanley was a brilliant organist and at the Temple Church
where he played for almost fifty years, it was no strange sight
to see about fifty organists, including Handel, gathered around
him, admiring his playing.
His compositions included many organ works, string concertos,
oratoria, cantatas, songs and solos for flute, violin and
harpsichord. (Jackson, 1974, pp 15-28)
36
1.15 Metcalf, John (1717-1810)
John Metcalf, a blind English intellectual, was a contemporary
of Joseph Haydn (1732-1809). Metcalf was blinded by smallpox
at the age of six. After attending a public primary school,
he pursued many activities. He became well known as an engineer
and a bridge builder. He was one of the first to use crushed
stone for making road beds. (French, 1932, p 68) Metcalf also
indulged in playing the violin and the horses. (Lowenfeld, 1975,
p 54)
1.16 Potholt, Jakob (1726-c 1800)
Potholt (Pothofft) was born in Amsterdam. He was a Dutch
musician, a contemporary of the great Austrian, Joseph Haydri.
Although blind from his seventh year, he became a famous organist
and carillonist in Amsterdam. He also was a renowned composer
of his time. Potholt's works included the 150 psalms which
appeared in 1777, some compositions for carillons and a
hand-written manual, still preserved in the library at Amsterdam.
(Moser, 1956, pp 37-39)
1.17 Salignac, Mélanie de (1741-63)
Mélanie de Salignac, born to a wealthy family in Saintogne,
France, was blind since her second year. She was a contemporary
of Joseph Haydn. Diderot wrote about her in the addition to
his Lettre sur les aveugles (1780). She was initially taught
by her mother and later by some private tutors. They used
remarkable aids in her education and besides regular writing
which she did with a pencil and a ruler as guide, she also learned
37
staff notation in relief. She used an embossed type of writing
by pricking the letter shapes into heavier paper than was
ordinarily used. Mélanie was reported to have been an excellent
singer, a graceful dancer, and a performer on the zither. (Maser,
1956, pp 43-44)
1.18 Frixer, Alexander (1741-1825)
Frixer (Fridzeri, Fritzeri) was born of German descent in Verona,
Italy. He was a contemporary of Joseph Haydn. Frixer went blind
at the age of one. He had no formal education in harmony and
counterpoint, but his natural talent enabled him to grasp all
the complexities of composition. He wa~ a virtuoso on the flute,
violin, viola d'amore, French horn and mandolin. At the age
of twenty he was an architect, a poet and an accomplished
musician. When he' was twenty-four he began touring as a
performing artist with a repertoire of some violin works by
Tartini, Ferrari and Pugnani. He travelled extensively and his
violin performance at Frankfurt-am-Main was reported as a great
success. On returning to Italy, he became organist in Venice
for three years, before settling in Paris in 1771. He stayed
in Paris until 1801 when, in a bomb attack on the city, all his
possessions were destroyed. He once again went on tour as a
performer, accompanied by his two daughters who performed as
singers. They finally settled in Antwerp, where he pursued a
career as music teacher.
While li ving in the French capital, he devoted much of his time
38
to composition. He tried his hand at comic operas and Singspielen
- Die beiden Nilizer (1771) and Die seidenen Schuhe (1776) which
brought him fame especially in Germany. Other operas were Lucetta
and Die Thermopylen. His compositions further included duets
for violin, twelve string quartets, two violin concertos, one
symphony concertante, some books containing arias with harp
accompanimen t, a mass and a miserere . (Moser , 1956, pp 40-42)
1.19 Paradis, Maria Theresia (1759-1824)
Maria Theresia Paradis was born in Vienna. She was the godchild
of the Austrian empress Maria Theresia.. Maria Theresia Paradis
was a contemporary of Mozart (1756-1791). She went blind when
she was about five years old. Maria Theresia Paradis was an
excellent performer on the piano and organ as well as an
accomplished singer and ·composer. On hearing her performance
on the organ in Vienna, the empress was so impressed, that she
provided her with an annual allowance. Maria Theresia had a
reliable memory and learned her music mainly by imi ta tion. She
studied among others with Salieri and Kozeluh. Her repertoire
included some sixty sonatas by ePE Bach, Haydn, Wagenseil and
others. She used a system which she devised, consisting of notes
cut from cardboard, as well as a cardboard staff in teaching
her pupils. In 1784 she was accompanied by her mother on a tour
to Germany and Switzerland. During her visit to Paris in 1785,
she played before the French queen, Marie Antoinette. She also
visited England and Brussels where she sang in a cantata based
on her life and composed by her teacher, Kozeluh. In 1786 she
39
returned to Vienna and in 1810 an article on her appeared in
a Berlin newspaper, reporting that she was teaching piano, singing
and general bass. Mozart was so impressed with her performance
as a pianist, that he composed one of his piano concertos, K
456 in B flat major for her to perform during her visit to Paris.
Her compositions included four piano sonatas, variations for
piano, a trio, many songs, a melodrama Ariadne und Bacchus, a
Singspiel Der Schulkandidat, an opera Rinaldo und Alcina and
an ode on the death of Louis XVI. (Maser, 1956, pp 44-47)
1.20 DUlon(g), Friedrich Ludwig (1769-1826)
D~long was born in Oranienburg near Berlin, Germany an& died
in W~rzburg. He was blind from infancy. He became a flute
virtuoso who toured throughout Europe and Russia giving recitals.
D~long was a contemporary of Beethoven (1770-1827) and his
'influencial musician associates included Emperor Friedrich Wilhelm
II of Prussia, Reichardt, Rolle, ePE Bach, Franz and Karl Benda.
DuLong stated that his interest in the flute was awakened when
at the age of eight, he attended a concert in Lubeck , given by
a group of musicians from Prague. Among them was a blind
flautist, Jos Winter. Dulong gave his first performance in
Hamburg at the age of fourteen. ePE Bach who followed the
recital from a score, was very impressed with the accuracy of
the performance. Dulong held several posts as a musician - among
others he' spent four years at the royal court in St Petersburg.
40
The author, Rochlitz, reported that Dulong's repertoire consisted
of about four hundred concert pieces and that he was constantly
expanding it.
Dulong's compositions included a flute concerto, nine duets and
variations for flute and violin, as well as many duets and
capriccios for flute. (Maser, 1956, pp 50-54)
1.21 Linley, Francis (1770-1800)
Francis Linley was blind since birth. He was a contemporary
of Beethoven. Linley was an English composer, organ tutor, and
organist of St James' Chapel, Pentonville. He also was a music
dealer. In 1796 he went to America where his playing and
compositions were much admired. In 1799 he returned to England.
His compositions included songs, pianoforte and organ pieces,
as well as solos and duets for flute. (Colles ed, 1934, vol
III, P 204).
1.22 ,Kirchgassner, Marianne (1773-1808)
Marianne Kirchgassner was barn at Bruchsal, Germany. She went
blind at the age of four. She was a contemporary of Beethoven.
For about twenty years she reigned throughout Europe as the
undisputed queen of the glass harmonica.
The American, Benjamin Franklin, invented the glass harmonica
in 1761. The German Alois Schmittbauer, who not only built these
instruments, but also composed for and gave tuition in playing
on them, presented the young blind girl with one of his
instruments and taught her to play on it. Mozart composed two
41
works especially for her performances - Adagio and Rondo for
glass harmonica, flute, oboe, viola and violoncello, as well
as Adagio for glass harmonica.
Accompanied by Heinrich Ph Karl BossIer she started at the age
of eighteen on her first concert tour to Vienna, with a repertoire
of pieces especially composed for her by the violinist Johann
Eichhorn. She later also visited Copenhagen, London (where a
glass harmonica with bells to be played with a bow, was presented
to her) and Russia. In 1808 she went to Switzerland where she
died of pneumonia soon after her last concert.
Marianne was reputed to have been able to perform on the glass
harmonica as if on a piano. She could execute trills and other
embellishments with the greatest of ease on her instrument.
Thomaschek, a musician from Prague, wrote an elegy on her life.
(Piotrowski, 1986, pp 52-53)
1.23 Wendt, Franz (f1 1798)
Franz Wendt was born in Berlin and was blind since infancy.
He was a contemporary of Beethoven. Wendt was an accomplished
performer on the piano, organ, flute, clarinet, harp, mandolin
and harmonica. He also built instruments. In 1798 he built
an instrument for Janizary (Turkish military) music and a
Glockenspiel with which he toured through several cities. Wendt
also devised a musical notation called Hakennoten, for the blind.
(Maser, 1956, pp 25-26)
42
1.24 Fischer, Sophie Elisabeth (1788-?)
Sophie Fischer was born in Halle, Germany. She was a contemporary
of Schubert (1797-1828). She went blind at the age of three.
Sophie learned to play the harp. She was regarded as such a
virtuoso on the harp, that she was invited to· perform at several
courts in Saxony, even at the court of Emperor Friedrich Wilhelm
III at Potsdam. (Moser, 1956, pp 49-50)
2. The contribution of blind musicians to the development
of music during the Baroque and the classical period
All the blind musicians dealt with in this chapter were either
performers or composers of instrumental music. While much of
their success could be ascribed to their natural gift for
improvisation, the virtuosi ty of some of them had to be
undisputed. How else could John Stanley have impressed Handel,
Dulong ePE Bach, Paradis and Kirchgassner Mozart?
Despite their blindness they had to acquire some education and
a proficiency in performance enabling them to participate in
the music making process, thus enriching the cultural life of
most European countries.
43
C HAP TER 5
THE ROMANTIC PERIOD AND COMTEMPORARY MUSICIANS (1820-1988)
The 19th century is generally known as the Romantic era, but
aspects of "romanticism appeared before 1800 and continued well
into the 20th century. (Miller, 1973, p 133)
1. General considerations
In this, the last chapter of Part 1 of the thesis, describing
the lives and works of blind musicians, the twentieth century
is dealt with together with the Romantic era (l9th century) to
establish some uniformity~ Apart from Vierne, Langlais and;
Litaize who brought with their highly individual styles
chromaticism within the context of organ music, very few blind
composers of the twentLeth century experimented with avant-garde
music such as the twelve-tone system, serialism or electronic
music. In some compositions of Langlais the influence of Messiaen
was evident. (Labunsky, 1987) Rodriga, representing the most
prominent of the blind composers of the twentieth century, evolved
a Neo-classical style (Hindley, 1983, p 471), while the works
of some of the other blind composers showed a marked resemblance
to the late-romantic style in use at the turn of the century.
(Braille Musical Magazine, May 1980, p 35)
This period can be described as the era of blind organ virtuosi
represented by Hollins, Vierne, Marchal, Langlais, Walcha and
Liddle. Several other instrumental performers also gained inter-
44
national fame such as the harpist Francis, the violinist \.Janamy,
and the pianists Themeli , Mozzati, Colombo and D'Ascoli. There
were amongst the blind also several very distinguished music
teachers such as Proksch, Hertz, Beetz, Goette, Winterfeldt and
Eldridge. In composition, works of significance were produced
by Delius, Vierne, Langlais and Rodrigo. Once again the blind
were responsible for a very substantial contribution to the
development of Western music.
2. Blind musicians and their contributions to the develop-
ment of Western music during the 19th and 20th centuries
2.1 Proksch, Josef (1794-1864)
Josef Proksch, a contemporary of Schumann (1810-56), was born
in Bohemia. He was blind since his youth and attended the school
for the blind in Prague. After studying with Kozeluh, the teacher
of Maria Theresia Paradis, he also studied piano pedagogy in
Prague. In 1830 he founded a Musikbildungsanstalt (Klavierschule)
in Prague. (Riemann, 1961, L-Z, p 443) He was a teacher of
Smetana, and both Liszt and Berlioz, who met him on their visits
to Prague, regarded him as a very fine musician. (Braille Musical
Magazine, April 1969, p 36)
Proksch published the following pedagogical works on music:
Versuch einer rationellen Lehrmethode im Pianofortespiel, a
Musikalisches Vademecum, a Allgemeine Musiklehre (Prague, 1857)
and Aphorismen uber katholische Kirchenmusik' (Prague, 1858).
45
Proksch's compositions included masses, cantatas, church songs,
sonatas and a concerto for three pianos. He also arranged some
orchestral scores as teaching material for from four to eight
pianos. (Riemann, 1961, L-2, p 443) In 1932 i t was reported
that his manual for piano teaching was still in use in Vienna.
(Hertz, 1932, p 55)
2.2 Montal, Charles (1800-65)
Montal was a contemporary and fellow student of Louis Braille
at L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris. Some
of. his ~xperiments led to his book on piano tuni~g and reparations
(published in 1834), opening a new vocation to the blind.
(Vaughan , 1987)
.2.3 Braille, Louis (1809-52)
Louis Braille was a contemporary of Schumann. He was born at
Coupvray near Paris. When three years of age, he lost his sight
in an accident with an awl in his father's workshop. From 1819
he attended L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris,
where he studied piano, organ and violoncello. In 1828 he became
a teacher at this institute as well as organist of the Chapelle
des Lazaristes. His greatest accomplishment was his invention
of the Braille system in 1829. (Wagg, 1932, P 27) Braille
abandoned the idea of embossing staff notation and adapted his
raised six dot system to the writing of music. He divided the
keyboard of the piano into seven octaves, with a special symbol
denoting each octave. (Henri, 1952, p 83) Pitch, duration,
46
phrasing, dinamies and all other musical symbols were accounted
for, supplying the blind with a unique code, representing an
exact copy of the inkprint. (HoLmberg , 1954, p 9) This very
practical solution of diverting the blind from regular writing
was not appreciated during Braille's life. Two years after his
death the braille system was implemented at the institution where
he had worked and in 1888 it was internationally accepted at
the conference in Cologne.
"The man who, during thirty years of patient research,
had done more for the blind than eight centuries of
charity and alms,' died ignored by his contemporaries,
without ostentation or glory, but simply as he lived.'.
No one had had a presentiment of the world-wide
significance of his work. No one, apart from his very
restricted circle of friends, had noticed that at
forty-three had died the deliverer of millions of beings
formerly doomed to ignorance, but able today, because
of him, to attain the highest pinnacle of culture."
(Roblin, 1952, p 141)
2.4 Crosby, Fanny J (1820-1915)
Fanny Crosby (Frances Jane Alstyne) was a blind American woman,
a contemporary of the Italian opera composer, Verdi. She attended
the institution for the blind in New York. Fanny was involved
in missionary and evangelical work in the United States. She
47
wrote some secular songs until she met IN B Brad bury in 1864.
Under his influence she wrote her first hymn. She afterwards
collabora ted with American composers such as \hlliam Doane and
Lowell Mason and became the world's most prolific hymn writer.
Only a very few hymns were entirely her own work; in the majority
of cases she provided the texts for the hymns. She did not use
braille, but relied on her, memory. In 1906 a company in New
York estimated that the firm alone had published more than five
thousand of her hymns. (Musical Review, December. 1930, p 35
et seq)
\
2.5 Campbell, Francis Joseph (1832-1914)
Francis Joseph Campbell was barn in Tennessee, USA. He was a'
contemporary of the Italian musician, Verdi and the American
hymn writer, Fanny Crosby. After losing his sight owing to an
accident when' he was a young child, he attended the school for
the blind in Nashville, Tennessee, where he eventually became
a music teacher. In 1858 he went to the Perkins Institute for
the Blind, Boston, Massachusetts. In 1869 he left the United
States, touring Europe and visiting various music schools. In
1872 he became the first principal of the Royal Normal College
for the Blind, Upper Norwood, London. He was knighted in 1909,
three years before his retirement. It was largely due to his
initiative and convictions that specialized music training became
such an integral part of the education for the blind during the
era of the institutions. (INagg, 1932, p 122)
48
2.6 Wood, David Duffle (1838-1910)
David Duffle Wood was born in Pittsburgh and died in Philadelphia,
USA. He was a contemporary of the German musician, Brahms
(1833-97). Duffle ~"ood was blinded in an accident when three
years of age. He received his education at the Pennsylvania
Institute for the Blind. Wood became music instructor at this
institute from 1858 until his death. He was an excellent organist
and composer.
His compositions included anthems and songs. He also wrote A
Dictionary of Musical Terms for the use of the Blind (1869).
(Slonimsky ed, 1978, p 1912)
2.7 Labor, Joseph (1842-1924)
Joseph Labor was born in ·Bohemia and was blind since his youth.
He was educated at an institute for the blind in Vienna. Since
1863 Labor became a well-known concert pianist in most European
countries. Besides Anton Bruckner he was· considered the most
famous organist in Europe. As pianist and composer his work
was admired by some of his illustrious contemporaries such as
Brahms, Clara Schumann, Rubinstein and Joachim. (Hertz, 1932,
p 55) King Georg V appointed him as royal chamber pianist and
royal organist at the court in Hannover. Later he was named
the official organist of the German State. In 1866 he settled
in Vienna, devoting much of his time to composition. Among his
pupils who became composers were Rudolf Braun, Bela Uj, as well
as Luda and Atilla Howath. (Hertz, 1932, p 55)
49
His compositions included a piano quartet, a piano quintet, a
quintet for wind instruments, a violin concerto, many solos for
piano and for organ, songs, one mass and church music. (Ho se r ,
1956, p 56)
2.8 Blind Tom (1849-1908)
Tom was a blind American Negro, born as a slave in Georgia.
He had a remarkable memory and al though he could not read and
write, and was said to have been an idiot, he played from memory
any piece of music which he heard. Tom was taken by his owner
on tour throughout the United States, displaying his musical
talent. (Scholes, 1956, pp Ill, 633)
2.9 Dawber, James (1851-1932)
James Dawber, MusBac Cantab, lived in Wickham where he was born.
He was a blind musician, a contemporary of Sir Edward Elgar (1857-
1934) . For" more than fifty years he worked with success among
his sighted colleagues. After participating in the foundation
of the Society for Professional Musicians in the north-west of
England, he was elected as. honorary secretary at their second
meeting in Manchester, November 2, 1882. (Braille Musical
Magazine, December 1969, pp 29-38)
50
2.10 Smareglia, Antonio (1854-1929)
Antonio Smareglia, a contemporary of the Italian composer Puccini
(1858-1924), was born at Pola and died at Grado. Smareglia was
a Slavonic-Italian opera composer whose style became more dramatic
since 1879. In 1895 he was still able to write his opera Nozze
Istriane (Triest), but soon afterwards in Vienna, the same score
had to be enlarged for him. In 1900, following eye surgery,
he went totally blind. His blindness did not affect his skill
as an opera composer. He continued to compose without any script,
dictating all his music from memory. After he had turned blind,
Smareglia was ably assisted and. accompanied by his two sons.
He was a great admirer of the works of Bach. His operas ranged
in style somewhere between those of Wagner and Puccini.
Smareglia's operas Falene, Oceana and Abisso were composed after
he had. turned blind. Some of them were produced by Toscanini.
His operas composed before he went blind were Vasall van Sigeth,
produced by Hans Richter in Vienna (1889) and Cornelius Schuyt
(Vlá'mische Maler), produced by Schuch in Dresden (1893). (Moser,
1956, pp 57-58)
2.11 Geibel, Adam (1855-1933)
Geibel was born near Frankfurt-am-Main, Germany and died in
Philadelphia, USA. He was a blind musician and a contemporary
of the English composer, Sir Edward Elgar. He went to the United
States in 1862 where he studied with David (Duffle) \voI od at the
Pennsylvania Institute for the Blind, Philadelphia. He received
an honorary MusD from the Temple University (piano, violin,
harmony and composition). He was also an organist.
51
Geibel's compositions included many songs and hymns such as
Evening Bells; Kentucky Babe; Light Out of Darkness; The
Nativity; The Incarnation; Stand Up, Stand Up for Jesus; Some
Day He'll Make It Plain; Let the Gospel Light Shine Out and
Sleep. (ASCAP, 1980, p 179)
2.12 Platt H E (1856-1944)
Platt was born at Worcester, England. He was a contemporary
of Sir Edward Elgar. Platt was educated at the Birmingham
Institute for the Blind and was appointed as 'chief instructor
of music at this institution in 1913. His greatest claim to
fame was that he was one of the co-editors of the Braille Musical
Magazine when it was first published in 1909. The other two:
editors were W Wolstenholme and H C Warrilow. In 1922 the
National Institute for the Blind printed and published a manual
Tonic Sol-fa applied to Braille, for the use of blind Musicians,
prepared by Platt. (Wagg, 1932, p 109)
2.13 Macan, Karl Emanuel (1858-?)
Macan was born at Pardubitz, Bohemia about seventeen years after
his famous countryman Dvorák. He was trained at the conservatoire
of Prague as an organist and he also studied composition with
Zdenko Fibich. Macan lost his sight at the age of twenty-two.
In 1891, he was appointed as music teacher and head of the
printing press at the institution for the blind in Prague. His
compositions included a string quartet, a piano trio, a dumka
for piano and violin, piano pieces, a melodrama Amarus, children's
songs, some Czech songs, several choral works for male voices
and two masses. His Dorian mass was performed in Vienna at the
request of Brahms. (Moser, 1956, pp 58-59)
52
2.14 Pfannstiehl, Bernhard (1861-1940)
Pfannstiehl was born at Schmalkalden, Germany and died at
Freiberg. He was blind since his first year and attended an
institution for the' blind in Leipzig from the age of six. At
the age of thirteen he played the piano part in the Mozart g
minor quartet, and at fourteen he performed at the famous
Gewandhaus. In 1877 he began to study the organ and two years
later he excelled as an organ virtuoso. Franz Liszt advised
him to concentrate on church music. He travelled extensively
throughout Germany, performing works by Liszt, Rheinberger,
Forchhammer, Lemmens and Max Reger. Pfannstiehl was also an
exponent of the works of the great composers of the sixteenth
century. Liszt, Hans von Bul ow and Tchaikovsky were impressed
with his musical talent. Apart from his musical achievements,
he also succeeded in mastering Greek, Latin, Spanish, Italian,
French, Portuguese, English, Swedish, Norwegian and Russian.
(Maser, 1956, pp 59-60)
1.15 Hessen, Alexander Friedrich von (1861-1945)
The German nobleman, Alexander Friedrich van Hessen, was born
in Copenhagen. His mother, a princess of Prussia, was a pupil
of Schumann and a friend of Brahms. Although Hessen was blind
since his childhood, he received a very thorough musical
education. Among others he had some lectures from Hans van Bi.ilow
and eventually studied with Gabriel Fauré in Paris. In 1927,
he was awarded an honorary doctorate of the University of Marburg.
His compositions included one piano concert.o; one mass for choir
53
and organ; one symphony;I orchestral variations with boys' choir;
songs; choral works; a cantata as well as some chamber music
which included a string trio; two string quartets; a trio for
piano, horn and clarinet; a piano quintet for strings and French
horn, and canons for two sopranos, two horns and piano. (Moser,
1956, pp 60-61)
2.16 Delius, Frederick (1862-1934)
Delius was born of German descent at Bradford, England. He was
one of the English composers with a truly individual style, easily
recognizable, artistically successful within a ~arrow range of
emotional expression. After a short stay in Florida, USA, he
settled in France, where he died. He was buried in Surrey,
England. His health and sight deteriorated and in 1928 Eric
Fenby became his amanuensis. With the necessary assistance he
was still able to compose his Song of Summer (1929-30) for
orchestra, the third violin sonata (1930), and The Song of
Farewell (Whitman) for chorus and orchestra (1930). (Arnold
ed, 1984, vol I, p 546)
Evolving a somewhat impressionist idiom (related to both Grieg
and Debussy), Delius also wrote Koanga, A Village Romeo and Juliet
and three other operas; choral-orchestral works including A
Nass of Life. Requiem, and Sea Drift; orchestral. works including
On hearing the first Cuckoo in Spring. Brigg Fair. Paris and
two pieces called Dance Rhapsody; three violin sonatas; a violin
concerto; a piano concerto and many songs. (Jacobs, 1982, P
106)
54
2.17 Francis, David (1865-1929)
David Francis was a very famous Welsh harpist. He lived at
Llechwedd near Blendau in Wales. He attended Edward Rushton 's
School for the Indigent Blind at Liverpool from 1875-81. Francis
became a legend during his life and was known as Tylnor dall
o Feirion (the blind harpist from Meirionnydd). He accompanied
many choirs on his harp, including one that sang at the World
Exhibition at Hembley in 1924. In recognition of his work the
community where he lived, presented him in 1928 with a new harp.
After his death special postage stamps, commemorating his
contribution to Welsh music, were issued and his home at Llechwedd
was opened as a public museum. (Braille Music Magazine, July
1985, pp 31-36)
2.18 Wolstenholme, William (1865-1931)
\Villiam \"Tolstenholmewas born at Blackburn, England and educated
at the Worcester College for the Blind. His musical talent
attracted the attention of Sir Henry Smart. Wolstenholme was
a close friend of Sir Edward El.gar, who taught him to play the
violin. When he obtained his MusBac at the University of Oxford
in 1887, he became the second successful blind student after
John Stanley, who accomplished this feat in 1729. Following
an initial stay at his home town, he sett Led in 1902 in London,
where he became organist of All Saints', Norfolk Square. In
1909, he was one of the co-editors of the Braille Musical Magazine
which was published for the first time. In 1925, he was elected
55
as president of the London Society of Organists. He was a
brilliant pianist and a virtuoso on the organ, especially in
the art of improvisation. His music was considered to be showy,
but attractive, belonging to the Romantic period of the late
nineteenth century. He gave many organ recitals, touring the
United States in 1908 and Germany a few years later.
His compositions included seven orchestral pieces, mainly short
and light in character, the longest being a suite for strings
in F major; a piece for a military band; twenty songs; a
cantata, Lord Ullin's Daughter; a ballad for female voices;
several part-songs including one madrigal; thirty short piano
pieces; anthems; a sonata in e flat minor for piano; a sonata
in F, major for violin and piano; a wind quintet and about one
hundred pieces for the organ. His organ works were mostly in
the style of voluntaries, but included three sonatas and two
concert overtures, as well as his two very famous little gems
The Question and The Answer. Wolstenholme also wrote a piece
called Bohemesque in fifteen-eight time, dedicated to his friend
Hollins for the inauguration of the organ in the. Johannesburg
City Hall. (Braille Musical Magazine, May 1980, pp 27-36)
2.19 Hollins, Alfred (1865-1942)
Alfred Hollins was born in Hull, England and educated at the
institution for the blind in York. He received his musical train-
56
ing at the Royal Normal College for the Blind, London. Later
he received further tuition from the concert pianist Hans von
Bulow, during which period he had the opportunity to meet
prominent figures such as Guilmant, Dvorák and Widor. (Ralston ,
1987, p 64) Hollins was an excellent pianist and in 1885, when
only nineteen years of age, he gave a piano recital at the
Singakademie in Berlin - performing in one programme Beethoven's
Emperor concerto, the Schumann, and the Liszt E flat concerto.
A German newspaper (Deutsches Tageblatt vom 22. April 1985)
reported on the occasion - The performance of this young artist,
though deprived of sight, is only equalled by some of our greatest
pianists. (Hollins, 1936, p 145 et seq) In 1888 Hollins was
appointed as professor of piano and organ at the Royal _Normal
College for the Blind, London.
His abilities as an organist were first appreciated on account
of the recital which he gave at the Inventions Exhibition in
London in 1885. Thereafter many of his concert programmes
included both piano and organ items. He held church appointments
at St John's, RedhilI (1884-88) and St Andrew's Presbyterian
Church, Upper Norwood (1888-97) while also serving as the first
organist of the Crystal Palace during' 1888-89. When St George's
Free Church, Edinburgh installed an organ in 1897, Hollins
accepted the. invitation to be organist, a post which he retained
until his death in 1942. In addition,. he made numerous tours
abroad, covering some 600 000 miles in the course of visits to
Australia and New Zealand (1904), South Africa (1907, 1909, 1916),
Canada and the United States (1925 and 1926). The latter tour
was particularly successful; i t was twice extended by popular
demand and Hollins played in a total of sixty-five cities.
57
(Ralston, 1987, pp 64-65) As organist he worked in close
collaboration with the organ building firm of Norman and Beard.
He officially opened their new organ in the Johannesburg City
Hall, 4 March 1916. His programme for the inauguration included
works by Mendelssohn, Wagner, Bach, Gounod, Wattling, Rossini
and himself. (Hoilins, 1936, p 346)
His compositions included songs, church music, many pieces for
the organ, among them some concert overtures in grand style.
His music was considered happy, without being trivial. (Braille
Musical Magazine, February 1983, pp 49-51)
2.20 ~indl; Josef (1869-1931)
Josef Haindl was a blind musician from Austria. He performed
on several instruments with great success. Haindl also composed
chamber music and some orchestral works. (Hertz, 1932, p 56)
2.21 Hertz, Josef (1869-?)
Josef Hertz was born blind in Bohemia and educated at the Israel
Blinden Institut in Vienna. After he had passed the public
examinations as a teacher of piano, organ, violin and singing,
he was appointed as music educator at this institute. Hertz
subsequently started his own music school, teaching sighted pupils
with great success. Apart from being a leading pedagogue, he
also was a virtuoso on the organ and organist of the greatest
sinagogue in Vienna. His compositions included several choral
works and songs for children.
58
Following World War I, Vienna became the cradle of scientific
methods in education. Austrian schools for the blind established
certain principles, attracting educators from all over the world.
It was in this era and under these circumstances that professor
Josef Hertz gained fame and international recognition as a highly
successful blind music pedagogue. (Musical Review, February
1932, pp 39-40)
2.22 Braun, Rudolf (1869-1925)
Braun, a blind musician, was born in Vienna. He was a student
of Josef Labor and obtained a professorship shortly before his
death in Vienna. His compositions included Marionettentreue
(which had ten performances under Mahler in the Vienna State
Opera House), a one-act Singspiel Galante Zeit, a three-act opera
Ovid bei Hofe, a series of piano books, a string quartet, a string
quintet, a wind quintet, a sonate for horn, a sonata for piano,
a di vertimen to for two pianos, pieces for children, pieces for
the viola and a choral work for female voices with organ
accompaniment. (Moser, 1956, p 56)
2.23 Vierne, Louis (1870-1937)
Louis Vierne was a blind French organist and composer. He studied
at L' Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris for nine
years from 1881. On leaving school, he studied organ with César
Franck, Charles Marie Widor and Alexandre Guilmant. In 1900
Louis Vierne was appointed as organist of the famous Notre Dame
in Paris. Vierne was only the forty-seventh organist of this
cathedral since 1180. His predecessors included Mouton, Regnault,
59
Recqet, Daquin, Armand and Louis Couperin and Sejen. Despite
the disappointment in 1911 of not succeeding Widor as professor
in organ at the Paris conservatoire, he steadily gained
international recognition as a performer and composer. Some
twenty-two of his pupils, including Marcel Dupré, were prize
winners at the Paris conservatoire. Vierne toured German~,
Holland, Scotland, Austria and Spain during 1921-22, Britain
in 1925 and the United States in 1927. (Braille Musical Magazine,
July 1970, pp 3-13)
IJ
In his compositions for the organ Vierne maintained the
quasi-orchestral colour· as indicated by Franck, Widor and others.
The orchestral works of Wagner, Richard Strauss and Debussy served.
as models for this very peculiar French organ style, mainly based
on the programmatic idiom. (Moser, 1956, pp 62-63)
Vier ne wrote six organ symphonies in the style of Widor (Debussy
praised his first organ symphony in an articYe in a French
newspaper) ; about, sixty smaller pieces, mostly in suites, for
the organ (among them six dedicated to deceased blind friends);
a piano quintet; a sonata for violoncello; a grand mass for
choir, orchestra and two organs and some songs. His fifth organ
symphony, composed in 1923, was regarded by his biographer Bernard
Gavoto as his best, if not his masterpiece. Louis Vierne was
one of the greatest blind musicians, a close friend and
contemporary of André Marchal. (Braille Musical Magazine, July
1970, pp 3-l3)
60
2.24 Oke, Hubert George (1873-?)
Hubert George Oke, LRAM, ARAM, was born in London and trained
at the Worcester College for the Blind. He graduated from the
Royal Academy of Music, London.
Among his compositions were three sketches for. piano, published
in 1921 by the National Institute for the Blind. (Braille Musical
Magazine, November 1921, p 1)
2.25 Williams, Llewellyn (1878-?)
Llewellyn ~Villiams was born at Roughton near Wrexham in Britain
and 'was a student at the Liverpool Institute for the Blind.
His compositions included Zingaresca for piano, published in
1921 by the National .Institute for the Blind. (Braille Musical
Magazine, September 1921, p 7)
2.26 Watling, Horace F (1880-?)
Horace Watling, FRCO, LRAM, was a well-known English pianist,
organist and composer. He became a professor of music at the
Royal Normal College for the Blind at Upper Norwood, London.
(Key to the Braille Music Notation', 1922, p 26)
2.27 Roberts, C Nevison (c 1880-c 1937)
C Nevison Roberts was a blind American music teacher, spending
most of his career as piano teacher at Lansing , Michigan, U~A.
He was also organist of St Mary's Cathedral, Lansing. He studied
at the college in Lincoln, Nebraska, USA Under Seventh Day
61
Adventists. Although blind, he was a remarkable teacher with
a phenomenal memory. He was also an authority on braille music.
(Eldridge, 1987)
2.28 Osborn, Thornap Gardiner (1882-?)
Osborn, FRCO, was a blind English musician. He was trained at
the Worcester College for the Blind and became director of music
at the Swiss Cottage for the Blind, London.
His compositions included Toccata in d minor for organ, published
in 1921 by the National Institute for the Blind. (Braille Musical
Magazine, July 1921, p 5)
2.29 . Priest, Frederick J (1882-?)
Priest was a blind English musician, born in Coventry, England.
He became assistant music master at the Birmingham Royal Institute
for the Blind, where he had been educated. He was a younger
compatriot of and worked in close connection with H E Platt.
Among his compositions was Rondo Scherzando for piano, published
in 1921 by the National Institute for the Blind. (Braille Musical
Magazine, March 1921, p 1)
2.30 Mayhew, Persival Thomas (1882-1962)
Mayhew was a student at the Royal Normal College for the Blind,
Upper Norwood, London. Although he showed great musical talent,
62
he did not enter the open labour market, but devoted his entire
career to the service of his fellow blind musicians. He was
appointed on the staff of the British and Foreign Association
in 1903 and started with the transcription of braille music books.
It was largely due to his devotion to this tremendous task that
the National Institute for the Blind, as it was then called,
could publish in 1939 the first catalogue of braille music books
in its library.
The Mayhew Indicator, a device to help blind music teachers in
teaching staff notation to sighted children,· was designed by
him. In 1929, he and Edward \I/tason represented Britain at ,the
Paris conference on braille music. He succeeded H C Platt in
1944 as editor at The Braille Musical Nagazine, a position which
he held until his retirement in 1950. (Wagg, 1932, p 173;
Braille Musical Magazine, February 1962, p 5)
2.31 Schmidt, Ferdinand (1883-1952)
Schmidt was a blind German musician, for many years organist
and cantor at Duren. He played a very important part in mustcal
activities and attended many congresses in connection with music.
(Maser, 1956, p 71)
2.32 Zapater, Baldomero (1883-?)
Zapater was born at Caudiel, Valencia, Spain. He was blind since
the age of five and attended the institute for the blind in
Barcelona.
63
After studying with the guitar virtuoso Noguês , he taught guitar,
music theory and literature at the institute for the blind in
Catalonia from 1908-10. He became famous as a guitar exponent
of the lute music by JSBach. After visiting Germany and London,
where he gave lessons, recitals and radio programmes, he set t Led
at Rodenkirchen-am-Rhein, Germany. He gained international
recognition as a teacher of guitar in the Spanish tradition and
many of his pupils became well-known guitarists. (Moser , 1956,
pp 63-64)
2.33 Grasse, Edwin (1884-1954)
Grasse was. a blind American violinist and composer. He was bor-n
in New York, where he also died. Although blind from Lnf anc y,'
he was an accomplished violinist. Grasse won first prize at
the Belgian Conservatory, Brussels in 1900 and made his debut
in Berlin in 1902 and in the United States in 1903.
His compositions included one symphony, a sui te for orchestra,
some violin concertos, an American Fantasie for violin and
orchestra, and some chamber music. (Thompson ed, sa, p 856)
Grasse was said to have been a heaven-born melodist and the
internationally famous violinist Fritz Kreisler (1875-1962) not
only recommended his compositions, but also performed them on
several occasions. (Eldridge, 1986)
64
2.34 Maitland, Rollo (1884-1953)
Rollo Maitland was a blind organist, composer and writer, born
at Williamsport, Philadelphia, USA. He was taught the first
rudiments of music by his father. He attended the Pennsylvania
School for the Blind and settled in Philadelphia, where he was
church organist for many years. Maitland taught theory and other
subjects at the Zeckwer-Hahn Music Academy in Philadelphia. (Baker
ed, s a, p 1431)
Maitland was a member of the Board of Examiners of American
Organists and contributed several articles to Diapason and other
publications. He published a number of compositions including
a sonata for the organ, a sonata for the piano, incidental music
to Raven by Edgar Allan Poe and same orchestral works. (Eldridge,
1986)
2.35 Kogler, Hermann'(l885-1966)
Hermann Kog l er was born at Lodz, Germany. He was blind since
his youth and attended from 1894-1902 an institution for the
blind in Vienna, where he studied piano, organ, violin and theory.
From 1903-08 he studied at the conservatoire in Leipzig. Kogl er
performed some of his own works in 1905 at the famous Gewandhaus,
Leipzig. In 1908 he won both the Mozart and the Nikisch prizes
a t the conservatoire. Kog Ler started working as an acoustical
engineer for the German radio at. Leipzig in 1930. He learned
music through imitation and only used braille music when nobody
was available to play to him. Of his seventy-two instrumental
and vocal compositions, thirty-three were published. (Maser,
1956, pp 64-65)
65
2.37 Beetz, Charles J (1886-?)
Charles Beetz was born of German descent in Brooklyn, New York.
After losing his sight at the age of eight, he attended an
institution for the blind and later the National Conservatory
of Music in New York. He gave his first public concert in 1905,
and in 1912 he moved to another part of the city, steadily
building up a reputation as one of the leading private music
teachers in New York. His' colleagues did not consider him as
a person without sight, but as a competent music teacher. To
Beetz blindness was not a handicap, but a challenging nuisance.
Beetz regarded a braille copy. just as essential to the blind
as the· inkprint to the seeing. He could not memorize all the
work· done by his pupils but followed and controlled all of;'it
by means of his braille copies. An article which appeared in
the Brooklyn Courier concluded: So marvellous had been the
achievements of Charles J Beet:z , that we must look on him as
being one of the foremost teachers of music in the greater New
York.
Beetz soon discovered the immense value of sight-reading and
devised a notator to facilitate the teaching of sight-reading
and staff notation to the blind. (Rodenberg, 1932, pp 50-63)
66
2.37 Wrigley, Alfred (1886-?)
Alfred Wrigley was born in Manchester, England. He was trained
at Henshaw's Institute for the Blind, Manchester and later at
the Royal Manchester College of Music.
His compositions included Rondo alla Tarantella for piano,
published in 1921 by the National Institute for the Blind.
(Braille Musical Magazine, August 1921, p 7)
2.38 Heinermann, Otto (1887-?)
Otto Heinermann was born at Soest, Westfalen, Germany. He studied
piano~ organ and choir conducting at the conservatoire in
Dortmund. Hei nermann was eventually appointed as director of
church music at the Pauluskirche in Dortmund.
Although blind"Heinermann had great success as a choir conductor,
proving that visual contact was not essential to choir conducting.
He gave several piano recitals in German cities, and among other
works, his choir also performed St Luke Passion by Schutz. Max
Reger (1873-1916) was very impressed with his quadruple fugue.
Heinermann's compositions included three grand pieces for organ
op 17: a fugue on the Advent song Mach hoch die Tur, an Epiphany
ciaccona on ll'erde Licht, du Stadt der Heiden and an improvisation
with a fugue on the passion chorale Der am Kreuz ist meine Liebe;
some organ preludes and the motet Nachdem vor Zeiten Gott in
the style of Heinrich Schutz. (Moser, 1956, pp 65-67)
67
2.39 Effert, Richard (1887-?)
Richard Effert was born in Germany. He was a blind pianist,
organist, violinist and singer who also conducted choirs and
orchestras. He became organist and cantor of the
Himmelfahrtskirche in Munchen. In 1909 he was the soloist in
Beethoven's third piano concerto in c minor, conducting the
orchestra from the piano. Under his direction his choir gave
more than eighty performances including Handel's Messiah in 1930.
His compositions included a grand cantata Aus der Tiefe rufe
ich, Herr, zu Dir, some orchestral works, songs, a string quartet
and pieces for the organ, the piano and the violin. (Moser,
1956, pp 65-67)
2.40 Rijp, Antonius Wilhelmus de (1887-1931)
Rijp was born at's Gravenhage and died in Amsterdam. He was
a blind Dutch composer and organist of the Nieuwekerk, Amsterdam.
He composed music for the organ. (Robijns and Zijlstra eds,
1983, voi 8, p 315).
2.41 Tompson, Alfred (1889-?)
Tompson was a blind English musician who attended the school
for the blind in Bristol, England. He graduated from the Royal
Normal College for the Blind, Upper Norwood, London.
68
Tompson's compositions included Five Lyric Pieces for the Piano,
published by the National Institute for the Blind in 1921.
(Braille Musical Magazine, February 1921, p 7)
2.42 Spanner, Harry Victor (1890-1977)
Spanner, MusBac Dunelm, LRAM,. FRCO was well known throughout
the English speaking .world due to his long attachment to the
National Institute for the Blind. He was actively involved in
the revision of braille music during 1922 and again in 1956.
Despite his musical talent, he devoted his services to the
development of a uniform braille music system. The method known
as bar-by-bar (in which one measure of music for the left hand
is followed horizontally by the corresponding measure for the
right hand)· was introduced through his instigation. He was a
student of the Royal Normal College for the Blind, Upper Norwood,
London.
Spanner wrote some theoretical works on music - Leesons in Braille
Music (musical literature), The Little Organ Book of Bach (a
description of some of JSBach' s preludes with a verse of the
hymn and suggested registrations), The Orchestra from Bach to
Britten (a personal view). (\.Jarrilow,1922, P 25; Braille
Musical Magazine, November 1977, pp 7-14; RNIB Music Catalogue)
69
2.44 Pfeiffer, Hubert (1891-1932)
Pfeiffer was born at Barmen, Germany. He was blind since infancy.
Pfeiffer started his education at the institution for the blind
in Duren and graduated from the Elberfeld conservatoire, where
he studied piano, organ, violoncello and theory of music. From
1922-1926 he was organist of the Herz Jesu Kirche at Barmen.
He devoted much of his time to composition. Pfeiffer accompanied
the Elberfeld choir on several occasions as organist on their
tours through Europe. He had a remarkable memory, often compared
) to that of Mozart. It was reported that he was able to play
a Bach fugue after hearing it once. The famous German composer,
Max Reger (1873-1916) held him in high esteem and a blind author,
Emil Freund, obtained a doctorate with a book on Hubert Pfeiffer.
Though he often tried, he could not obtain a post as lecturer
in composition.
His style in composition could be divided into three phases
1909-19 under the influence of Bruckner and Pfitzner
1919-28 influenced by Max Reger up to his sonata in
e minor for piano
1929-32 influenced to an extent by Kaminski, Grabner
and Erpff.
Pfeiffer's compositions included two sonatas for piano op 4 in
C major and op 33 in e minor; piano variations; a fugue on
Willst du dein Herz mir schenken op 11; four masses op 19, 24,
32 and 35 (the latter being the most important); motets op 37
70 .
and op 42 which earned him the Staatspreis der Preussischen
Akademie der Kunste; many songs; duets; a suite for solo
clarinet and a grand can ta ta op 45 for al to, baritone and mixed
choir (his last work). Only ten of his forty-five compositions
were published. The others remained the property of his widow.
During his lifetime he was regarded as a very important composer.
As a student he used braille music in composition, but in later
years he relied exclusively on his phenomenal memory when
dictating a score. (Moser, 1956, pp 67-71)
2.44 Far Ley, Roland (1892-1932)
Roland Farley was a blind American musician who studied at the
Royal Conservatory in Leipzig, Germany. He became a composer,
giving various radio interpretations of his own works. Many
leading American' operatic and concert artists made use of his
compositions.
He published 106 musical settings of verse, mostly in the late
romantic style. (Eldridge, 1986)
2.45 McCollin, Frances (1892-?)
Frances McCollin was a blind American girl who became a music
teacher and lecturer. She worked for many years in Philadelphia
where she was born.
Her compositions included several part songs; choral works for
female voices and some instrumental works such as a piano quintet,
71
quartets; Adagio for string orchestra and Trio for organ or
piano, violin and cello. Her scherzo for strings, Heavenly
Children at Play, was performed by the Philadelphia orchestra
in 1940. (Howard, 1931, pp 494-495)
2.46 Miyagi, Michio (1894-1956)
Miyagi, a blind Japanese koto player, was the first composer
to combine Western music and kata music. He tried to introduce
the diatonic scale, triple rhythm and orchestral style, which
Japanese music had never previously used, and modified the
thirteen string kata to seventeen strings. Miyagi's attempts
have been further developed by many Japanese musicians, while
others critical of it, have attempted to produce different st'y Les.
Miyagi and his associates attempted to create new music called
the new Japanese movement, which gave great impetus to Japanese
music. (Braille Music Magazine, January, 1988, p 32)
2.47 Stockel, Alfred (1894-?)
Stëckel was barn at Rothenbach, Germany. He was blind since
his youth and attended the school for the blind in Breslau.
He became a vocal teacher. He was' also a performing artist who
sang in more than a thousand concerts as baritone or tenor.
Stëckel gave more than one hundred radio recitals. His repertoire
included more than thirty oratorio, including Nessiah by Handel;
the Choral Symphony and Nissa Solemnis by Beethoven. He was
a very active member of musical societies and in 1926 he assisted
with the foundation of a music service centre for the blind.
(Maser 1956, p 72)
72
2.48 Marcha1, André (1894-1980)
André Marchal was a blind French musician who became a famous
organist. He was a student of L' Institution des Jeunes Aveugles
in Paris. Marchal was organist of St Germain-des-Prés, Paris
from 1915-45, then of St Eustache. He began his long career
as organ recitalist in 1923. (Kennedy, 1985, p 397) In 1953
Marchal declared that he had visited five continents, .playing
on four. He toured the United States nineteen times, the last
time after his eightieth birthday. He recorded César Franck's
entire organ works in 1959. In 1961 the three blind organists
from Paris, Marchal, Langlais and Litaize participated in the
inaugural concert of the enlarged organ at L!Institution des
Jeunes Aveugles . Marchal made his first appearance on televtsion
in 1968 in a programme devoted to Couperin. After his death
the André Marchal academy' was founded at Biarritz. Marchal
will be remembered as an organ recitalist, teacher and consultant
on organ matters. (Musical Mainstream,. November/December 1985,
pp 7-59)
2.49 Logan, Sinc1air (1897-?)
Sine lair Logan was a blind musician in Britain. He attended
the Worcester College for the Blind and subsequently received
his musical training at the Royal Normal College for the Blind,
Upper Norwood, London. He was an accomplished musician, active
as a singing teacher at several British public schools for sighted
children in the period following World War I. (Haare, 1987)
73
2.50 Duffy, John J (1898-?)
John Duffy was a blind American concert pianist for more than
fifty years. He attended the Perkins Institute for the Blind
in Boston, Massachusetts and also received instruction in violin
from a blind violin teacher, Anthony Hartone . Duffy gave his
first piano recital at Hartford in 1920. Besides concert pianist,
he was also a composer and poet. (Parker, 1970, pp 30-34)
2.51 Newell, Henry George (1899-1980)
Newell was a .blind English organist, music teacher and baritone.
He was a student at the Royal.Normal College for the Blind, Upper
Norwood, London. He had a phenomenal memory and was r epor ted
to have learnt anyone of JSBach' s forty-eight fugues before
breakfast as a matter of routine. He became music teacher at
Linden Lodge School for the Blind, London, until 1974 when he
retired. He was also a composer, and or gard st; of St Andrew's,
Waterloo, London. (Braille Husical Magazine, June 1980, pp 45-47)
2.52 Rodrigo, Joaquin (b 1901/2)
Joaquin Rodrigo, Spain's greatest living composer, was honoured
in a two-week festival of his music held at the Royal Festival
Hall, London, in 1986. Blind since the age of three, Rodrigo
is believed to be the only composer who writes all his scores
in braille, not only for single instruments, but also for the
whole orchestra. Host widely known for his Concierto de Aranjuez,
which is played by all leading guitarists and is reputed to be
/
74
one of the world's best-selling records, Rodrigo composed music
for the flautist James Galway, cellist Julian Lloyd Webber,
guitarists John Williams and Julian Bream, violinist Ara (his
son-in-law), harpist Jones and others. He also wrote some sixty
songs. The London festival, the first of its kind in Britain,
was performed by the Bournemouth Sinfonietta and several of the
distinguished soloists for whom he had composed music. It
included the world premiere of the chorale Canticle of St Francis
of Assisi.
Rodrigo, the youngest of ten .children, was born in Sagunto,
Valencia, on St Cecilia's Day (November 22, 1901/2). In 1905,
during an epidemic, he lost most of his sight. At the,age of,
seven he was sent to a school for blind children where he studied
piano and music along with the usual subjects, including braille.
By the age of sixteen he had made a firm decision to earn a living
as a musician or a composer. He came into contact with composers
and music critics and began writing orchestral compositions.
In 1924 his first major work, Juglares, was performed by the
Valencia Symphony Orchestra. In 1927 he went to Paris to study
under Paul Dukas at the EI cole Normale de Musique where he met
the Turkish-born pianist, Victoria Kamhi, who later became his
wife. An influence on h.i s work, which was becoming
characteristically full of the rhythms of Mediterranean life,
was Manuel de Falla, a friend and advisor. After returning
briefly to Valencia, he spent the years of the Civil War in Paris,
where in 1938, he began work on the Concierto de Aranjuez, which
75
was first performed in 1940. Back in Spain, Rodrigo took up
residence in Madrid, where over the following years he produced
many of his best-known compositions, incl~ding some of his eleven
concertos. In 1944 he was appointed as artistic director of
Spain's National Radio, where he created the Radio Chamber
Orchestra. He also became music critic for the Pueblo newspaper.
In 1948 he accepted the newly created Manuel de Falla Chair of
Music at the University of Madrid. In 1954 he renewed aquaintance
with the guitarist Andrés Segovia, to whom he dedicated the
Fantasia para un gentilhombre. These years also saw the beginning
of his international reputation, and Rodrigo festivals were since
held in places as far apart as Japan and Mexico.
Rodrigo's intensely melodic work, especially his guitar music,
evokes for listeners all the colour and vivacity of Spanish life
(with specifica~ly Valencian and Andalusian flavours).
Technically difficult to play, his work for flute and violoncello
demands virtuoso performance, while he is said to have
revolutionized guitar technique. He has, however, remained
faithful in spirit to the Spanish tradition, rather than
experimenting with the various changes in compositional style
attempted throughout Europe during his long career. His method
of working is to complete the whole composition in braille,
including the entire orchestration, and dictate it to a copyist.
Strangely enough, although he has been a concert pianist and
a composer of guitar music, he cannot play the guitar. In his
76
eighty-fifth year Rodrigo has recently begun work on a new
orchestral composition. Throughout his life he has collaborated
with his wife Victoria, who among other contributions, has written
the words for some of his songs and the scenario for his ballet
Pavane real. (Imfama, December 1986, pp 75-78)
Rodrigo's works include some eleven concertos such as Concierto
Aranjuez for guitar and orchestra, 1939; Concierto heroico for
piano and orchestra, 1943; Concierto de estio for violin and
orchestra, 1944; Concierto en modo galante for violoncello and
orchestra, 1949; Concierto serenata for harp and orchestra,
1954; Fantasia para un gentilhombre for guitar and orche'st.r a ,
1955 a mature work in which he paid homage to the pas.t-.
(seventeenth century Spain) - dedicated to Segovia; Concierto
Andaluz for four solo guitars and orchestra, 1967 - based on
folk music from Andalusia; Concierto-madrigale for two guitars
and orchestra, 1968; Concierto pastoral for flute and orchestra,
1978
Compositions for piano: a suite, 1923; four pizas, 1936; five
sonatas, 1951; four estampas andaluzas, 1954
Chamber music: Siciliana for violoncello and piano, 1929; Sonata
pimpante for violin and piano, 1966; Sonata a la espanola for
guitar, 1969
Stage and vocal music: a ballet Pavane real, 1955; a zarzuela
(a type o~ traditional Spanish stage entertainment with spoken
dialogue) - El hijo findigo, 1964; an opera La azuzena de Quito
77
1965; the chorale canticle of St Francis of Assisi and some
sixty songs. (Sadie, 1980, vol 16, pp 92-93; Kennedy, 1985,
p 538)
2.53 Winterfeldt, Margarete von (b 1902)
Margarete von Winterfeldt was a blind German girl born to a
wealthy family. She became a concert singer (alto) and a vocal
teacher. She studied singing with Maria Spiess and Josephine
Strackosch and piano and composition with Kahn. From 1946-1965
she was professor of singing at the Musikhochshule in Freiburg ,
and gave many recitals throughout Germany and abroad with the
chamber music ensemble Scheck~Wensinger. She gave private singing
lessons in Berlin since 1965 and her pupils included Fritz
Hunderlich, Hildegard Hillebrecht and L Driscoll (Riemann, s
a, L-2, p 916)
2.54 Fennor, Beatrice (b c 1903)
Beatrice Fennor was a blind American girl who composed some songs.
In 1924, after having sung some of her songs, Amelita Galli-Curci
wrote éf letter in which she praised Fennor as a very promising
composer. (Eldridge, 1986)
2.55 Aldridge, Richard (1905-74)
Aldrictge was a blind English teacher, organist and composer.
He taught music privately and did a fair amount of choir
conducting. In 1944 he moved to his main post as organist and
choir master of Poley Congregational Church. He composed some
church music. (Braille Musical Magazine, March 1974, pp 2-5)
\
78
2.56 Walcha, Helmut (b 1907)
Helmut Walcha was born in Leipzig, Germany and went blind at
the age of seventeen. In 1929 he won a competition over thirty
other competitors for the directorship of the Fibichskirche in
Frankfurt-am-Main. After \.Jorld War II he became professor at
the Staatliche Hochschule fur Musik as well as organist of the
Dreikonigskirche in Frankfurt. He gave his last performance
in 1981.
\valcha did not use braille music, because he did not attend a
school for the blind. Instead, he was assisted by his wife,
Ursula, who learned music notation to help him with his
memorization. She played the scores voice-by-voice to him and
he afterwards put the strands together. He succeeded in building
up a repertoire of more than six hundred works, including J S
Bach's en tire organ works, his complete output for harpsichord
and The art of Fugue.
Walcha embarked on an international career as performer with
repeated broadcasts on the German radio and his first recordings
for the Deutsche Grammophon on authentic instruments during the
late nineteen-forties and early nineteen-fifties. He visited
Denmark and Sweden in 1953 on his first international tour.
He subsequently also visited England and France, but his
sensitivity to heat and noise prevented him from visiting the
Mediterranean countries and the United States.
79
Helmut Walcha composed four volumes of Lutheran chorales for
the organ and wrote many articles on organ playing. He became
the teacher of some two hundred students from all over the world.
Walcha believed the fundamental impulse of organ music to be
vocally conceived. He used his registration as colouring to
illuminate the different contrapuntal lines, instead of being
the factor for dinamics. Walcha's greatest achievement, however ,
was his recorded legacy as a Bach exponent, which brought him
international fame. (Jordan, 1984, pp 83-118)
The importance of Helmut Walcha as a performer and his tremendous
contribution to organ playing was clearly defined by the following
testimony given at the fortieth anniversary of Archiv Produktion:
"Since baroque music and that of Bach, in particular,
supplied something for which people in Germany expressed
a particular need in the post-war years it was determined
that a label should be established which focused on
music of this period. Bach and the organ were to be
of prime importance and so, appropriately, the first
Archiv recordings, which were made in Lubeck's
Jacobikirche in 1947: were of Bach's organ music. The
artist was the blind organist, Helmut Walcha, then 40
years old. Walcha, one of the most loyal and
long-serving of Archiv's artists, went on to record
a virtually complete edition of Bach's organ works not
once, but twice; however, he brought his active
80
association with the company to a close in 1977, not
with Bach but with music of Bach's predecessors - Bohm,
Buxtehude, Lubeck, Pachelbel and others." (Anderson,
1987, p 538)
2.57 Langlais, Jean (b 1907)
Jean Langlais is a blind French organist, performer and teacher.
Hê studied orchestration with Messiaen and composition with Dukas.
In 1931 he became a teacher and in 1971 a professor of organ,
composition and choral singing at L'Institution des Jeunes
Aveugles in Paris. Since 1961 he taught many srudent s at the
Schola Canto rum. In 1945 he became organist of St Clothilde,
where the famous César Franck had been. Langlais undertooK
several tours as performer. In 196i Langlais finished recording
the complete Franck organ works the second time for the French
label Arion. One of his former students from the United States
'made the following statemen t with regard to Langlais' sperforming
abilities:
"He has the rubati, flexibility and poetry in his playing
that nobody else has." (Labunski, 1987)
His compositions include more than three hundred published works:
3 Poemes évangéliques, 1932; Suite fran~aise, 1948; Triptych
Melody, Trio and Finale, 1958 dedicated to Maurice Duruflé,
his friend and fellow student at the Paris conservatoire during
the nineteen-twenties; American Suite, 1959; Suite baroque, 1974;
81
Suite Progression - five momevements, each being more complex
texturally than the one before, starting with, a monody, just
a single line, ending with a fugue and continua something
different which had not been done before (a three-voice fugue,
accompanied by a continua part, chords which go underneath the
melody, the melody being the fugue.
"Surprising is the variety for which he continues to
write, inventing new ways to explore sound; different,
even when using old French classical forms, casting
them into a new style. (Labunski, 1987)
Miss Labunski, an authority on the art of this great composer',
is at present recording for the Musical Heritage Society what
will ultimately be a complete survey of the entire organ works
by Langlais. (Labunski, 1987)
2.58 Litaize, Gaston (Gilbert) (b 1909)
Litaize was born at Ménil-sur-Belvitte, Vosges, France. Blind
since ,birth, he studied at L'Institution des Jeunes Aveugles,
Paris from 1926-31. He graduated from the Paris Conservatoire
where he studied with Marcel Dupré (organ) and Henri Busser
(composition). As a young musician he won many awards such as
the premiers prix for organ and improvisation in 1931, for fugue
in 1933 and for composition in 1937. He also won the Rossini
Prize for his cantata Fra Angelico in 1936, as well as the second
Prix de Rome in 1938. After appointments at St Léon, Nancy and
82
St Cloud, he became organist of St Fran~ois-Xavier, Paris in
1946. He also became a teacher of harmony and musical pedagogics
at L'Institution des Jeunes Aveugles and director of religious
music for ORTF.
As recitalist he toured France, England, the United States and
Canada. In 1955 he received the Grand Prix du Disque for his
recording of Couperin's Hesse pour les paroisses.
Litaize's compositions include:
Organ works: 12 pieces, '1939; Hesse Basse pour tous les temps,
1948; 5 liturgical pieces, 1948; 24 liturgical preludes, 1954;
Grand' messe pour tous les temps, 1956
Pianoforte: Sonata, 1935; 2 suites, 1940, 1941, both unpublish~d
Instrumental works: Concertino for piano and chamber orchestra,
1937; 3 pieces for oboe and clarinet, 1937, unpublished;
Symphony for organ and orchestra, 1943; Passacai11e for organ
and orchestra, 1947, unpublished; Cortege for 2 trumpets, 3
trombones and organ, 1950
Vocal: Fra Angelico, cantata for soloists, chorus, organ and
orchestra, 1936, unpublished; Tobie et Sara, incidental music
(C1aude1) for chorus, organ and orchestra, 1947, unpublished;
Hissa solemnior for 4 solo voices and organ, 1954; Missa Virgo
gloriosa for soprano, tenor, bass and organ, 1959; Hesse
solennelie en fran~ais, for scho1a, congregation and organ, 1966.
The following observation was made with regard to his style:
83
"Litaize's compositions are characterized by a secure
contrapuntal technique and elements of modality. The
24 liturgical preludes are useful service music, of
average difficulty, with optional pedals." (Sadie ed,
1980, vol Il, p 74)
2.59 Ungard, Imre (b c 1909)
Ungard, a blind Hungarian pianist, won at the age of twenty-three,
first prize at the second international Chopin Competition
organized by the Warsaw Academy in 1932. Pianists from ten
countries competed on this occasion. (Eldridge, 1986)
2.60 Warrilow, H C (f1 since 1909)
H C Warrilow, FRCO, was a bIi.nd English musician. He was one
of the'co-editors who started the Braille Musical Magazine in
1909. He was appointed as supervisor. of the music department
at the National Institute for the Blind, London in 1916. War:i:"ilow:
was organist at Dartford and then held the important post as
organist of St Barnabas' Church, Oxford, England. (Wagg, 1932,
p 128) In 1922 he was chairman of the committee on braille music
at the National Institute for the Blind. (Key to the Braille
Music Notation, 1922, p 25)
2.61 Ty1nak, Ivan (1910-1969)
Tylnak was a blind Czech composer and teacher at the Deyl Music
School for the Blind, Prague. His compositions included two
84
string quartets, two wind quintets, a divertimento for wind
instruments, a duet for violin and viola, a sonata for flute
and piano, a sonata for unaccompanied violoncello, a concerto
for accordion and piano, songs and some smaller works for piano.
(Braille Musical Magazine, April 1969, pp 61-62)
2.62 Templeton, Alec (1910-1963)
Alec Templeton, the blind comp6ser and pianist, was barn in Wales
and died at Greenwich, Connecticut, USA. He was educated at
the Worcester College for the Blind, England. He also attended
the Royal·College of Music and the Royal Academy of Music, London.
Templeton ·went to the United States in 1935 and obtained
citizenship in 1941. He made many radio appearances
recordings. He also made several tours of the United States
and Canada. Templeton's compositions included:
String Quartet No 1; Trio for Flute, Oboe and Piano; Pocket
Size Sonata for Clarinet and Piano; Violin Sonata; Concerto
Grosso for Symphony Orchestra and Piano; Hast Thou Not Known
(a cappella anthem); Hymn for Easter (chorus and organ); 2
piano sonatas; piano pieces - Bach goes to Town and Mendelssohn
Mows 'Em Down. (ASCAP, sa, p 501)
2.63 Thiberge (fl after 1910)
Thiberge was a blind French musician. The world-famous Swiss-born
pianist and conductor Alfred Cortot (1877-1962), resident in
France, appointed Thiberge as piano teacher at the Êcole Normale
de Musique in Paris. (Logan, 1945, vol 3, p 91)
85
2.64 Martone, Anthony (fl after 1910)
Anthony Martone was a blind violin teacher in the United States.
The blind American musician, John Duffy, was one of his pupils.
(Parker, 1970, p 30)
2.65 Eldridge, Carlton B (b 1911)
Carlton E1dridge is a blind American pedagogue. He lost his
sight at the age of five and attended the school for the blind
in Michigan, USA. In 1929, he obtained a Bachelor's degree in
music and a Master's degree in 1949 from the Michigan State
University. He was a concert, oratorio and radio tenor who toured
for many years extensively ·through the United States as soloist.
Eldridge was a member of the Lansingers Quartet and director
of the Paul Robeson Chorus and the Lansing Choralettes. In 1949
he settled in Springfield,'Illinois, being for many years attached
to the Ursuline Academy. He eventually became Adjunct Associate
Professor in music at the Sangamon State University, Illinois.
In his career as choir director, which extended for more than
fifty years, Eldridge developed a unique style as a blind
conductor. He transcribed all the music he used into braille
scores with the music on top and the text below, following the
music with the left hand and conducting with the right hand.
He wrote the following in one of his articles on choral direction:
"Choral music, (unlike that for band and' orchestra),
86
comprises a close scoring of only a few lines for voice
and word-text. Because of this close scoring it can
be readily reproduced in braille and easily read. The
score parallel is spanned by the left hand leaving the
right hand free for conducting." (Eldridge, 1987, p
2)
Eldridge wrote many articles on sacred music and on braille.
He probably possesses the largest private library of braille
music books and braille music magazines. (Eldridge, 1986)
2.66 Chard, Jack (c 1915-c 1977)
Chard was. a blind American musician. He was for many years hea&
of the music department at the Michigan School for the Blind,
USA. He formed a marching band of about twenty-four to thirty
blind pupils and they became very popular throughout the United
States. They even performed on the steps of the White House,
Washington DC. (Eldridge, 1986)
2.67 Themeli, Georges (b c 1916)
Themeli was born blind in Cairo, Egypt. He started playing the
piano at the age of three and began to learn braille music when
he was seven years old. At the age of ten he gave his first
rec'ital with an orchestra, amazing his audience with his
outstanding talent. In 1936 he won first prize among thirty
sighted competitors at the Paris Conservatoire. This achievement
brought him immediate fame and international recognition. During
World ~var II he gave many concerts to the Allied troops in the
87
Middle East. Following the war he performed in most European
cities. He visited the Republic of South Africa twice - in
1945/6, giving fifty-three concerts in one season, and again
in 1957. (Worcester Standard and Advertiser, 3 May 1957, p 5)
2.68 Jones, Gilbert (1922-82)
Gilbert Jones was one of the leading blind musicians of his
generation in Britain. He entered the Royal Normal College for
the Blind, Upper Norwood, London in 1938. He was connected with
the Birmingham Institute for the Blind for more than fifty years.
Jones was a concert pianist and organist. He toured England
and Europe on several. occasions. Jones also gave some recitals
on the BBC's Midland Region. (Gilbert, 1983, p 46)
2.69 Ortiga, José (b 1923)
José Ortiga was born in 1923 in Madrid, and left blind by an
unfortunate accident when he was five years old. Since the age
of seven, he began to study solfeggio (Music Theory) and soon
thereafter, piano, receiving the highest possible grades. Ortiga
believes that the blind pianist must study the score in depth
by braille, before going to the piano and interpreting it with
the idea that has been obtained from this careful study and
memorization. After rigorous tests, he was awarded a scholarship.
Ortiga studied among others, under the distinguished maestro,
the late Rafael Rodriguez Albert, the blind composer, whose
chamber work is outstanding among those of other composers of
his generation. Ortiga performed in Italy, Germany and Poland.
88
Ortiga has also been a teacher, but he prefers piano performance,
to which he has contributed, in the words of the New York Times'
critic Tom Page, "clarity and authenticity".
Recently Ortiga has made a record album of Spanish music on one
side, and on the other side he pays tribute to Chopin, for whose
music he has always shown predilection in" his programmes. This
record album is "every bit a recital of the highest standards
'and of such a variety that, it allows for the full appreciation
of the qualities which have taken this Madrid pianist to New
York's Carnegie Hall." (Tarazona, 1988)
2.70 Varga, Ruben (1928-84)
Varga was born in Israel and went totally blind at the age of
ten. He studied music at the Franz Liszt Academy in Hungary
and became a violin teacher and concert artist. He immigrated
to the United States and was attached for about twenty-five years
to the Lighthouse Music School for the blind, New York.
The bow guide (a device to aid young blind beginners to keep
the bow straight) was invented by him. As a concert artist he
made some recordings and gave many performances in various cities
in the United States. (Bennette, 1986)
2.71 Bennette, George (b 1929)
George Bennette is an American musician. He is totally blind
since his fourth year. He graduated from the Oberlin Conservatory
89
and the Juilliard School of Music, New York. Bennette eventually
became the director of the Lighthouse Music School, New York.
He was an active concert pianist who gave recitals in London,
where he studied, and in several cities in the United States.
He also made some recordings. (Bennette, 1986)
2.72 James, Michael R (b 1930)
Michael James is a well-known pianist, organist and composer
in England and Wales. (Busbridge, 1975, p 13)
2.73 Sinfield, John (1931-73)
Sinfield was a student at the Worcester College for. the Blind,
England. He completed his studies in 1955 by obtaining the GRSM
diploma, which enabled him to teach sighted children in the class
situation, a prospect which was hardly envisaged for blind
teachers in Britain at· that time. He embarked on a teaching
career at Spadefield Secondary School and s i.nce 1965 he was head
of the music department at Coleshill Grammar School, Warwickshire,
England. Sinfield was a blind singer, teacher, pianist and
organist who gave some piano and song recitals in Britain and
also in France. (Busbridge, 1975, p 20; Eldridge, 1987)
2.74 Hoare, Robert (Bob) (b 1932)
Robert Hoare, GRSM, ARCO, ARAM, attended the Worcester College
for the Blind in England and began a teaching career at the
Elizabeth Ellen,School in 1956. He became head of the music
90
department at Manor Hill Comprehensive School, Finchley from
1973. In 1982 he succeeded John Busbridge as editor of the
Braille Nusical Negez irie and was also appointed as music adviser
to the Royal National Institute for the Blind. It was during
his teaching career that Hoare devised the Hoare Nagnetic Nusic
Notator (a board to aid blind music teachers in teaching staff
notation to sighted children). (Busbridge, 1975, p 7; Hoare,
1986)
2.75 James, John (b 1933)
John James was barn .in Cornwall, England. He first attended
a school for 'the blind in Exeter and afterwards went to the Royal
Normal College' for the Blind, Upper No:r:woodand subsequently
to the Royal College of Music in London. He became director
of the music department at the Royal Normal College for the Blind
in 1962. He is a teacher, performer and composer with some
publications to his credit. James regularly gives recitals as
soloist and in consort. (James, 1987)
2.76 Babekov, Stojan (b c 1936)
Although totally blind, the Bulgarian musician Stojan Babekov,
graduated at the Bulgarian State Conservatoire in Sofia. He
is the director of the Bulgarian professional blind choir in
Sofia since 1962 and also has some compositions to his credit.
(Salt, 1987, pla)
91
2.77 Hunt, J Eric (fl c 1940)
J Eric Hunt, FRCO, GIM, ADCM, was a blind organist in Britain.
He became director of the Royal Normal College for the Blind
after World War II. In 1945 he contributed to A Handbook for
Blind Teachers of Music. In 1950 he wrote the RNC Staff Notation
Teacher, published by the National Institute for the Blind in
1951. This is a booklet with flash cards, devised to help blind
music teachers in teaching staff notation to sighted children.
(Hunt, 1950)
2.78 Isaacs, Edward (fl c 1940)
Edward Isaacs w~s ~ British concert pianist who· turned blind
later on in life. In 1945 he contributed to A Handbook for Blind
Teachers of Music. (Isaacs, 1945)
2.79 Mazzati, Alberta (fl since 1945)
Alberto Mozzati, who flourished in the period following World
War II, was a celebrated concert pianist, recording artist and
teachér. In spite of total blindness, he became' one of Italy's
most respected musicians. After completing his studies in piano,
organ and composition at the conservatoire in Milan, he commenced
his brilliant concert career including performances throughout
Italy, France, Switzerland, Austria, Britain and Holland. He
became a member of juries for several important international
piano competitions (Geneve, Munchen, Barcelona, Vercelli and
Seregno) . Mozzati lis recognized as a famous piano teacher,
receiving pupils from all over the world, one of them being the
92
blind Alberto Colombo. Mozzati visited South Africa during 1974,
when he gave seven recitals in the Cape Province, as well as
playing with the CAPAB orchestra in Cape Town. (Worcester
Standard and Advertiser, 23 August 1974, p 6)
2.80 Colombo, Alberto (fl since 1945)
Alberto Colombo was born near Milan in Italy. He studied under
the famous Italian teacher Alberto Mozatti and graduated with
honours from the Milan Conservatoire. Al though blind from birth,
he played in concerts from an early age and went on to win a
number of prizes, including the Beethoven Prize; He played in
London .: Paris,· Cenéve , Amsterdam, Mi.inchen, Zi.irich and Barcelona
and throughout Italy and extensively toured South America. He
visited South Africa in 1971 and in 1981. His repertoire included
among others, works by JSBach, Beethoven, Meldelssohn, Schumann
and Liszt. (\~orcester Standard and Advertiser, 22 May 1981,
p 4).
2.81 Wanami, Takayoshi (b 1945)
Wanami was born in Tokyo, Japan. He was blind from infancy.
His mother brought him into contact with music by singing songs
to him while he was still very young. At the age of two he was
able to reproduce some of the songs. At three he received his
first music lessons in rhythm, singing and intonation. In
accordance with Japanese customs, his mother accompanied him
to his music lessons. She learned braille in order to transcribe
his music for him. Wanami himself began learning braille at
the age of four. In 1981, after numerous competitions and tours
93
to the United States and Europe, he declared:
"I am fortunately blessed with a good memory, but this
is not enough; I have to read and re-read the music
continually in braille. I am also lucky in that my
mother transcribes all my music into braille for me."
He attended as many violin concerts as possible while studying
the instrument, and his teacher introduced him to great violinists
such as Kogan and David Oistrakh. At the age of seventeen he
won his first major competition which was open to all adults
in Japan. The following year he gave his first concert, playing
Glasunov's violiri concerto. He was accepted as the first blind
student at the famous music schóol in Japan. At nineteen he
performed in. New York and San Francisco in the United States.
At a competition in Paris, he was invited by Szigeti to visit
him in Switzerland. He subsequently studied with Szigeti until
1972, and also with David Oistrakh in Moscow. In 1975 he appeared
for the first time on the BBC, and his many international tours
took him to London, Berlin, Amsterdam, Vienna, the Gewandhaus
in Leipzig, Italy and the United States. He is at present
spending most of his time between Switzerland and Japan. Since
1977 his wife has accompanied him. She is a pianist and they
have performed many sonatas together at public concerts.
Wanami's repertoire includes about nineteen violin concertos
94
(among them the Stravinsky), some forty-four violin sonatas and
about forty other pieces for the violin. Wanami, the world's
blind violin virtuoso, has a great admiration for the playing
of Isaac Stern. (Campbell, 1981, pp 18-36)
2.82 Henry, John (b c 1945/6)
John Henry was born blind in Rochester, New York, USA. In 1967
he went to Britain. He attended master classes with Alfred
Brendel in Austria and with Nadia Boulanger in France. He
subsequently taught at the Morley College and the Royal College
of Music, London. Henry is a celebrated harpsichordist. For
him there are only two ways of' learning music - to read it in
braille or to memorize it through a sight-reader. (Low, 1985,
p 4)
2.83 D'Ascoli, Bernard (b c 1959)
D'Ascoli is a blind pianist from France. He is from Aubagne
near Marseilles. Bernard has been blind since the age of three.
His serious music training began at the age of eleven. Afterwards
he entered the conservatoire in Marseilles and at seventeen was
Launched on the contest circuit. Many prizes followed and with
the aim of becoming the world's greatest blind classical pianist,
he began a professional career, first in France and then
internationally. Within days of his London debut in 1982, his
agent had eighty-five offered engagements and a recording
contract. Edward Greenfield of the London Guardian wrote the
following:
95
"This brilliantly successful London debut was a musical
event in its own right, not simply a phenomenon,"
and another critic said:
"The touch of a master."
D'Ascoli learns by musical braille. Asked whether being blind
made him a better artist he replied:
"No, I don't agree with that romantic idea. If my
hearing is more· developed, it only helps to hear the
ring of the telephone, not to play Chopin. What really
matters is .motivation. I've always had to do more than
the others because I have a handicap to overcome."
(Bradley, .1982)
2.84 LiddIe, John Cb 1960)
David LiddLe was born in London. He went blind at the age of
nine. He attended an institution for the blind where he learned
braille and studied piano and organ. LiddIe graduated with a
BA degree in music from the University of Cambridge. Recently
David won many awards and top prizes in organ competitions.
He became organist of St Barnabas" Church, Pimlico, London in
1985. David is an organ recitalist who has been giving many
performances in British cities. In 1982 he visited West Germany
and in 1986 the United States and Canada (LiddIe, 1987).
96
3. Conclusion
Music, which originated among primitive people in ancient times
as an aural art mainly taught by rote, gradually developed into
a h.gihLy specialized form of entertainment requiring many skills,
and reached its peak in the complexity of twentieth century
Augenmusik.
While music was improvisatory in character, aurally conceived
and taught, blind musicians were on equal terms with their sighted
colleagues. Gutenberg's invention of the printing press c 1450,
the development of staff notation and the subse~uent possibiiity
of reproducing music books for general use, posed a serious
problem to blind musicians. Several blind musicians had to avail
themselves with some form of regular writing; some were assisted
by sighted copyists, while others, among whom Walcha, relied
exclusively on their aural perception, even deep into the
twentieth century.
The invention of braille in 1829 opened a new world to the blind
by providing them with books as references and with a means of
reading and writing music independently. The availability of
this unique system yielded in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries some of the finest blind musicians teachers,
performers and composers. Blind pedagogues such as Proksch,
Hertz, Vierne, Beetz and Wa1cha not only gained the respect of
their sighted students, but became world famous on account of
their profound musicianship. The international feats and recorded
97
legacy of performers such as Hollins, Marchal , Langlais and \~alcha
are still to be surpassed. Rodrigo is claimed to be the greatest
living Spanish composer of music growing in artistic demand.
Besides these prominent artists on the peak of international
success, there were numerous other musicians of modest reputation
who served music admirably in their profession.
As became evident in this chapter, it was essentially the activity
I;
of the performers on the organ and of the music teachers that
established the contribution of blind musicians to the growth
of classical Western music during the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries.
ABBREVIATIONS
COUNTRIES EDITIONS
A America
Aul Australia
Aus Austria
Bel Belgium
Boh Bohemia
Bul Bulgaria
Ca Canada
Ch China
Cz Czechoslovakia
E England BMM Braille Music Magazine
NIB National Institute for the Blind
RNIB Royal National Institute for
the Blind
Eg Egypt
F France
Ger Germany
Gr Greece
Hol Holland
Hun Hungary
Ir Ireland
Isr Israel
It Italy
J Japan
M Mexico
R Russia
Sc Scotland
Ser Serbia
Sp Spain Monumentos de la Musica Espanola
Sw Switzerland
W Wales
CE Collected edition(s)
CEKM Corpus of Early Keyboard Music
IMM Institute of Medieval Music
98
A DIRECTORY OF BLIND MUSICIANS FROM ABROAD
Name Date Coun- Occupation Extant Works
try
Albert, fl c 1940 Sp Teacher, composer
Rafael R of chamber music
Aldridge, 1905-1974 E Organist, composer RNIB catalogue 1981
Richard
Austin, 1892-? EICa Teacher
Edward
Babekov, 1936- Bul Choir director,
Stojan composer
Balfour, E Musician
·H
Beaizley, fl 1986 E Musician
Andrew
Beetz, 1886-? A Teacher
Charles J
Bennette, 1929- A Director 'Light-
George. house Music School
Benson, fl 1983 A Musician
William
Berry, fl 1983 A Teacher
Cindy
Berulef fl c 800 Hol Singer
Birkenhead, fl 1795 E/A Organist
John L
Blind Harry fl 1490 Sc Bard
Blind Tom 1849-1908 A Negro slave,
musician
BoehIer, fl 1920 A Organist
Richard
Bradley, fl 1983 A Teacher
Imogene
Braille, 1809-1852 F Organist
Louis
Braun, 1869-1925 Aus Professor of music, Universal, Steingraber
Rudolf composer (Moser, 1956, p 56)
Bray, fl 1988 E Musician
D
99
Brisbar, fl 19th Aus Violinist
Franz century
Bruna, 1611-1679 Sp Organist, teacher, Edn: Antologia de
Pablo composer organistas espanoles
del siglo XVII,
ed H Anglés [Barcelona,
1965-8] (Sadie ed,
1980, vol 3, p 381)
Buchan, fl since E Musician RNIB catalogue 1981
David 1950
Burford, fl since A, Pedagogue
Leonard 1934
Burnham, A Organist
John N
Burrows, fl 1987 A Educator, pianist
dr Anne
Busbridge, fl since E Organist, former
John J editor BMM
Butner, 1908- A Baritone
Austin S
Cabezón, 1510-1566 Sp Organist, composer CE: MME XXVll-xxix,
Antonio de ed H Anglés, IMM Col-
lected works ser iv
ed C Jacobs [Brooklyn;
1967-] (Roche & Roche
1981, p 39)
Campbell, 1832-1914 AlE Educator, first
sir Francis J principal RNCB
Campbell, fl 1986 E Flautist, pianist,
Michael organist
Carolan, 1670-1738 Ir Bard A definitive edition
Turlough of his music [220
tunes] has been pre-
pared and awaits pub-
lication (Blom ed,
1954,vol 2, p 89).
Chard, 1915-? A Teacher
Jack
Chatelain, fl after Bel Instrument builder
Martin 1550
Clary, fl 1983 A Teacher
Janet
100
Cohn, fl 1986 E Amateur musician,
Hans accompanist
Colarusso, fl 1983 A Teacher
Rose
Colombo, fl after It Concert pianist,
Alberto 1945 recording artist
Cooper, fl 1986 Aul Teacher
Ian
Crosby, 1820-1915 A Hymn writer The Methodist Hymn-
Fanny Book, Novello (London,
1962 )
Crunden-White, fl 1986 E Musician
Paul
Cusson, fl after Ca Musician
Gabriel 1920
Daigle, .fl 1983 A Teacher
Vernon
D'Ascoli, b c 1959 F Concert pianist, Classics for Pleasure
Bernard recording artist CFP 40380
Dawber, 1851-1932 E Teacher
James
Delius, 1862-1934 ElF Composer Oxford University
Frederick Press (UNISA Singing
Examination Syl-
labuses, 1987)
RNIB catalogue 1981
Demodocus fl BC Gr Singer
Didymus 308- 98 Eg Musician
Di Francesco, fl 1986 A Teacher, singer
John
DitzIer, fl 1930 A Organist, teacher
Harry J
Drtina, fl since Cz First director
dr Jan 1948 Deyl Music School
Duffy, 1898-? A Concert pianist
john
Di.ilon(g,) 1769-1826 Ger Flautist, composer
Friedrich L
101
Dumas F Musician
Dykema, fl 1987 A Teacher
Dorothy
Eberly, fl 1983 A Teacher
David A
Effert, 1887-? Ger Pianist, organist, Tischer & Jagenberg
Richard conductor, singer, (Moser, 1956, p 66)
composer
Eldridge, 1911- A Teacher, choir
Carlton B director, singer
Emerich, fl after Aus Concert pianist
Paul 1927
Erlach, 1708-1757 Ger Composer
Friedrich von
Eyck, 1589-? Hol Carillonist, Ed G Vellekoop [Amster-
Jacob van composer dam, 1957-8] (Sadie
ed, 1980, vol 6,
p 338)
/
Farley, 1892-1932 A Composer
Roland
Fennor, b c 1905 A Composer
Beatrice
Ferdinandes, d 1596 Bel Composer
Johannes
Firman, fl 1986 E Organist
Roger
Fischer, 1788-? Ger Harpist.
Sophie
Fordham, fl 1986 E Teacher
Roger
For dham, fl 1986 E Teacher
Sue
Francis, 1865-1929 W Harpist
David
Frixer, 1741-1825 It/F Violin virtuoso, Printed works publish-
Alexander Bel composer ed in Paris (Sadie
ed, 1980, vol 6, p
847)
Fuenllana, b c 1500 Sp Vihuela virtuoso, CE: Orphénica lyra,
Miguel de composer ed C Jacobs [London,
1978] (Roche & Roche,
1981, p 78).
Garragher fl c 1700 Ir Harpist
102
Geibel, 1855-1933 Ger/A Conductor, Great Hymns of Faith,
dr Adam organist; composer Singspiration (Grand
Rapids Mi, 1976)
Gerrard, fl 1986 E Teacher
Christine
Goette, fl after Ger Vocal professor
Ivo 1900
Grasse, 1884-1954 A Violinist, composer
Edward
Grave, 1670-? Hol Organist
Johann J
Greenhill , d 1978 E Organist, composer RNIB catalogue 1981
Harold
Grimwood, fl 1987 A Musician
Robert
Grissom, fl 1983 A Teacher
Marguerite
Haindl, 1869-1931 Aus Muslcian, composer
Joseph
Hamilton, fl 1986 Aul Teacher
Dorothy
Heinermann, 1887-? Ger Organist, choir
Otto director, composer
Hempson, 1695-1807 Ir Bard
Denis
Hendricks, fl 1929 A Singer
Calvin
Henry, b c 1946 AlE Lecturer,
John harpsichordist
Henry fl after Sc. Bard
the Minstrel 1300
Hentzschel, fl 19th Ger Clarinet virtuoso
J F century
Hernstrom, fl 1983 A Teacher
Debra
Hertz, 1869-? Aus Pedagogue, organist,
prof Josef composer
Hervius d 565 F Bard
St
Hessen, 1861-1945 Ger composer
Alexander F von
103
Heyn, fl é 1911 A Musician
Leila H M
Hitoyasu 843-? J Musician
prince
Hoare, 1932- E Music adviser RNIB,
Robert editor BMM
Hollins, 1865-1942 E Organ virtuoso, Novello, Steiner &
Alfred composer Bell,
RNIB catalogue 1981,
Recorded: Meridian
E45 77054 (Gramophone,
March 1983)
Hudson, fl 1983 A Teacher
Roland L
Hunt, fl sance E Organist, former
J Eric 1940 director RNIB
Isaacs, fl c 1945 E Concert pianist
Edward
Jackson, fl 1986 E Lecturer
Geoffrey
Jacob, fl 1986 E Musician
Claire
Jacobi, 1696-? Ger Organist, composer
Christian G
James, 1933- E Pianist, composer,
John director RNC
James, 1930- W Organist, pianist,
Michael composer
Jeffrey, fl 1986 Aul Teacher
Hugh
Jenkins, d 1983 A Teacher, organist,
Edward composer
Johnston, A Teacher
Ruth
Jones, 1922-1982 E Concert pianist,
Gilbert organist, teacher
Kinghorn, E Musician RNIB catalogue 1981
J R
Kirchgassner, 1773-1808 Ger Glass harmonica
Marianne virtuoso
104
Kogler, 1885-1966 Ger Composer, Breitkopf & Hartel,
Hermann acoustical engineer Leipzig; Karl Simon,
Berlin; Rheinischer
Musikverlag, Essen
(Moser, 1956, p 65)
Kogler, fl 1986 A Teacher
Marcia M
Krauer, fl c 1920 A Organist
George
Krumbhorn, 1542-1621 Ger Organist
Kaspar
Labor, 1842-1924 Boh/ Concert pianist, Mit grossem Kontra-
Joseph Ger/ composer punktkonnen hat er
Aus ein umfa"ngliches Schaf-
fen hinterlassen.
(Moser, 1956, p 56)
Landini, b 1325/35 It Organist, composer The Works of Francesco
Francesco d 1397 Landini " ed L Ellinwood
[1939] (Apel, 1973,
p 60)
Langlais, 1907- F Organist, teacher, Principal publishers:
Jean composer, Bornemann, Costallat,
recording artist Durand, Elkan-Vogel,
Philippo (Sadie ed
1980, vollO, p 452)
RNIB catalogue 1981
Complete organ works
recorded by Musical
Heritage Society
(Labunski, 1987)
Leopold, 1691-1753 Ger Singer, flautist,
Achilles D violinist
LiddIe, 1960- E Organist
David
Linley, 1770-1800 E Organist, composer
Francis
Linnemann, fl 1682 Ger Instrument builder
Hans
Litaize, 1909- F Organist, teacher, Principal publishers:
Gaston composer, Leduc, Schola Cantorum
recording artist (Sadie ed, 1980,
vol ll, p 74)
PolyGram/Classics DG
2530 619
Lloyd, fl after E Teacher-
Michael 1950
105
Logan, 1897-? E Teacher, composer RNIB catalogue 1981
Sinclair
Longbotham, E Musician
Eva
Lucas, E Organist
Emily
Macan, 1858-? Cz Teacher, composer Seine dorische Messe
Karl E wurde auf Empfehlung
von Brahms in der Wiener
Votivkirche aufgefiihrt.,
(Moser, 1956, p 59)
Maitland, 1884-1954 A Organist, teacher,
Rollo composer
Marchal, 1894-1980 F Organ virtuoso,
André recording artist
Marshall, Sc Organist,
dr Henry choirmaster
Marshall, d 1980 E Pianist, teacher
Thomas
Martin, fl 1974 E Teacher
William T
Martone, fl c 1900 A Violin teacher
Anthony
Matheson, 1842-1906 E Hymn writer
George
Mathis, Pianist
Carl'
Mayer-Uhma, fl 1988 Ger Organist
Ulrich
Mayhew, 1882-1962 E NIB
Persival T
McCollin, 1892-? A Teacher, composer
Frances
Mee, E Musician
James
Meldrum, 1894-? A Organist
John
Metcalf, 1717-1810 E Musician,
John civil engineer
Meza, fl 1930 M Pianist, composer
Alejanro
106
Miller, fl 1986 A Teacher
Harvey
Milton, 1608-1674 E Amateur musician,
John poet
Miyagi, 1894-1956 J Koto player,
i1ichio composer
Miyake, fl 1983 J Teacher
Masaru
Montal, 1800-1865 F First blind
Charles piano tuner
Morris, fl 1983 A Teacher
Angelo
Mozzati, fl after It Pedagogue,
Alberto 1945 concert pianist,
recording artist
Nassar r e, 1654-1732 Sp Theorist, teacher, Collección de obras
Pablo organist, composer de órgano de organistas
espanoles del siglo
XVII: manuscrito en-
contrado en la cathedral
de Astorga, ed J Alvarez
[Madrid, 1970],
J H Llorens [Barcelona,
1974] (Sadie ed, 1980,
vol 13, p 44)
Ned., fl 1986 E Musician
Michael
Neich, fl 1986 Aul
Joan
NewelI, 1899-1980 E Teacher
Henry G
Oke, 1873-? E Teacher
Herbert G
Oldring, fl 1986 E Husician
Geoff
Ortiga, b 1923 Sp Pianist, A & B MASTER RECORD
José recording artist M-30288-1988
Osborn, 1882-? E Teacher
Thomas G
Ossian fl 300 Sc Bard
Paradis, 1759-1824 Aus Pianist, teacher,
Maria T composer
Pardini, fl 1986 E Musician
Jean
Pardini, fl 1986 E Musician
Joe
107
Parry, 1710-1782 W Harpist, composer Ancient British Music
John [London, 1742]; A col-
lection of \.Jelsh,
English & Scotch Airs
[London, 1761]; Twelve
Airs [London, c 1765];
Cambrian Harmony [Ruabon
& London c 1809] (Sadie
ed, 1980, vol 14,
p 245)
Paumann, 1410-1473 Ger Organist, composer Fundamentum organisandi
Conrad in CEKM 1, ed W Apel
(Roche & Roche, 1981,
p 145)
Pesenti, 1600-1647 It Violinist, composer Alessandro Vincenti
Martino [1628-1648] (Moser,
1956, p 32)
In der Tat sind
Pesentis Madrigale,
soweit in Deutschland
die wenigen vollstandi-
gen Exemplare einen
Einblick gestatten,
lebensvoll und kunst-
reich ; (Moser , 1956,
p 33)
Petersen, fl 1986 A Teacher
Janiece
Pfannstiehl, 1861-1940 Ger Organist,
Bernhard piano virtuoso
Pfeiffer, 1891-1932 Ger Organist, composer Sein Schaffen umfasst
Hubert 45 z. T. umfangreiche
Werke, von denen jedoch
nur zehn bisher gedruckt
wurden, (Moser, 1956,
p 68)
Philip der fl c 1800 Ser Singer
Blinde
Phineus fl BC Ger Singer, prophet
Platt, 1856-1944 E Teacher, co- RNIB catalogue 1981
H E editor first BMM
Potholt, 1726- Hol Organist, composer, Amsterdam Library (Moser
Jakob c 1800 carillonist, 1956, p 37)
Press, fl 1986 E M1,1sician
Maurice
Priest, 1882-? E Teacher
Frederick W
Proksch 1794-1864 Cz
Josef Pedagogue, author
108
Rallo, fl 1986 A Teacher
Joseph P
Reeves, A Lecturer (voice)
Harold
Ridgeway, fl 1986 A Teacher
Thomas H
Rijp, 1887-1931 Hol Organist, composer
Antonius \.J
Roberts, c 1880- A Teacher, organist
C Nevison 1937
Robins, fl 1986 E Musician
Tony
Rockwell, l817-? A Teacher,
Lemuel choir director
Rodrigo, b 1901/2 Sp Composer Chester, Eschig, Sala-
Joaquin bert, Schott, Unión
Musical Espanola (Sadie,
1980, vol 16, p 93)
Recorded: CD Philips
420 714-2
Rogers, fl 1986 E Musician
Brian
Sabeston, fl after E Singer, teacher, RNIB catalogue 1981
May 1927 composer
Salignac, 1741-1763 F Musician
Mélanie de
Salinas, 1513-1590 Sp Organist, theorist, De musica libri septem,
Francisco pedagogue 1577, fac ed by Kastner
[1958] (Apel, 1973,
p 801)
Salt, 1903- E Lecturer
J Peter
Sanfilipo, fl 1986 A Teacher
John
Schlick, 1455-1527 Ger Organist, composer CE: Orgelkompositionen,
Arnold ed R Walter [Mainz,
1970] (Roche & Roche,
1981, p 172)
Schmidt, 1883-1952 Ger Organist
Ferdinand
Schmidt, fl 1602- Ger Organist
Jakob 1610
Schonberger, 1601-1649 Ger Instrument builder,
Huldericus musician
109
Schott, 1562-1630 Ger Instrument builder
Konrad
Shaw, 1779-1848 A Organist,
Oliver hymn writer
Shelly , fl 1983 A Teacher
Allan H
Shepherd, fl 1986 E Teacher
Gillian
Siemers, fl 1983 A Teacher
Charles D
Simpson, fl 1987 A Musician
Dan
Sin£ield, 1931-1973 E Teacher, pianist,
John organist
Smareglia, 1858-1929 Sl/It Opera composer Verlag Gialiana, Triest
Antonio (Moser, 1956, p 57)
Spanner, 1890-1977 E Musician ,RNIB catalogue 1981
'Harry V
Stainov Bul Composer
Stanley, 1713-1786 E Organist, composer Bosworth, London;
John RNIB catalogue 1981
Steinheimer, fl c 1900 Aus Violinist
Otto
St ocke l., 1894-? Ger Singer,
Alfred vocal teacher
Strohl, 1703-? Ger Musician
Joh Adam
Takano fl c 1980 J Instrumentalist
Kichó
Tanzl 1506-? Ger Organist
Templeton, 1910-1963 W/A Pianist, composer RNIB catalogue 1981
Alec
Thamyris fl BC Gr Singer, harpist,
kithara player
Themeli, b c 1916 Eg Concert pianist
Georges
.Thiberge, fl since F Teacher
1910
Thomas fl 1556- Ger Singer
1559
110
Tiresias fl BC Gr Singer, prophet
Tompson, 1889-? E Teacher
Alfred
Tompson, fl after A Concert pianist
Cave 1900
Townshend , fl 1986 E Soprano
Margaret
Tsuling, fl 1986 Ch Teacher
Loo
Turnbull, fl 1986 E Teacher
Margaret
Tylnak, 1910-1969 Cz Teacher, composer
Ivan
Ungar, 1909- Hun Pianist
Imre
Uzinzky, R/F Pianist
Alexander
Valente, b c 1520 It Organist, composer
Antonio Intavolatura-de cimbalo,ed C Jacobs [Oxford,
1973] (Roche & Roche,
1981, p 193)
Vandertuin, fl 1987 Ca Musician
John
Varga, 1928-1984 Is/A Violinist, teacher
Ruben
Vidrich, fl 1972 A Organist
Arthur
Vierne, 1870-1937 F Organist, teacher,
Louis Principal publishers:composer, Durand, Hamelle, Lemoine
recording artist Salabert, Schirmer
(Sadie ed 1980, vol
19, p 743)
RNIB catalogue 1981
CD Schwann 315000,
315001, 315002
Vionville F Musician
Walcha, 1907- Ger Organist, teacher,
Helmut Peters (UNISA Organcomposer, Examination Syllabuses
recording artist 1987-1991, p 24)
RNIB catalogue 1981
PolyGram/Classics
Archiv Privilege
2547 011
III
Haldkirch, b 1660 Sw Musician
Esther E
Wanami, 1945- J Violin virtuoso, RCA Red Seal
Takayoshi recording artist RL 25153
Wardrop, fl since Sc Teacher
Margaret 1950
Warrilow, fl since E Organist, former
H C 1909 music adviser NIB,
co-editor first BMM
Watling, 1880-? E Teacher, composer RNIB catalogue 1981
Horace
Wells, fl 1986 E Teacher
J A
Wendt, fl after Ger Musician,
Franz 1798 instrument builder
Whitfield, fl since E Violin teacher
Ernest 1922
Williams, fl 1986 Aul Musician,
Barbara musicologist
Williams, 1878~? E Teacher
LIewellyn
Winter, fl 1777 Cz Flautist
Jos
Winterfeldt, b 1902 Ger Singer,
Margarete vocal professor
Wolstenholme, 1865-1931 E Organist, composer, Lengnick & Co, London;
Hilliam co-editor first BMM Novello, London;
Recorded: Waldon record
disc WS 165 (Bt1M, Nay,
1980, p 36)
RNIB catalogue 1981
Wood, 1838-1910 A Teacher, organist,
Duffle composer
Wood, A Musician
Thomas
Wrigley, 1886- E Teacher
Alfred
Xenocritos fl BC Gr Singer
Zapater, 1883-? Spi Guitarist, teacher
Baldomero Ger
PAR T 2
C HAP TER 1
THE BLIND AND MUSIC
1. The blind
1.1 Blindness defined
A person deprived of the optimum use of eyesight is classified
as visually handicapped. The following definitions of blindness
are applied in the three countries dealt with in this thesis:
"The American Foundation for the Blind prefers that
the term blindness be reserved for a complete loss of
sight with all other degrees of visual loss considered
as visual impairment, which can accurately be determined
by ophthalmic measurements." (Grayson, 1985, p 1)
In the United Kingdom there are two statutory definitions of
blindness:
"Cl) applicable to children under the age of 16, is
contained in s. 69 of the Education act,· 1921, defining
the word blind as meaning too blind to be able to read
the ordinary school books used by children;
(2) applicable to adult blind persons, is contained
in the National Assistance act, 1948, defining blind
as so blind as to be unable to perform any work for
which eyesight is essential." (Encyclopaedia Britannica,
p 719)
113
"The South African National Council for the Blind
includes the following definition of blindness in its
constitution. The term blindness means totally,
partially, or intermittently deprived of sight." (Hadley
ed, 1985, P 14)
For practical purposes with regard to the use of braille, inkprint
and mobility, the following general classification is applied
in this thesis.
The totally blind who have no visual perception. They
are dependent on braille as their only medium of contact
with the written word. Persons in..this group rely,
to a greater or lesser extent, on some physical
assistance from sighted people.
The visually impaired who have a minimum sight. The
amount of visual impairment varies with each individual,
from the faintest distinction between darkness and light
to an acuity point where large print can be used by
means of electronic or optical devices. Persons in
this category often use braille and rely on their visual
perception for mobility only.
The partially sighted who possess sufficient vision.
They are fully independent and usually use inkprint.
1.2 The prevalence rate of blindness
A prevalence rate of 200+ per 100 000 (0,2%) is applicable in
developed countries in the West - Western Europe, the United
114
Kingdom and the United States. In the Republic of South Africa,
conforming to Third World conditions, it is expected that the
prevalence rate will be much higher. (Hadley, 1982, p 5)
According to the 1985 census figures the total population of
South Africa is estimated at 27,7 million people. (Central
Statistical Service, 1987) It is surmised that there are some
66 000 blind and at least an equal number of visually impaired
persons in South Africa, totalling 132000 (0,48%). (Hattingh,
1986, p 37)
2. Music
2.1 The essence of music
Music consists of melody, harmony and rhythm and is created by
the orderly interpolation of sound and silence. (MacPherson,
1920, p X) ·Gesticulated movements are subsidiary and of no
consequence to the art as such, except in dance, ballet and opera.
Whether played on an instrument or sung by the human voice, the
origin of music is the soul; it comes straight from man's heart.
(Hertz, 1932, p 40) It cannot be seen, it cannot be touched;
it is an abstract art, appealing to the emotions of the human
being. It is dependent on the sense of hearing fo~ its perception
and appreciation .and can be enjoyed by the professional and the
layman, by the sighted and the blind.
lls
"Music seems to be able to interpret and thus clarify
our feelings primarily because in some ways the
structures of music parallel or are congruent with the
structures of feelings. (Martin and Jacobus, 1978,
p 316)
2.2 The aesthetic value of music
"Musical aesthetics is the study of the relationship
of music to the human senses and intellect."
Musicologists" various theories on musical aesthetics can be
divided into two groups, according to whether they consider music
(1) as a heteronomous art; i e, as the expression of extramusical
elements or (2) as an autonomous art, i e, as the realization
of intrinsic principles and ideas. In the former class are the
Affektenlehre, according to which music is the expression of
human temperaments, passions and moods; the latter theory
explains music as a purely musical phenomenon that can be
understood only in its own terms. (Apel, 1973, pp 14-15)
History shows that the blind beggar as well as the blind
professional performed music. For the blind beggar it was a
means of survival, mostly under the most appalling conditions;
the well-trained blind musician, however, whether composing,
performing or teaching, regarded music as a vehicle for emotional,
intellectual and social aspirations. Music thus has diverse
aesthetic values for different people under varying conditions:
116
"The nature of the experience changes with the attitude
of the individual, for example, in a church service,
as long as a person's attention is directed toward the
religious values of the experience, his experience is
predominantly religious; but perhaps in the course
of the service his attention may turn to the aesthetic
value of the music, religious va~ues may become secondary
to aesthetic values and the experience may become
aesthetic rather than religious. Conversely, at a
concert, the attention may shift from the purely "musical
values to the religious values and the experience may
become religious rather than aesthetic. The aesthetic
values of the experience are not entirely lost, they
merely become secondary, indirect or derived." (Haydon,
1941, p 148)
For the blind beggar and entertainer in show-business, the
aesthetic value will be secondary, while the composer, performer
and teacher of serious music, with a knowledge of its history,
theory, harmony and technical intricacies, will contemplate the
profession according to the intrinsic aesthetic value.
Blind musicians like Landini, Paumann, Cabezón and many others
became famous due to their exceptional achievements. They taught
and performed with great success in royal courts and in the most
illustrious company. (Lang, 1983, pp 157, 206, 264)
117
2.3 Music as a medium of communication
"Alas for those who never sing, but die with all their
music in them." (Bachelder ed, 1975, p 62)
This quotation is taken from Oliver Wendell Holmes and reflects
the importance of music as a means of communication. Music is
a language without boundaries, an art that knows no
discrimination. It gives expression to each and every inmost
emotion:
"After silence that which comes nearest to expressing
the inexpressible is music." (Bachelder ed, 1975, p
47)
This statement, made by AIdaus Huxley, can be applied to the
blind with their natural inclination to concentrate and withdraw
on account of the absence of visual contact and who can enjoy
music whole-heartedly. In the making of, and listening to music,
the blind and the sighted are on equal terms. No wonder that
the blind have sought refuge and security, as well as social
contact in music - their noblest way of communication with the
outside world.
In composing, performing and teaching, both in the serious and
popular fields, music has provided blind musicians with a means
of communication and with the oppurtunity for involvement in
the social and cultural development of their communities:
118
"Man sieht also, dass heute der Aktionsradius des blinden
Kunst1ers die Schwierigkeiten des Lernens und die
Notwendigkeit einer hie und da den reisenden Kunst1er
beg1eitenden Person abgerechnet, fast die gleiche
geworden ist wie bei seinem sehenden Fachgenossen, ..• "
One thus sees, that today the share of the blind artist
- despite the difficulties of learning and the necessity
in some cases of an escort to the touring artist,
has become almost the same as that of his sighted
colleague. (Maser, 1956, p 74)
2.4 The versatility of music
The versatility of music gives rise to its immense popularity.
Apart from its value to concert artists, audiences, teachers
\
and students of serious music, it is also employed by scientists
and psychologists for its therapeutical qualities. The exponents
of 'popular music and the media use it as entertainment and for
commercial purposes. Music is no longer the privilege of the
connoisseur only; it belongs to the bourgeoisie:
"Strange how potent cheap music is." (Coward, The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, 1975, p 69)
Apart from being a means of livelihood to composers, teachers,
performers and entertainers, the practice of music entails a
ll9
demand on the intellectual abilities of musicians:
"In the Middle Ages, music was quite properly grouped
with arithmetic, geometry and astronomy in the quadrivium."
(Apel, 1973, p 552)
The profound effect of sacred music on the spiritual development
of mankind cannot be over-estimated:
"The aim and final reason of all music should be nothing
else but the Glory of God and the refreshment of the
spirit." (Bachelder ed, 1975, p 56)
This was J S Bach's opinion of the significance of music.
2.5 The power of music
The hypnotic power of music lies in its adaptability and in its
diversity. Patriotic music, played by a military band, can stir
a mob to greater unity. Conversely, soft music, played by
candle-light, can soothe an audience into a sentimental frame
of mind. Performers, blind and sighted, who play in night-clubs
or on television, rely on their charisma and the hypnotic power
of music for success:
"We are all capable of being manipulated by music, even
120
the highly-trained musician. However deep one's
knowledge of the laws and science of music, the emotional
effect it has on us is in no way deadened for we are
essentially, sensuous beings, living very much by our
feelings." (Sheppard, 1986, p 66)
The tremendous impact of commercialism as transmitted on the
radio and television has degraded music to a large extent to
a social commodity; in some cases it has become a means of social
communication and advertising; it is often used as background
noise instead of being enjoyed for its aesthetic quality:
"Let us not forget that one of the reasons why people
like music is their need to break silence. We need
to make noise but preferably below 90 decibels."
(Wallin, 1986, p 17)
Unfortunately, as with any other art, the power of music and
its effect can be used and abused,· and it is doubtful whether
the general public is aware of, and in the least concerned about
the many ways in which music is employed, deliberately to affect
our everyday life:
"Music affects our blood pressure, our pulse rate,
increases the adrenalin level, and causes us to breathe
more rapidly. As the thrill of music takes over, some
people report extraordinary responses. Their hair feels
121
as if it is standing on end, a prickly sensation runs
down their backbone, they shudder involuntarily and
feel that their heart is pounding. Hatching the effect
of a successful pop group on a young audience: note
the half-open lips, the half-closed eyes, the gyrating
bodies; see the effect as the music increases in volume
and tempo, and cheeks redden with increased blood
pressure and faster heartbeats." (Sheppard, 1986, pp
65-66)
2.6 The meaning of music to the blind
Blindness as such does not pose an insurmountable problem,
provided that ways and means can be found to overcome the
isolation. Music, due to its abstract quality, has been the
most suitable medium as yet. For centuries music has been a
convenient and rewarding profession for the blind, enabling them
.to make a contribution to the growth of this art:
"The blind had occupied themselves with music even since
musical instruments had existed. The art of music is
the one art which, more than any other, represents itself
to the blind as granting both complete enjoyment of
its beauty and the possibility of something to perform.
The highest mental training is not demanded before one
may devote himself to this art. So we must not
be surprised if centuries long gone by, give us authentic
record of feats of genius performed by the blind in
the realm of music in an age when as yet, no one imagined
122
the possibility of educating the blind." (Hertz, 1932,
P 40)
There was a time when music was considered as the only viable
occupation for the blind. Although this opinion may have changed,
music still remains one of the most important outlets for the
~motions and imagination of the blind.
Although blindness does not turn a person into a musical genius,
it cannot be denied that the blind are more susceptible to sound
than the sighted. Owing to the loss of vision, the blind rely
intensely on sound. If a blind person happens to be musically
gifted, it is only natural that music will play a very important
part in his life. The practice of music by a blind person is
not a· matter of compensation, but of utilizing. the remaining
faculties at his disposal.
Music constitutes a very important part in the general education
of the blind as will be seen in the next chapter dealing with
the education of the blind. D J R Cox wrote the following on
education for the blind in High Fidelity/Musical America, January
1977, pp 47-49:
"It is a commonly held belief that people who are blind
are talented in music and that one sense, in this case
hearing, compensates for the loss of another." (MacLeod,
1988, p 44)
123
2.7 Music as entertainment
The art of improvisation forms an important part in the armour
of any musician playing by rote. Numerous blind musicians are
gifted with the talent to improvise. (Hilliams, 1986) The gif t
of improvisation is particularly useful in the field of popular
music. Scores of blind teachers and persons from other walks
of life, with some musical background, are reverting to popular
music as entertainment. (Questionnaires USA, 1986)
In this thesis the term popular music is applied to that sphere
of music described· by the world-famous pianist of Argentina,
Miguel Angel Estrella, as follows:
"One of the most common prejudices governing the di vision
of labour in music, as well as its marketing and
consumption, gives rise to the splitting of music,
musicians and their public into two warring and
apparently irreconcilable factions: popular as opposed
to classical. By popular music I mean the forms of music
created, sung or danced to by the people of a country
or a region. The word popular refers to something that
originates from the people, not something imposed on
it. Thus I exclude from the category of popular music
the soulless consumer product generally associated with
the variety show. The reality underlying this sterile
conflict cannot be reduced to a mere question of form.
124
Few people are prepared to admit that this prejudice
springs from an urge to segregate human beings into
social categories in defiance of that most universal
of all phenomena art. " (Unesco Braille Courier,
September 1986, p 18)
The materialistic approach of the twentieth century is very much
apparent, especially among the younger generation in the United
States. Many blind musicians are pl ay i.ng in night-clubs or are
attached to pop groups. (Kogler, 1986) Financially, popular
music is a very luring profession for the blind. The head of
the Music Section of the National Library Service (NLS),
Washington DC, declared emphatically that some of the richest
people in the entertainment business in the United States are
blind. The most notable blind exponents of popular music include
Art Tatum, the whistler Fred Lowery, Tom Sullivan, Ronnie Milsap,
Stevie Wonder, Ray Charles and the English born George Shearing.
(Emanuel, 1986) Young blind American musicians with no, or an
inferior knowledge of braille music, prefer popular music, relying
on their memories aided by tape recorders. (Kelly , 1986) The
few really successful ones ascribe their achievements to hard
work:
"But there are certain things I did to prepare myself
for life in the sighted world. One is that I realized
that r had to be slightly better than anybody else.
I think anybody in a minority group, and certainly blind
persons are a minority, would need to enter the compe-
125
tition in a most thorough \oJay. To that end, between
the ages of 12 and 16, I studied very intensively and
I practised four hours a day." (Shearing, 1985, p 4)
The money business exerts much pressure on all the entertainers
and only a very small number of them are really accomplishing
what they have set out to do. The following warning was voiced
by one of them:
"Here are some statistics, readers. Whether you're
blind or sighted, only one out of every ten thousand
performers makes more than $5 000 a year. In Hollywood,
right now, there are less than 300 actors making a living
as actors. That means that, statistically, the chances
of your success are not real good. If you consider
that there are about 5 or 6 blind people in the world
who are now being paid to entertain, the statistics
aren't in anybody's favor." (Sullivan, 1985, p 24)
Ronnie Milsap has done so well for himself, that a trust has
been established to help blind and visually impaired students
in the United States. Talented candidates in all fields will
be considered:
"Requests from students should be made by letter to
The Board of Trustees, The Ronnie Milsap Foundation,
126
12 Music Circle South, Nashville, Tennessee, 37203.
These requests will be received and reviewed
semi-annually. The recipient will be referred to as
a Ronnie Milsap Fellow." (Lifeprint, September/Oct;ober
1985, p 46)
The Lighthouse Music School for the blind in New York devotes
much time to the instruction of popular music as cultural
enrichment. (Tomson, 1986)
In the Republic of. South Africa, blind musicians like Jan
Swanepoel (1886-1979),· Erasmus (b 1897) and Halbig (b 1894) and
some others -.toured the country since the nineteen-thirties.
(Mostert, 1987) More recently several blind musicians have
appeared on television, while some others have exploited the
recording market. The well-known Black singer, Steve Kekana
gained international recognition. (Pretorius, 1987)
Popular music provides an additional income to some of the blind.
This thesis, however, concerns the contribution and some of the
problems of professional blind musicians in the field of serious
(classical) music.
2.8 Serious music as an occupation
Performing, composing or writing does not supply a sufficient
income to either blind or sighted musicians. The result is that,
with a few exceptions, the majority of musicians has taken to
teaching as a career. (Francesco, 1986)
127
In the United States public (ordinary, regular, day) schools
do not normally supply individual instrumental instruction to
the pupils. The scholars are expected to arrange for their own
music instruction, either at music schools or with private music
teachers. (Questionnaires USA, 1986) School music programmes
were introduced by Lowell Mason (1792-1872) in the Boston,
Massachusetts schools as far back as 1838. (Sadie ed, 1980,
p 748) At college and university level individual instrumental
instruction is being given and some notable blind musicians are
actively engaged in this field. (Eldridge, 1986)
In the United Kingdom school music programmes are presented once
a week for· two years by one of the fulltime teachers. These
programmes are done in groups and the General Certificate of
Secondary Education (GCSE) will affect all subjects from 1988;
each child must be accepted as to the quality, as good or bad;
more composition in any culture, and performance on an instrument
or by voice. Children may start private music lessons with
teachers paid by the county. (Gerrard, 1986) Apart from music
schools, individual instrumental instruction is given at
university, college and polytechnic level. Several blind
musicians are employed as lecturers at these institutions.
(Hoare, 1986)
In the Republic of South Africa, apart from school music
programmes done in the class situation, individual instrumental
instruction is supplied to students at primary, secondary and
128
tertiary level; some blind musicians are involved. Currently
blind musicians teach at Departmental schools in the Orange Free
State and Cape Province, as well as in the Department of Education
and Culture. (Questionnaires RSA, 1987) This has been the
procedure since the nineteen-thirties. (Olivier ed, 1929, p
119) These blind music teachers have played an important role
in the cultural development of the rural communities at Boshof ,
Senekal, Lindley, Ladybrand, Viljoenskroon . and Bultfontein in
the Orange Free State. (Dutch Reformed Church Archive, 1987);
Worcester, Burgersdorp, Beaufort West and Richmond in the Cape
Province. (Bas?on, 1987)
Through the ages the blind were involved in the art of organ
playing and numerous great masters featured since the fourteenth
century. Landini, Paumann and Schlick were some of the first;
they were followed by Stanley, Hollins, Vierne, Walcha and others
throughout Europe, the United Kingdom and the Republic of South
Africa.
Careers with Music for Graduates was a research project launched
by Martin Vaughan, Uni versi ty of Leeds; Robert Dunsmore,
Unf.ver s i t y of Oxford and Christopher Newton, University of Leeds.
This research culminated in theAGCAS Careers Information Booklet.
Although undertaken in Britain, the finding of the project is
equally applicable to every country where the blind are involved
in the music-making process. The researchers' observations are
valid for the present situation in most countries and should
129
serve as a guide to future employment:
"As well as offering potential for considerable personal
satisfaction, a career as a professional musician does
usually entail gambles and sacrifices and a low and
insecure income, at least in the early years; and
requires determination, stamina, personal contacts and
luck. For many it also involves not one job but an
amalgum of part-time jobs, for example, some private
teaching, some editorial work and reviewing, some
perfSrming, a couple of evening classes and playing
the local church organ." (Vaughan et aI, 1983, p 31)
In spite of ignorance, prejudice and discrimination, the blind
in the past were capable of holding their own in the music-making
process. They are still. making a significant contribution.
(Wells, 1986, pp 293-296) It is expected that this tradition
will be continued in the future.. (LiddIe, 1987)
130
CHAPTER 2
EDUCATION OF THE BLIND WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MUSIC TRAINING
1. The pre-braille era (from Antiquity to 1829)
During this period no organized attempts at educating the blind
were made, not even during the enlightened period of the
Renaissance. The first attempts occurred during the period of
intellectual awakening in the eighteenth century, when
philosophers like Montesquieu (1689-1755), Voltaire (1694-1778),
Rousseau (1712-1778) and Diderot (1713-1784) pleaded in their
writings for human rights, including those of the less privileged.
Their involvement and concern resulted in the establishment of
the first school for the blind in Paris in 1784. (DSE, 1980,
p 11)
Blind people, however, engaged in a wide range of activities
on their own, frequently without the benefit of any formal
education. If they had educational opportunities, they or their
teachers guided by them, had to improvise the means of
instruction, such as those invol ved in reading, wri ting,
mathematics and music. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 49) Education during
the pre-braille era was confined to some privileged blind
intellectuals, assisted by relatives, sympathetic friends or
some kind-hearted patrons. These individuals had to secure their
own instruction; most of them employed private tutors. The
131
private teachers had to be highly original and exceedingly
inventive in their instruction of the blind. In coping with
the problems with which they were confronted, private teachers
such as Bernouilli and Niessen gained international fame on
account of the ultimate success achieved by their blind scholars,
Elisabeth Waldkirch and Weissenburg. (Wagg, 1932, pp 4, 5)
Tangible descriptions had to be employed to impart certain
impressions to their blind pupils, therefore the alphabet, and
later on also staff notation were either cut out, incised or
used in relief. These tactile models were studied by the blind
with their fingers, initially to familiarize themselves with
the letter formations, which afterwards enabled them to write
with pencil and even with ink. Some of the blind kept up a
voluminous correspondence with their families and friends. (Wagg,
1932, p 4) Textbooks, however, were not available to them and
in the actual' process of education, the blind had to rely on
their mental capacity and their ability to memorize:
"The success of the renowned blind was in a seeing world.
Its measurement ,was in terms of sighted achievement.
Naturally then, the entire thinking of these blind people
was directed towards the seeing." (Zahl ed, 1962, p
389)
Charles GRitter mentioned Diodorus, who lived in the first
century before Christ, and who became a famous teacher of
geometry. (Zahl ed, 1962, p 391) Didymus (308-398 AD) travelled
132
extensively and visited the most renowned schools and teachers
of his time and had their works read to him. He had a phenomenal
memory and eventually became highly respected and recognized
as a philosopher, theologian, astronomer and musician. He became
a professor at the famous university of Alexandria, Egypt.
(Lowenfeld, 1975, p 50)
The Spanish humanist, Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540) wrote in his
book De subventione pauperum, published in 1526:
" there are a large number of things in which they
[the blind] .may be active; some are suited to the
sciences, let them study, in some of these we see a
progress of erudition not to be belittled; others [are
suited] f or the art of music, let them sing, let them
play upon the strings, let them breathe into the flutes;"
(Lowenfeld, 1975, p 45)
The blind themselves set the scene for their formal education.
The achievements of individuals such as Landini (1325-1397),
Paumann (1410-1473), Cabezón (1510-1566), Salinas (1513-1590),
Elisabeth Waldkirch (1660-?), John Parry (1710-1782), John Stanley
(1713-1786), Maria Theresia Paradis (1759-1824) and numerous
others could no longer be ignored. Their accomplishments, made
possible by their private tutors, proved the ability of the blind
to be educated:
133
"Beginning with the 17th century, the blind had regained
a status in society which gave them not only the right
to live but also to be protected and assisted. From
that time on there appeared throughout the Western world
blind individuals who by their own efforts acquired
not only an education but also showed outstanding
achievements in various fields of endeavor. The 17th
and 18th centuries may, as far as the blind are
concerned, be called the era of self-emancipation."
(Lowenfeld, 1975, p 44)
The French encyclopaedist, Denis Diderot (1713-1784), wrote
several articles on the blind. The first, Lettre sur les
aveugles , appeared in 1749. In this publication on the blind,
Diderot made important observations:
"In the letter Diderot discussed many aspects of the
education of the blind, including the exercising and
training of the other senses to compensate for the loss
of sight. First he affirmed that often the loss of
anyone sense and the corresponding increase in
sensitivity of the others was a matter of practice,
not nature. He went on to state another very important
principle: that the education of the blind should be
based on what they have and not on what they lack."
(DSE, 1980, p 19)
134
Greatly influenced by Diderot's writings about the blind, Valentin
Hauy (1745-1822) established the first school for the blind,
L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles, in Paris in 1784,
the same year in which Diderot died. (Barnhart ed, 1954, p 1941)
2. Formal education for the blind
The first schools for the blind, established towards the end
of the eighteenth century, were faced with the same difficulties
as the private tutors. Their initial efforts were focussed on
developing the. necessary facilities required for reading and
writing. .Valentin Hauy was the first teacher of the blind to
provide his pupils at L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles
with books, using an embossed type of ordinary letters and staff
notation. (Zahl ed, 1962,. p 401)
The invention of braille in 1829, its implementation in France
during the eighteen-fifties, its adoption in 1868 by the British
and Foreign Association for the Blind and its international
acceptance in 1888 at the conference in Cologne, paved the way
for this unique system to be employed in the education of the
blind. (Krolick , 1979, pp 13, 14) The Missouri School for the
Blind, St Louis, was the first American school to adopt braille
in or about 1869. The final adoption and decodification of the
system did not, however, occur in the United States until 1932,
when an agreement was signed between the British and the Americans
to adopt standard English braille as the uniform type.
(Lowenfeld, 1975, p 10)
135
The institutions for the blind could now turn their attention
to the more subtle social and psychological problems derived
from the visual defect of their pupils:
"In this trend toward a recognition of the child and
his problems, education of the blind paralleled the
development in general education which led from the
subject matter as the determining factor to the child
as the center of the instruction. Thus progressive
ideas and practices seemed to be particularly applicable
to the education of blind children, and teachers in
this area were among the ·most enthusiastic approvers
and ardent advocates of many ideas promoted by the great
educators of the past two centuries. Comenius
(1592-1670), for instance, insisted that the teaching
of words and things must be closely connected; Rousseau
(1712-1778) stressed immediate experience instead of
verbal instruction and insisted that the nature of the
child determine the means of teaching; Pestalozzi
(1746-1827) [whose influence was widely felt during
the time when the institutions flourished] recognized
that teaching must follow and support the child's
development, and that self-activity, including manual
training, is a necessary part of education; and Froebel
(1782-1852) emphasized sense training, play, and social
participation. Some of these ideas stood at the cradle
136
of education of the blind and others strongly influenced its
development. Later on, when new viewpoints superseded the
traditional school and psychological theories and findings exerted
their influence on teaching methods, the ideas of
activity-pedagogy, of project teaching, of the unit of work plan,
and of the Dalton plan were all discussed and practiced in some
of the schools for the blind here [USA] and abroad." (Zahl ed,
1962, p 99)
As was evident in chapter 2 of this thesis, within about one
century institutions where the blind could be educated. were
established throughout the world. L'Institution Nationale· des
Jeunes Aveugles, started in 1784 by Valentin Hauy in France,
was the first. It was followed by institutions in the United
Kingdom since 1791, in the United States since 1833 and in the
Republi.cof South Africa since 1881.
In the United States Congress passed an Act to Promote the
Education of the Blind in 1879. (SchoU, 1986, p ll) The first
public school class was established in Chicago, USA, under John
B Curtis in 1900. Until the close of the nineteenth century
the residential school was the only means through which blind
children could receive instruction. The day school plan was
the first departure from the generally accepted method of bringing
, all the blind children of the state together in a centrally
located institution. (Zahl ed, 1962, p 109)
137
The education of blind children from five to sixteen years was
made compulsory in Scotland in 1890, followed by England and
Wales in 1893. Formal education for the blind was also made
compulsory in Northern Ireland. (Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol
3, p 720) In 1879, day classes for blind children were started
by the London School Board and for sixteen years they had
government support. In 1936, a survey was made and it was decided
that there were not enough children to make the classes practical
in any but urban areas. The report 'also stated: We are of the
opinion that the education of blind children, especially
young children, i,s of toa specialized a character to permi tits
being treated as an appendage to the scheme of education in the
ordinary elementary schools. The Education Act of 1944 required'
all schools for blind children in the United Kingdom to be
residential. (Farrell, 1956, p 56)
In the Republic of' South Africa the education of all handicapped
children was made compulsory by the Special Schools Amendment
Act no 43 of 1937. (Vaughan, 1979, p 66)
3. ~sic education for the blind
Hauy, in founding the first school for the blind in Paris in
1784, allotted a very important part of his education to music.
(DSE, 1980, p 23, 24) The predominance of music in the education
of the blind became particularly apparent in the period in which
the institutions flourished. The possibilities of music as an
occupation were exploited. (Zahl ed, 1962, p 242; Illingworth,
1910, p 126)
138
According to Charles G Ritter, dr Guillié, a successor of Hauy ,
wrote in 1819, shortly before the invention of braille, while
embossed books were already in use, the following on music
education at the Paris school for the blind:
"The following is the way in which the lessons are now
given: A boy, whom the blind themselves have taught
to read music, being placed in the middle of the
orchestra, solfas some measures of a division which
is before his eyes, announcing beforehand for what
instrument the piece is which he sings. The memory
of the blind is so faithful that it is seldom necessar:y
to repeat the same phrase to them more than twice."
(Zahl ed, 1962, p 400)
In 1832, the music reputation of Lowell Mason (1792-1872) was
well established in Boston, Massachusetts. Dr Howe contacted
him, and Mason agreed to teach at the Perkins School. Lowell
Mason thus became the first American music educator of the
visually handicapped. He taught vocal music, piano and organ
from 1832 until 1836. According to Mason music is addressed
to the ear. The knowledge of those characters which are addressed
to the eye, and which constitute the visible symbols or signs
by which musical relations are represented to the sense of sight,
forms in reality but a small part of the science of music.
(Darrow and Heller, 1988, pp 112, 122)
The blind can apply one of four distinct patterns or a combination
of some of them:
139
Repeating note-by-note as it is played to him.
Memorizing in short passages, usually in four-bar phrases
Repeating the entire movement after it has been heard.
This method was employed successfully by some individuals
with a prodigious memory like the Welsh harpist, John
Parry and the German, Hubert Pfeiffer. (Maser, 1956,
pp 67-71)
The analytical method as employed by Helmut Walcha;
the separate parts are memorized voice-by-voice, as
played by his wife, and then the strands are put
together. (Jordan, 1984, p 83 et seq)
Even since the invention of braille in 1829, and its subsequent
international acceptance in 1888, some blind musicians are still
relying on their memories, not because of the inadequacy of
braille, but on account of the cumbersome study of an entirely
new music code, especially for the beginner and the inexperienced.
This practice does not lead to independence and is not
recommended.
At the institutions braille and the braille music code were
studied extensively by the majority of candidates preparing
themselves for a career in music. A very high percentage of
the music teachers at the institutions were blind, and those
who were not, were expected to have at least a working knowledge
of braille music to enable them to assist the young blind music
students. Nearly all the music was memorized from braille copies
140
and the blind also used braille in theory, harmony and
composition. (Hertz, 1932, P 42) The institutions not only
supplied sheet music in braille, but also the necessary textbooks
on the theory and history of music. During the latter half of
the nineteenth century numerous blind musicians were trained
at various institutions, and they eventually excelled as
organists, teachers, performers and composers, among others
Wolstenholme, Hollins and Greenwood from Britain; Vierne, Marchal
and Langlais from France; Rodrigo from Spain; Hertz and Braun
(from Austria; Maitland, Beetz· and Farley from the United States
and Van Velden, De Lange and Matthews from the Republic of South
Africa.
3.1 A general increase in musical activity
In the United States the second and third decades of the century
witnessed a notable expansion of high-school music education,
particularly in instrumental music. Class instruction was
originally given for the violin and later for other instruments.
Many school administrators were won over to support instrumental
music by the performances of the first National High School
Orchestra (1926). The contest-festival movement helped to
establish performance standard~ for choirs, bands, orchestras,
small ensembles and soloists. (Apel, 1973, p 555)
Since the nineteen-twenties a general widening of musical activity
became apparent in schools in the United Kingdom. The result
141
was percussion bands for the young, class teaching for piano
and a variety of other instruments, school orchestras, opera
workshops and oratorio performance, melody composition by
children, the addition of instrumental and theoretical music
as an optional subject to syllabuses for the various School
Leaving Certificates, the introduction and general use of the
gramophone, followed by the tape recorder in schools, the
broadcasting of lessons initially on the radio [and later on
television], special concerts with demonstrations of orchestral
instruments for children and holiday courses for teachers. The
colleges and universities also added to their curricula schemes
of study in musical educational method as'part of the professional
training, as well as instituting diplomas in various branches
of school music. (Scholes, 1956, p 317)
In the Republic of South Africa the four provincial performing
arts councils were established in 1963 to promote theatre, opera,
ballet, and music nation-wide to both adult and youth audiences.
The four organizations have contributed considerably toward.
creating a broadly theatre conscious public in the Republic of
South Africa. (South African Digest, 4 March 1988, p 1) In
the wake of these councils followed the forming of several youth
orchestras and youth choirs.
The general increase in musical activity also affected the
education of the blind.
142 '
3.2 Modern approaches to music education
In the latter half of the twentieth century music education in
all branches has been strongly influenced by the theories of
the following five music pedagogues.
The Swiss, Emile Jacques-Dalcroze (1865-1950), who de-
veloped a system called eurhythmics, the training of
physical responses to music. (Scholes, 1956, p 534)
The Hungarian, Zoltán Kodály (1882-1967), friend of
Bart6k, who employed sight-singing and dictation fiom
a very early age'. This system is mainly based on, the
use of pentatonic folksongs, the tonic sol-fa with its
hand signs in sight-reading, a rhythmic system of
pneumonic syllables and unaccompanied songs. (Shehan,
1986, pp 59-60)
The German, Carl Orff (1895-1982), with his variety
of percussion instruments, the use of the pentatonic
scale and his Schulwerk for group work (Shehan, 1986,
p 58)
The Japanese, Shinichi Suzuki (1898), with his method
of teaching individual, talented pupils with the concept
of rote-before-note; this system is largely based on
the child being exposed to repeated hearings of the
music before being played, with parental participation
both in the preparation and the lesson situation. (Sadie
ed, 1980, p 386)
143
The American, Edwin Gordon (fl 1971) responsible for
many surveys and research projects in the field of
psychology as applied to music education; his method
is mainly based on distinguishing tonal and rhythmical
patterns in forms of tonality before notation is intro-
duced.
"The ability to distinguish music patterns in terms
of tonality and metre prepares the way for music
hearing." (Shehan, 1986, p 61)
Music education does· not rely on only one of these methods;
a combination or a variety is much more likely to be present
in the process of music t.eacihng in school music programmes and
in individual instrumental instruction:
."There are no universally acceptable methods in music,
but rather a variety of adaptations as diversified as
the skills and interests 9f the multitude of music
.specialists. The infallible method may be a conglomerate
of various practices, based in learning theory and
classroom-tested for its effectiveness. The method
ultimately practiced by the teacher matters not, so
long as it is compatible with the students and draws
forth from children the sensitivity to respond
intelligently to music." (Shehan, 1986, p 73)
Music education for the blind is based along the same lines
as music teaching in public schools. (Ridgeway, 1986)
144
With regard to memorization, it is important to note the
difference in approach - the seeing play to be able to memorize,
while the blind must memorize to be able to play. Beetz declared:
"The blind are analytical in the nature of their musical
conceptions. They become so through methods employed
in teaching them; every note, every duration and every
character is a unit of thought - the seeing's conception
is already synthetical observing the whole, the
ultimate." (Rodenberg, 1932, p 50)
School music programmes at institutions for the blind generally
consist of a variety of the theories of Dalcroze, Kodály and
Orff (Botha, 1987), whi~e instrumental instruction, particularly
at residential schools in the United States is based on group
work. (Ridgeway, 1986) The Suzuki method proves to be very
appropriate to individual instrumental instruction, not only
for the violin, for which it has originally been intended, but
also for the piano and other instruments. (Petersen, 1986)
In music education the ultimate aim is for the pupil to acquire
a substantial degree of musical literacy and to develop
musicality. The maximum development of each pupil on the way
to true musicianship should be the criterium for every music
teacher in school music programmes and in individual instrumental
instruction. (Lavelock, 1937, p 66)
145
4. Integration and its effects on the education and music
training of the blind in the USA, UK and RSA
In this thesis the term integration denotes the integration of
blind children into public (ordinary, day) schools.
Certain psychological and social problems encountered by the
blind in society and ascribed to the institutions, gave rise
to the idea of integrating blind children into public schools:
"The problem that is facing the educators of the blind,
whether they realize it or not, is the task of reshaping
their training so that it will enable the. blind to live.
in harmony with themselves and in mental and social
comfort in the seeing society in which they must
ultimately dwell." (Cutsforth, 1972, P 202)
Leading psychiatrists, sociologists and some pedagogues. are at
present stressing the need of supplying blind children with
privileges such as parental care, home environment and equality
in the community, in order to enhance social integration. George
F Meyer wrote the following:
"Since the establishment of the first public school
class for blind children in Chicago under the direction
of John B Curtis in 1900, the movement has not grown
rapidly, but it has grown steadily. the real
significance of the movement lies in the evidence of
.:
146
the changing philosophy in the education of the blind
and its impact upon accepted procedures in the education
of blind children in residential schools." (Zah I ed,
1962, P 109)
At present integration is common"practice in the United States
and in experimental stages in various countries, "among others
the United Kingdom and Western Europe. (Pauw, 1987) The
arguments in favour of integration are clearly defined by Maynard
C Reynolds:
"Deep structural changes are occurring in school programs
for handicapped children. The move is away from simple
categorization and labeling, institutionalization,
assumed dependence, isolation, and infantilization,
and toward more consideration of what is unique about
each individual, mainstreaming, independent living,
broad community understanding, acceptance of the
handicapped as persons, and training for adulthood.
This is more than a minor pendulum swing or a temporary
enthusiasm. It is a basic and long-standing change."
(Mitzel ed, 1982, pp 762-763)
The blind child who has no other disability, is expected to enrol
and receive his education at the public school nearest to his
home. (Freedman, 1986)
147
Since the first day school classes for the blind were started
in London in 1879 and in Chicago in 1900, experiments with various
types of integration were carried out in the United Kingdom and
the United States. At least six models have been applied at
various stages in different countries.
The blind child is enrolled at the public (ordinary,
regular, day) school for sighted pupils nearest to his
home; this can result in only one or two blind children
in a public school.
A special class is established at certain schools;
the special class accommodates blind children of
different ages and at different stages of development.
A special teacher is appointed to manage the class.
/
It is highly. improbable that all the .blind chi14ren,
under these circumstances, will be able to attend the
special class while staying at home.
If a resource room could be provided, with a qualified
teacher to take special care of the blind pupils, they
might be able to attend ordinary classes in a public
school.
For his secondary education a blind child enrols at
the public school n~arest to his home, provided that
his elementary education has been supplied by a special
school for the blind.
148
It can be arranged for pupils of normal intelligence
at a special school for the blind, to take some or all
the subjects at a nearby public school. Under these
circumstances, the blind children will be residing in
the hostel and will be assisted by a special teacher
with their prepar~tion work after school hours.
The blind child may attend a public school if provision
can be made for a special teacher to visit him
periodically.(Pauw, 1987)
The financial aspect will probably· be the decisive factor in
determining which model of integration is to be implemented.
However, the interest of the blind child must always be considered
as the primary objective. Ultimately the blind child must be
provided with all the necessary facilities and aided by
knowledgeable teachers.
While it is clear that the image of the blind will be improved
and the negative effects of the blind community with all the
ensuing problems avoided by integration, it is equally true that
the blind musician will be adversely affected, because no
provision is made for the instruction of braille music, and
individual instrumental instruction will be the responsibility
of music teachers without special training. The result of
integration, as it affects the blind musician, is already evident
in the United States. (Questionnaires USA, 1986)
149
In the United Kingdom integration is still in an experimental
stage with an increasing number of blind children attending public
schools. (Questionnaires UK, 1986)
In the Republic of South Africa the integration of blind children
into public schools is not yet officially implemented. Schools
where visually handicapped children are to be educated, require
trained personnel for the instruction of braille and braille
music, special equipment such as braille machines and facilities
for training in mobility and sport. These requirements will
entail considerable expense. Decentralization, by which is meant
the distribution of schools for the visually handicapped within
reach of their homes, will be. impractical. The number of blind
White children will . not render decentralization financially
justifiable and the available schools for the visually handicapped
are not open to all races.
The partially sighted who do not use braille, will encounter
few problems in integration. Their image will be, improved when
separated from the totally blind. If provision could be made
for their special needs, such as electronic and optical devices,
they would only bene~it by integration.
s. Education at residential schools
In the United States residential schools are now solely
responsible for the education of the multiple handicapped and
mentally retarded. Music education at these institutions is
150
mainly confined to group work and under prevailing circumstances
it seems to be adequate. For the blind pupils though, music
as a profession is largely excluded, apart from a very small
number who find a part-time existence in popular music.
(Ridgeway, 1986)
In the United Kingdom some prestigious institutions are still
holding their own, but they will probably find it increasingly
difficult to cope with the modern trend of integration. The
obvious answer would be to reconstitute the institutions as
specialized centres in time to come. (Questionnaires UK, 1986)
In the Republic of South Africa integration has not been
introduced officially, .and all the institutions are functioning
as residential schools with the necessary facilities for the
various population groups. (Van der Poel, 1987)
6. Future education
The solution of the education for the blind, and particularly
the training of blind musicians, is to be found in some form
of compromise; integration supplemented by specialized training.
This can be achieved in either of the following two ways
Specialist schools for the blind, functioning as day
schools, not as blind communities;
Integration into public schools, relying on the aids,
facilities and personnel of institutions for specialized
training when required.
151
In both these instances parental care, home environment, group
activity, social integration with the seeing, a well-trained
(
personnel with the necessary experience and dedication, access
to all the special facilities and equipment, vocational guidance
from knowledgeable persons, a sound knowledge of braille and
the use of the braille music code will be available.
In spite of the initial expenditure, the eventual gain will be
very rewarding; an appreciation of these possibilities will
retain and secure not only one of the oldest, but the noblest
profession for the blind.
152
CHAPTER 3
SYSTEMS OF READING AND WRITING
1. The pre-braille era
1.1 A historical survey
Since the time of Didymus of Alexandria (308-398 AD) until 1784,
when Valentin Hauy established the first school, all education
for the blind was directed at the individual and undertaken by
pri vate tutors. During those fourteen hundred years the blind,
who eventually succeeded in attaining some form of education,
were compelled to acquire a knowledge of letter formation used
by the sighted. It was not only highly fashionable, but also
imperative for them, since the knowledge yielded a means of
communication with the outside world. They were expected to
be able to read and write ordinary letters, as well as staff
notation. The. signs were either cut out, incised or used in
relief. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 46)
By employing the alphabet and staff notation of the seeing in
a tangible way, it was feasible to instruct some blind
individuals. The production of books, however, was not yet
undertaken; it was left to Hauy to be the first teacher to
present his pupils with books, using an embossed type of ordinary
letters, following his first student, Fr anco i.s le Sueur I s
accidental discovery of the value of embossed writing. (Wagg,
1932, p 8)
153
Didymus used letters cut out of wood and he arranged them to
form words. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 46) Francisco Lucas of
Saragossa, Spain contrived in 1517 a set of letters carved on
thin wooden tablets; c.. 1550 Girolama Cardano, a physician from
Pavia, Italy, conceived the idea that the blind could be taught
through the sense of touch. (\-Iagg, 1932, p 3) Rampazet to of
Rome taught blind people about 1575 to read by means of letters
incised on thin wooden tablets. They traced the letters with
their fingers. (Wagg, 1932, p 3) In 1640 Pierre Moreau, a notary
from Paris, devised a system of movable raised letters cast in
lead; about the same time Schonberger from Konigsberg in Prussia
employed letters made' of tin. Georg P Har sdo rf f er from Nurnberg
recommended in 1651 the use of tablets covered with a coat of
wax, on to which letters could be formed by means of a stylus.
(Wagg, 1932, p 4) According to Charles GRitter, a wax pencil
was used' by Mirza Rezi of Persia in the seventeenth century to
procure a tangible line. (Zahl ed, 1962, p 391)
In 1670 Francesco Lana-Terzi published his book Prodromo. In
this book he suggested the use of symbols representing the letters
of the alphabet; he became the first person to advocate tne
use of symbols instead of letters for the blind. He also
suggested the use of a frame, the size of a paper sheet, across
which wires or lute strings were fastened, enabling the blind
to write in a straight line. The idea made him the father of
all subsequent machines for writing by the blind. This highly
154
original padre also advocated the use of knots in strings, in
which the distances between the knots could signify the symbolic
value of each letter. (Lowenfeld, 1975, pp 46-48)
The system of knots tied in strings, were already used by the
Peruvians before they were conquered by the Spaniards in the
first half of .the sixteenth century. Some blind people used
the method for correspondence, as for instance the blind musician
Vionville, mentioned by Kretschmer. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 48)
Villey reported that a blind musician, Dumas, wrote his music
by means of pieces of cork, leather and metal threaded on a
string. (Farrell, 1956, p 95)
In· teaching music to the blind, staff notation was always used
in a tangible form. Hermann Rauschning wrote in his
Musikgeschichte der Stadt Danzig:
" jedenfalls st.el Lt die Danziger wachserne Tabulatur
von 1602 ein bedeutsames Denkmal in dem Kampf des blinden
Musikers um das Lesen von Musiknoten dar, das ja erst
im 19. Jahrhundert wieder allgemein durch BrailLe in
Angriff genommen worden ist."
... the Danzig wax tablature of 1602 represents a
significant monument in the struggle of the blind
musician in the reading of music notation, which has
only been replaced by Braille in the 19th century.
(Moser, 1956, pIl)
155
These engraved tablatures were probably used by the blind singer,
Thomas (1556-1559), attached to the Marienkirche, as well as
by the blind organist, .Jakob Schmidt, who worked there from
1602-1610. (Maser, 1956, pp 10-11)
Blind people engaged in a wide range of activities on their own,
frequently without the benefit of any formal education. If they
had educational opportunities, they and their teachers guided
by them, had to improvise the means of instruction used in
reading, mathematics and music. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 49) Nicholas
Saunderson (1682-1739), blind from infancy, became a professor
of mathematics at the university of Cambridge.' About 1707 he
invented a board to be used by the blind for working problems
in arithmetic and algebra. (Wagg, 1932, p 5)
1.2 Methods applied in teaching the blind to read and write
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries various methods
were applied in some European countries to educate the blind.
The tutors of the blind incised the alphabet on pieces of wood.
The blind traced this initially with their fingers and eventually
with a pencil. The method enabled the blind to write correctly,
even with ink. They sometimes used a ruler or some other device,
such as two parallel movable strips, often made of tin plates,
to guide them in writing straight. Some of them used an embossed
script, by pinpricking the shapes of the letters through heavier
paper than that which was normally used for print. When their
correspondents wrote to them, they also had to use the method
of pinpricking in order to enable the blind to read the letters.
156
The blind were taught music by means of notes in relief placed
on raised lines on a wooden board. This was the way in which
Elisabeth Waldkirch (1660), Mélanie de Salignac (1741-1773),
Maria Theresia Paradis (1759-1824) and others were taught. (Wagg,
1932, p 4; Lowenfeld, 1975, p 60)
1.3 The preamble to braille
In 1808 captain Charles Barbier, a French artillery officer,
capitalized on the suggestion by Lana-Terzi. He invented an
arrangement of lines and dots to be used at night for,military
purposes. In 1821 Barbier tried to persuade the authorities
at the Paris institute for the blind to adopt his system for
the use of the blind. Due to 'its phonetic limitations, this
night writing- (sonography) was not found to be the answer to
the problems of the blind, but it paved the way for a blind
teacher at the Paris L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles,
Louis Braille (1809-1852), to construct his system of raised
dots. (Henri, 1952, p 58)
2. The braille system
,
In 1829 Louis Braille published his Procédé pour Ecrire les
Paroles, la Musique et la Plain-Chant au Moyen de Points, based
on the raised six dots cell with its sixty-three possible
arrangements representing the alphabet, punctuation marks and
numerals. The braille system was an entirely new concept, in
no way related to ordinary print.
157
Braille also devised an entirely new music code, revised by
himself during the following five years. The braille music code
provides an exact copy of printed music including notes, duration,
phrasing, fingering and dynamics. No staff is being used, but
as in the case of literature, various symbols are constructed
with diverse functions.' (Kruger, 1986, pp 39-47) It took nearly
sixty years for this unique and practical system to gain
acceptance. In 1854, two years after Braille's death, it was
accepted in France, and eventually in 1888 at an international
conference of France, Britain, Germany and Denmark at Cologne.
(Krolick, 1979, p 13)
3. Alternative printing systems
In the meantime, the first embossed books were brought from France
to England in 1821. (Wagg, 1932, p 4) In 1827 James Gall from
Edinburgh printed the first books for the blind in Britain, using
Roman capital letters in relief. (Wagg, 1932, pIS) Dr Edmund
Fry's alphabet appeared in 1832, consisting of ordinary. capital
letters, denuded of all small strokes, but it did not gain much
support. (Wagg, 1932, p 17) In 1838 the Society of Arts for
Scotland awarded their silver medal -to mr John Alstone for his
tables, wi. th wood-cut ill ustrations, and his musical catechism,
with tunes, printed in relief, ... (Wagg, 1932, p 20) In the
same year mr Lucas, a gentleman frbm Bristol, invented an embossed
type for the blind, and from 1842 the Scriptures and secular
158
works in Lucas type were distributed in England and even sent
to some of her colonies. (Wagg, 1932, p 19, 22) In 1847 dr
William Moon founded Moon's Institute for the Blind for the
printing of literature in Moon Type. (Hagg, 1932, p 25) These
alternative systems were never seriously considered for music
notation.
l Dr Thomas R Armitage, a highly intelligent blind man, introduced
braille to England in 1868. He, together with his committee
of blind men, made an exhaustive study of all the available
systems and found braille to be far superior to any other type.
In the same year they founded the British and Foreign Association
for the Blind; which became the National Institute for the Blind
in 1914, and subsequently the Royal National Institute for the
Blind. (Bolton, 1987, p 45) The Association issued its first
explanatory notes on braille in a pamphlet which appeared in
1871. (Wagg", 1932, p 47)
In 1871 a Guide to Institutions and Charities for the Blind,
published by messrs Turner and Harris, disclosed that in England,
thirty-eight institutions used Moon type, seven Lucas type, four
Roman type, four Alstone type, three Frere type and only four
braille. (Wagg, 1932, p 47)
In the United States the situation was not very different from
159
that in England. Before the eventual introduction of any
punctographic system, the various directors of institutions for
the blind tended to support their own systems of embossed writing.
Samuel Gridley Howe, the director of the famous Perkins Institute
for the Blind, Boston, Massachusetts, was no campaigner for
braille. Although Howe learned about braille during his visit
to Paris, he did not support the system, on account of its
difference from print. He developed the Boston Line Letter,
a form of ordinary writing, embossed for use by the blind.
(Vaughan, 1987) The rivalry in the United States continued,
even after the introduction of braille; some used New York
Braille and others American Braille:
"From 1911 American libraries used English braille,
but it was not until 1918 that some sort of compromise
was reached with this country [Britain, on the use of
Standard English Braille for literature]." (Bolton,
1987, p 47)
Eventually, however, mainly as a result of the excellent work
done at some European and British institutions for the blind,
braille got the upper hand and superseded all the other systems.
It remains the only viable medium for the blind, rendering them
fully independent in reading and writing. Braille gives the
blind access to the standard classical works, musically and
otherwise, enabling them to be on equal terms with their sighted
colleagues. By means of the braille system, professional blind
musicians can now develop and function according to their ability.
160
4. Uniformity in the braille music code
Since the invention of the raised dot system, it gradually gained
international recognition until it became the ultimate method
of reproducing printed scores for the blind. All the other
systems were abandoned. The only impediments in the braille
system are some minor divergencies in the application of certain
symbols as well as the creation of new symbols to cope with modern
developments, such as avant-garde music.
Many international conferences on the uniformity of braille music
realized since 1888, and at a meeting of the World Blind Union IS
Sub-Committee on braille music, held at Prague in 1985, it was
decided to continue discussions concerning the publication of
a catalogue of music materials available in braille. The
establishment of an International Music Information Centre for
the Blind was also discussed. The Czech musician, dr Jan Drtina,
stressed the need for such a universal policy in a recent article:
"If we start publishing new scores and renew old stock
with a new standardized braille notation we shall waste
neither energy nor resources. The general acceptance
of a standardized brai l.Le notation system at least as
far as signs are concerned, would make the publishing
of scores more productive on a world scale. There could
be a very economical division of labour in the area
between individual countries and printing shops. This
161
would be of considerable economic significance - with
the same financial resources it would be possible to
produce far more ~cores and theoretical works on music.
(Braillorette, May 1987, p 36)
5. Printing presses for the production of'braille music
Several printing houses have, been established in different
lI' countries to supply their blind communities with braille music.
The list represents some of the important, accessible presses:
Asile des Aveugles, 15 Avenue de France, 1000 Lausanne,
Switzerland
Association Valentin Hauy , 5 Rue Duroc, 75007 Paris,
France
Deutsche Zentralbuchdruckerei fur Blinde, Louis Braille
Haus, DDR 7010 ~eipzig, Gustav Adolf Strasse 7, Deutsch-
land
Editora Nacional Braille, Hipolito Yrigoyen 2850, 1207
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Editorial Braille Comite Internacional pro Ciegos,
Mariano Azuela 218, Deleg Cuauhtemoc, 06400 Mexico DF
Fundacao para 0 Livro do Cego no Brasil, Rua dr, Diogo
de Faria 558, Caixo Postal 20384, 04037 Sao Paulo,
Sp Brazil
Impremerie Nationale des Aveugles BeIges, 57 Rue
d'Angleterre, Bruxelles, Belgium
'National Braille Association, 1290 University Avenue,
Rochester, New'York 14607, USA
162
National Braille Press, 88 St Stephen Street, Boston
MA 02115, USA
National Library Service for the Blind, Library of
Congress, Washington DC 20542, USA
Norges Blindeforbund Trykkeri, Rosenkrantzgt 5, Bergen,
Norway
Organizacion Nacional de Ciegos, Jose Ortega y Gasset
18, ~adrid 6, Spain
Pionierskool, 20 Adderley Street, 6850 Worcester, RSA
Royal National Institute for the Blind, 224 Great
Portland Street, London, WIN 6AA, England
Soeurs Aveugles de Saint-Paul, Rue Denfert-Rochereau,
75014 Paris, France
Stamperia Nationale Braille, Aurelio Nicolodi 2, 50131
.Firenze, Italy
Statens Trykkeri og Bibliotek for Blinde, Ronne-
gade 1, Kobenhavn 2100, Denmark
Suid-Afrikaanse Braillemusiekbiblioteek, Pionierskool,
20 Adderley Street, 6850 Worcester, RSA
Svaz Ceskoslovenskych Invalidu Csr, Slepecka Tiskarna
a Knihovna, Krakovska 21, 11517 Praha 1, CzechosloVakia
Verein zur Forderung der Blindenbildung, Bleek-
strasse 26,3000 Hannover-Kirchrode, Deutschland. (Botha,
1985 )
163
CHAPTER 4
INSTITUTIONS
1. The attitude of society toward the blind
The literary legacy of some of the eighteenth century humanistic
philosophers, preceding the French Revolution, Montesquieu
(1609-1655), Voltaire (1694-1778), Rousseau (1712-1778) and
Diderot (1713-1784), was very widely read and gained much
publicity. The political 'result was the French Revolution; the
intellectual effect, the liberation of the human spirit, leading
to logical thinking, .free from the medieval .restrictions imposed
by the church; the social outcome culminated in the stirring
of a general interest in and a genuine concern for the
unprivileged, as well as the realization of a long felt
responsibility toward minority groups. A substantial change
was brought about in the attitude of the community toward certain
prevailing socio-economic conditions. Poverty, unemployment
and illiteracy were regarded as detrimental to the existence
of the human race and subversive to the philanthropical ideals
of liberty, equality and fraternity. This literature, together
with the writings of Goethe (1749-1823), Schiller (1759-1805)
and others, led to the advent of the Romantic movement in music
history and brought about formal education for the blind.
Diderot spent some time in gaol after the publication of his
164
Lettre sur les aveugles in 1749 (Albertyn, 1974, vol 3, p 414),
but his ideals of liberation gained momentum. In his writings
of 1749, and again in 1780, Diderot claimed the blind to be
intellectually above the average, and physically quite capable
of living normal lives. He based his theories on the lives and
achievements of several brilliant blind. individuals. (Booyens,
1981, P 9) Diderot himself gave an account of the education
of Mélanie de Salignac in the addition to his Lettre sur les
aveugles that appeared in 1780. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 60)
1.1 The 'father of the blind
Valentin Hauy was born in 1745 at St Juist, Oese, France and
died in 1822 in Paris. He was a French professor of calligraphy,
and became known as the father of the blind. (The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1974, vol 4, p 955)
Inspired by the works of Diderot, the achievements of the
brilliant Maria Theresia Paradis , and moved by a deep compassion
for the blind in their miserable conditions in France, he took
up their cause. In 1784 he established the first school for
the blind, L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris.
He had to pay his first pupil, Francoi.s Lesueuer, a successful
blind beggar, in an attempt to obtain his co-operation to attend
school. (DSE, 1980, P 68)
Hauy made a fourfold contribution to the education of the blind:
165
He founded the first school for the blind in Paris in
1784. (Barnhart, 1954, p 1941)
He became the first teacher to provide his pupils with
books. He designed a form of italics, cast in lead,
enabling him to reproduce some copies. (DSE, 1980,
p 22)
Hauy had a definite policy for teaching the blind, based
on two concepts, i e bringing formal education to the
blind and training them for employment. (Booyens, 1981,
p 9)
Hauy considered music education of major importance;
he built up an excellent choir which often performed
in neighbouring churches, thus advocating the teaching
of music to the blind. (DSE, 1980, p 23, 24) In 1789
Hauy secured for his blind orchestra a position in the
chapel of the Tuileries. (Wagg, 1932, p 8)
Once the first school for the blind had been founded in Paris,
other countries followed suit. Education and training of the
blind became a reality and before the end of the nineteenth
century various schools for the blind were started in Europe,
the United Kingdom, the United States and several other countries.
Judged by their results, Hauy's achievements were decisive,
spreading, and lasting in their effects. Schoffler (1956)
stated:
"Denis Diderot ignited the idea, Valentin Hauy was the
executor, and Louis Braille provided the means for its
166
consummation. Thus, the prerequisites were provided
in France by which the blind of the world could gain
connection with the social, economic and cultural life
of their time." (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 76)
1.2 The French contribution completed
The philanthropic trends of the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries in which literature played such an eminent part,
subsequently leading to Romanticism in art, also brought about
the first schools for the blind. The period heralded a better
understanding of the social and economical conditions, which
led to an appreciation of the special problems of the blind.
Formal education and specialized training got under way with
a limited attempt at social welfare. The ' arduous struggle of
some ambitious blind intellectuals to rid themselves and their
comrades from ignorance, poverty and idleness was accomplished
and bore fruit in education, respectability and productivity.
For the first time a concerted effort was made by the seeing
and the blind to integrate the latter into the open labour market.
The nineteenth century also realized the invention and
international acceptance of braille. A blind French teacher
at L'Institution des Jeunes Aveugles, Louis Braille (1809-1852),
published his system of raised dots in 1829. The system enabled
the blind to read and write independently, in a unique way,
specially devised for them. The standard classical works were
placed within their reach.
167
2. Schools for the blind
The following list represents the first and some of the important
schools for the blind in various countries.
Paris 1784 L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes
France Aveugles, Valentin Hauy
Liverpool 1791 Edward Rushton, a blind poet
England
Bristol 1793 Messrs Bath aridFox
England
Edinburgh 1793 Rev David Johnston
Scotland
London 1799 School for the Indigent Blind,
England St George's Fields, Southwark,
later the Royal School
for the Blind, Leatherhead,
messrs Boddington, Bosanquet, Ware
and Houlston
Vienna 1804 Johann Wilhelm Klein
Austria
Steglitz 1806 near Berlin, dr August Zeune
Germany
Milan 1807 Caven Michele Barozzi
Italy
Amsterdam 1808 Association of Free Masons
Holland
Prague 1808 A Charitable Society
Bohemia
168
Stockholm 1808 Per Aron Borg
Sweden
St Petersburg 1809 Valentin Hauy
Russia
Zurich 1809 Dr Johann Kaspar Hirzel
Switzerland
Dublin 1810 Protestants
Ireland
Copenhagen 1811 Society of the Chain (Masons)
Denmark
Aberdeen 1812 Ms Cruikshank
Scotland
Dublin 1815 Roman Catholics
Ireland
Brussels 1816 Canonicus Triest
Belgium
Naples 1818 Dominique Martuscelli
Italy
Breslau 1819 Johann Knie
Germany
Barcelona 1820 M Richard
Spain
Glasgow 1826 The Glasgow Asylum for the Blind
Scotland
Belfast 1831 Ulster Institution for the Deaf and
Ireland Blind
169
Boston 1832 New England Asylum for the Blind,
United became Perkins Institute, since
States 1912-13 located at \vatertown, Ma,
first director Samuel Gridley Howe
New York 1832 Institution for the Blind, first
United director TRuss
States
Philadelphia 1833 Pennsylvania Institution for the Blind,
United first director Julius Friedlander,
States moved in 1899 to Overbrook
York 1833 Yorkshire School fOF the Blind, in
England memory of the philanthropist,
William Wilberforce MP
Manchester 1837 Henshaw Asylum, later
England Henshaw's Institute for the Blind
Exeter 1838 The Exeter Indigent Blind School,
England later the West of England Institution
for the Blind, mrs Friend
Liverpool 1841 The Catholic Blind Asylum
England
Nottingham 1843 The Midlands School for the Blind,
England later the Royal Midland Institution
for the Blind, first headmaster
Parr (blind)
Birmingham 1846 Royal Institution for the Blind,
England William Harrold, his daughter Elizabeth
and ms Mary Badger
Sheffield 1859 Royal Institution for the Blind,
England mr Heath
170
Worcester 1866 A College for the Blind Sons of Gentle-
England men, rev R S Blair, in 1872 became
Worcester College for Boys, in 1986
amalgamated with Chorleywood
London 1872 Royal Normal College for the Blind,
England Upper Norwood, first director
Francis Joseph Campbell, at outbreak
of World War II moved to Rowton Castle,
Shropshire, in 1978 to Hereford,
became Royal National College for
the Blind
Kyoto 1878 First School for the Blind and Dumb
Japan
Peking 1879 School for the Blind, rev HilI-Murray
China
Sydney 1880 An Industrial Blind Institution
Australia
(
Worcester 1881 Het Doofstommen en Blinden Instituut
RSA under the auspices of the Dutch
Reformed Church, rev William Murray
and C Rabie, first headmaster
B J G de la Bat
London 1882 RNCB opened the first Kindergarten
England
Boston 1887 First Kindergarten in the USA by
United Anagnos at the Perkins Institute
States
171
Jerusalem 1896 Day school for the blind, ms Ford,
Palestine an American missionary
Alexandria 1898 The first Egyptian school for the
Egypt blind
London 1898 Gardiner's Trust started a lending
England library for braille books to university
students
Chicago 1900 First day centre for blind children,
United public school classes for the blind,
States under the direction of John B Curtis
New York 1905 Association for the Blind, became
United The Lighthouse Music School,
States Winnifred and Edith Holt
Chorleywood 1921 NIB started a college for blind girls,
England first principal ms Phyllis Monk,
amalgamated with and moved to Worcester
College in 1986
Prague 1948 Deyl Music School for the visually
Bohemia Handicapped, first director
dr Jan Drtina, originally founded
as a middle school in 1910
Munchen 1983 Beierische Landschule fur Blinde,
Germany a music school for the visually im-
paired, director A Forstpointner
(Farrell, 1956, pp 32, 63; Booyens, 1981, p 20; Wagg 1932,
pp 9, 10, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 24, 33, 41, 48, 55, 56,
57, 59, 61, 75, 78', 82, 145; Jarvis, 1969, p 36 et seq;
Forstpointner, 1987, p 55)
172
3. The era of the institutions
During the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth centuries,
these schools grew into institutionalized communities, reaching
their peak in the period 1890-1940. Each institution comprised
of a school for formal education, hostels for accommodation,
a centre for specialized vocational training, a sheltered workshop
for the residents incapable of entering the open labour market,
an after-care unit for the aged, a library and a: central depot'
for the distribution of the necessary aids and equipment for
the blind. The institutions were staffed with well-trained
personnel, experienced in special education and aided by the
best available resources for teaching the blind.
Academic and vocational training was given as in ordinary schools,
and all pupils, whether they specialized in music or not, were
subjected to the regular curriculum. Music was sufficiently
stressed in the primary grades to guarantee that the musical
ability of every child would be correctly ascertained and given
the greatest encouragement. (Neiges, 1933, p 49)
"The attainments of the pupil in the lower grades will
determine whether he shall study music as a future
profession, or merely as a means of recreation and pleasure.
This decision is made for the child when he is 12 years
of age, or at the most 14." (Hertz, 1932, p 45)
173
Men and women who devoted their lives to the education and
rehabilitation of the blind, ruled these institutions with
undaunted discipline. They usually decided on the most suitable
career on behalf of each student. They based their judgement
on the personality of the pupil in accordance with his IQ and
his potential for adaptability to society. It was a case of
ability; the students who were capable, were directed into the
open labour market; the rest (the great majority) had to spend
their lives in sheltered workshops within the blind community.
The institutions for the blind were by no means five star hotels
with waiters dishing out education, training, rehabilitation
and social welfare; they were never meant to be. They were
the natural off spri.ngs of the initial experiments of educating
the blind and providing them with the means for a decent living.
During the 1940s the institutions tended to become too large
and over-organized, meanwhile losing their strong grip on the
intellectual blind because of their accumulated responsibilities
toward the deaf-blind, the mentally retarded and the multiple
handicapped. Much of the criticism levelled at the intstitutions,
came from ex-pupils who could not, for some reason or another,
cope with everyday life. The institutions had supplied them
with the necessary education and training and, it was up to them
to succeed in the sighted world. On the part of the institutions,
it can be assumed that they have erred in their judgement of
174
the characters and capabilities of some of the pupil~. Such
criticism, however, does not repudiate the important role played
by the institutions in the liberation of the blind.
3.1 Advantages of institutionalized education
The following advantages in teaching the blind can be ascribed
to the institutions:
Financial investment In the case of centralized in-
stitutions, the capital investment is made only once.
Each of the institutions can be developed at a minimum
cost. Any form ·of decentralization will result in a
considerable increase in capital investment.
A well equipped building - A centráiized institution
complete with all the facilities, will serve a much
better purpose.
The best; available aids - The assemblage of the most
modern equipment is more feasible at some strategic
points than in a decentralized system.
Specialist teachers - The' available specialist teachers
can be more effectively employed at a few centralized
institutions. In the case of integration specialist
personnel will not be easily available. The teachers
at public schools do not have the necessary training
to deal with blind students. It can not be expected
of teachers at an ordinary school to train blind pupils.
A thorough knowledge of braille and braille music
At any institution for the blind, with the specially
175
trained teachers it can be expected of them to have
a knowledge of braille and braille music, enabling them
to assist the young student.
A feeling of security - An institution for the blind
as a base for formal education and specialized training
is in a position of providing the student with a feeling
of security. Surrounded by experts and fellow-students
with a similar affliction, the blind will experience
more understanding and an appreciation of his situation.
This will lead to a more positive approach to his needs.
Preparation work under supervision - This work is only
possible in a hostel with knowledgeable teachérs
to.assist the blind student.
Smaller classes for teachers to control - In special
education the classes are usually smaller; each pupil
receives due attention and assistance.
A central depot - Each institution usually has its own
depot for supplying the necessary aids and equipment
to the blind.
Experience of ex-pupils An institution in contact
with ex-pupils will have experience to rely on.
In a public school each blind student will be a case
on his own.
Libraries - Each institution is equipped with a library
providing the blind student with textbooks and reference
facilities.
176
3.2 Disadvantages of institutionalized instruction
The disadvantages of institutionalized instruction for the blind,
deriving from the assemblage of a blind community, are the
following:
The absence of parental care - Children are sent to
i~stitutions, separated from thei~ homes, placed in
an unnatural environment in which there "is no room for
the influence and care of their parents.
A loss of reality - Clustered in an institution, the
blind may loose contact with the outside world and are
thereby shut off .fr om the community.
Social problems - The assemblage of so many blind pupils
and adults at an institution may lead to various social
problems such as inter-marriage, which is highly un-
desirable.
Maladjustment in the community - When used to a blind
community at an institution, the blind may find it
on leaving, difficult to adapt themselves to society.
4. Music education at institutions
Since Valentin Hauy established the first school for the blind
in Paris in 1784, music education gained recognition as a ver_y
rewarding discipline, as well as a prestigious occupation for
the blind. Music education was fostered during the nineteenth
century at institutions in Europe and the United Kingdom. The
cultural heritage of the British and European nations dominated
177
their educational systems. 0 This can account for the emphasis
placed on music in ordinary schools and especially in schools
for the blind.
In 1843 the annual report of the Henshaw Asylum for
the Blind, Manchester, England stated that the blind
choir had memorized the whole of the psalms. (Wagg,
1932, p 23)
The same choir performed Handel's Messiah in 1851.
(Wagg, 1932, p 26)
Birmingham Institution provided a blind organist
and a blind choir for St James's Church, 1853. In
1915 the record showed that some forty of their pupils
had already obtained posts as organists. (Wagg, 1932,
p 27)
.
4.1 Music education for the blind promoted
Francis Joseph Campbell (1832-1914), a blind music teacher from
Nashville, Tennessee, United States, went to the Perkins
\Institute, Boston, Massachusetts during the last ten years of
his stay in America. He tried to improve music education at
the institution. He had certain preconceived ideas with regard
to music education for the blind and about the viability of music
as a profession for them. He wrote the following:
"When I went to Boston in 1858, I urged that the higher
musical education of the blind should be made a principal
178
feature in the institution, and that in the future the
institution should take the initiative in obtaining
employment for its pupils. I pointed out that the failure
of the blind in the profession of music was due to the
following reasons: (1) In the selection of pupils the
musical ear rather than the mental capacity was considered.
(2) The physical and intellectual powers of the musical
students were not developed. (3) The musical instruction
was insufficient both in quantity and qualitr. (4) The
opportuni ty of hearing music in its highest farms was not
afforded them. As an experiment a test was made with a
class of twenty pupils. The candidates were first examined
in literature, history, mathematics, etc., and if they did
not show at least average mental capacity their musical
qualifications were not tested. The twenty were selected,
the training gi.veri , and nineteen out of the twenty became
not only self-sustaining, but men and women of great activity
and usefulness." (Illingworth, 1910, p 127)
On leaving America in 1869, Campbell visited several music schools
in Europe. In the meantime, dr Armitage from England, visited
the L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris. He
was surprised to find that music formed such an important and
integral part of their education. He ascertained that about thirty
179
per cent of the pupils of the institution made quite a substantial
living from music; in Britain at that time, it was not one per
cent. (Illingworth, 1910, p 93)
In 1872 the Royal Normal College for the Blind was established
at Upper Norwood, London by Francis Joseph Campbell assisted
by dr Thomas Rhodes Armitage. Henceforth Britain would set an
example for the rest of the world in music education for the
blind. This institution supplied a constant flow of well-trained
blind music teachers and organists, not only to the United
Kingdom, but also to many of h~r colonies, such as South Africa,
Canada and Australia. No wonder that Francis Joseph Campbell
was knighted in 1909, three years before his, retirement. He
accomplished in England that which he could not achieve in the
United States - the founding of an institution for the blind
where music education was to receive top priority.
In 1930 the Royal Normal College for the Blind announced that
since 1901, 29 of their ex-pupils had been awarded the honour
of FRCO, 67 that of ARCO, together with 5 first and 7 second '
prizes which had been won in music competitions with sighted
candidates. (Wagg, 1932, p 176)
This feat was a direct result of the immense influence exerted
by the founder of the college, on music education for the blind.
Music in the lives of the blind was exploited to the full. Music
180
was not only considered and fostered as the most honourable
profession for the blind, but the intrinsic value of classical
music was applied to enrich the aesthetic experience of the blind
in general.
4.2 A professional blind choir
In 1935 an amateur choir of visually handicapped members was
formed in Sofia, Bulgaria. On account of its success the' choir
of the Union of the Blind was able to achieve professional status
in 1948 by the order of comrade Georgi Dimitrov, the Bulgarian
president at that time.
The choir was unique, being in 1987 the only choir in the world
composed entirely of visually impaired people. There were sixty
members, thirty-two women and twenty-eight men. Their ages ranged
from eighteen to sixty years. Members of the choir were paid
a salary, and most of them made the choir their main career;
some joined after leaving the special schools for the visually
handicapped, others joined later. They had daily rehearsals
of three hours, five days per week, with extra rehearsals before
important concerts. The following was written with regard to
the quality of their performances -
"Their good technique was admirably displayed by
excellent intonation, rhythm, diction, phrasing and
181
truly expressive and inspired singing. They sang with
and without accompaniment and their repertoire of over
700 works ranges from exciting Bulgarian folk music,
through the classics to contemporary and light music
... The choir has been directed since 1962 by the
51-year-old Stojan Babekov, who is totally blind. He
graduated at the Bulgarian State Conservatoire in Sofia
and has some compositions to' his credit," (Salt, 1987,
plO)
4.3 A new music school for the blind
In 1948 the Dey1 Middle School for the Visually Handicapped
in Prague was reconstituted to serve as a music school for the
blind. After twenty-one years, the Deyl Music School produced
167 blind music teachers operating in public schools in
Czechoslovakia. These musicians taught piano, organ, accordion,
violin, flute,: trumpet, French horn, guitar and singing. (Jarvis ,
1969, p 28 et seq)
4.4 A professional blind symphony orchestra
It was reported from Buenos Aires that a fully professional
symphony orchestra had been founded, consisting of sixty blind
players. Only four or five of them were partially sighted, the
rest were totally blind. This blind symphony orchestra was unique
in the world. The orchestra, fully .professional, provided
fulltime employment to all its members. The orchestra undertook
several tours and was invited to Europe. A critic reported:
182
"that attack was unanimous, and ensemble first rate,"
(Braille Music Magazine, July 1980, p 8)
The sighted Argentinian ·born conductor, Braude, who was trained
in the United States, regarded this phenomenon as one of the
triumphs of his career. He declared:
"if job satisfaction means anything, this really is
it." (Braille Music Magazine, July 1980, p 9)
4.5 The blind as organist
On account of the contribution to organ playing by the famous
organists, Páuman~, Schlick and others, who lived since the
fifteenth century, educators such a.s Valentin Hauy and Francis
Campbell stressed the importance of music in their education
for the blind. Their policy resulted in a long-standing tradition
of blind organists being active and respect ed in Europe and the
United Kingdom. The American, Robert B Irwin, wrote the following
in 1962:
"Music also offers more opportunity for the blind than
in America. Apparently musical ability in Europe is
more likely to be given its due recognition in spite
of the blindness of the performer. Hundreds of churches
in France employ blind organists. While few of these
organists draw large salaries, their position gives
them a prestige in the community which helps them greatly
183
in obtaining private music pupils. Many are also trained
piano tuners, and supplement their modest salaries by
doing this work." (Zahl ed, 1962, p 52)
The difference in attitude toward music education for the blind
in the United States can probably be ascribed to the fact that
public schools do not generally provide individual instrumental
instruction to their pupils (Questionnaires USA, 1986). Because
blind pupils in the United States attend public schools, they
have to arrange with private teachers for their music instruction.
Previously, when blind children in the United States attended
institutions for the blind, they had the same opportunities as
blind children in the United Kingdom and Europe (Railo , 1986).
The cultural background of the Europeans, where the aesthetic
value of classical music formed an integral part of education
for the blind, also served as incentive to music as a profession.
(Zahl ed, 1962, p 52)
The tradition of the blind serving as organists in various
churches, is still upheld in the United Kingdom (Questionnaires
UK, 1986) and to a lesser extent in the Republic of South Africa.
In spite. of good salaries paid. to church organists, the blind
in the United States were never really keen to occupy these
positions. (Eldridge, 1986)
184
5. The future
If policy makers and leading educators of the various educational
boards are to be persons who have esteem for music and the fine
arts, the spiritual and emotional development of the sighted
and the blind child will be safe.
In Europe and the United Kingdom, where education is deeply rooted
in the tradition and cultural heritage of classical music,
painting, literature and architecture, the influence of the past
can help to preserve classical Western music in the future.
In the United States the music of the Blacks is dominating
American culture socially and economically. In an article which
appeared in The New York Times, the author commented on a
publication by mr Martin Williams of the Smithsonian Institute:
"Mr Williams makes no sweeping, peremptory claims for
jazz, beyond the incontrovertible notion that it is
a major contribution of African black men to contemporary
culture and a meeting ground for blacks and whites.
Somewhat more daringly, he calls it a universal music,
the first the world has known. But others have been
less cautious. Jazz is America's principal only?
contribution to world music, some polemicists have
proclaimed; or America's classical music." (Rockwell,
1987, pp 2, 3)
185
The advent of jazz has caused music to be a social activity
closely connected with commercialism. Hith exceptions in
academical circles, popular music has become the vogue.
(Eldridge, 1987)
In the Republic of South Africa classical music is regarded as
the cultural heritage of the Hhites, while the music of the
Indians and the Blacks is confined to the various ethnic groups.
During a recent programme, Microphone-In, on the English radio
service, a discussion was held by some eminent musicians. In
this discussion it has become apparent that the Indian and Black
cultures are expected to exert a strong influence on South African
music in the future. (Radio South Africa, 21 October 1988)
This could cause classical Western music to be less in demand.
186
CHAPTER 5
THE PRESENT POSITION OF BLIND MUSICIANS IN THE UNITED STATES
1. A historical survey
In the United States formal education for the blind has been
given for the last hundred and fifty years. In 1833, the 'year
of Brahms's birth in Germany, and shortly after the invention
of the braille system in France, the first three pioneer schools
for the blind were established, almost simultaneously, in Boston,
New York and Philadelphia, all under private manageinent.(Halsey
r
ed, 1964, p 256)
Since the middle of the nineteenth century several other
insti tuti ons, bearing the responsibility of educating the blind
for the following sixty years, were founded throughout the
country. They operated along the same lines as those in the
United Kingdom and Europe, favouring music education, although
not quite to the same extent as the tradition .set by Hauy.
Eventually, after many discussions, following the rivalry between
various systems, braille was accepted and a number of braille
printing houses were established, .providing braille music to
students and professional musicians.
At about the turn of the century the institutions in the United
States were at their peak, producing such professional musicians
187
as the violinist Edmund Grasse (1884-1954), the teacher Charles
Beetz (b 1886), the composer Roland Farley (1892-1932) and the
choir director Carlton Eldridge (b 1911). They were all
professional musicians, trained at institutions; they used
braille music and were re~pected by their sighted colleagues.
In 1900 the first day centre for blind children to attend public
(ordinary) school classes was started in Chicago, under the
direction of John B Curtis. (Wagg, 1932, p 82) According to
George F Meyer, this innovation did not at first gain much
support. In 1947 the American Printing House for the Blind
reported that some 433 blind children were enrolled at public
schools in about twenty different cities. (Zahl ed, 1962, p
109)
2. The decline of the institutions
The institutions fell into disrepute, not because of their
inadequacy but, in dividing and broadening their attention to
cope with all the facets of the blind 'human being, the emphasis
was placed on rehabilitation and not on specialized training.
The blind intellectual student was regarded as capable of
succeeding without special training for his profession. In the
meantime, the. blind students who felt that they were being
neglected, attended ordinary schools and arranged for their
musical training like the blind did before the establishment
of institutions. An increasing number of blind students attended
public schools, where they encountered great difficulties in
188
music instruction by teachers who had no knowledge of braille
music or any experience in training blind musicians with
autogenous problems. The institutions ended up with a stigma
attached to them; eventually they became responsible for the
care of the multiple handicapped, the deaf-blind and the mentally
retarded. Everything that went wrong with the blind in society
were blamed on the institutions. In the book, The Blind in School
and Society-a psychological study, the following was written:
"Many years ago the schools for the blind achieved their
immediate goal of fur ni sh.ing an' adequate literary
education for the blind. Since that time most of their'
energy has been spent in a refinement of method and
institutional organization, with no definite purpose
beyond that of creating the typical, efficient
institution. The creative spirit in the education of
the blind in America died with Samuel Gridley Howe in
1872. In short,' they are so absorbed in the
maintenance of the integrity of toe institutions with
their methodologies and mores that they .have lost sight
of the blind individuals, of the fact that each pupil
represents a separate and individual social problem
instead of another justification for the existence of
an institution which social practice and tradition have
perpetuated." (Cutsforth, 1972, pp 199-200)
189
3. Integration of blind children into ordinary schools
The institutions were brought into discredit about the middle
of the twentieth century. After compulsory racial in tegra tion
by Federal Law in 1964, mainstreaming was to follow. Public
Law 94-142, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of
1975, mandates that all handicapped children be provided with
r
an opportunity to receive a free appropriate public education,
no matter how severe their handicap. (Mitzel ed, 1982, p 1072)
The result is that most blind children enrol at public schools
where they receive the same education as the seeing. This new
trend of mainstreaming can be defined as follows:
"A policy of educating children with handicaps or special
learning needs in normal classes along with children
who have no such handicaps or needs." (Rowntree , 1981,
p 164)
4. The present situation
In the United States there is no single governing board
responsible for the education or training of the blind. Every
state has its own agencies, sometimes incorporated with the
education department, and in some cases with the rehabilitation
agencies. The' Federal Government provides the money, and each
state is responsible for the education of all the people living
within its boundaries. There is a loose co-ordination of policy,
whereby voluntary organizations of principals and personnel of
190
residential schools for the blind, approximately one per state,
are formed. Institutions for the blind, with all their
facilities, acquired techniques in teaching the blind, trained
teachers in special education, available aids, a record and
experience amounting to more than one and a half century, are
presently responsible for the education of the severely
handicapped and mentally retarded: The result is that many blind
students avoid the institutions. (Freedman, 1986)
The majority of visually impaired children in the United States
attend public school al though they can attend residential school
facilities throughout the country. (Grayson, 1986, p 6) The
law for education reads that, except for circumstances like severe
retardation, every child has the opportunity to attend the school
closest to his home. (Freedman, 1986) The Law also requires
that a handicapped child shall be educated in the least
restricti ve environment, often a regular classroom at a public
school. (Grayson, p 6)
According to the American Printing House for the Blind, there
were approximately 32 000 legally blind children in Kindergarten
through twelfth grade and, as estimated by the Office for the
Blind and Visually Impaired, about 6 000 blind college and
university students in the United States. (Grayson, 1986, p
2) Another projection was that there had been 18 196 blind
children enrolled at public schools, about 11 340 blind students
at colleges and universities and 4 198 blind children attending
residential schools in 1984. (Huebner 1986)
191
5. The Lighthouse Music School
The Lighthouse Music School, established in 1905, is a day school.
It provides music education for the blind integrated in public
schools in the New York area. The enrolment during 1986 was
150, extending from nursery age children to senior citizens in
their seventies. There is a correspondingly wide range in musical
ability, from those with modest aptitude, to those who are
potential professional musicians. They are motivated to study
music for many different reasons. With the youngsters it is
a matter of begi?ning a musical education early in their
development. The newly blinded adult often studies music as
a leisure time activity. The retired individual comes because
he has wanted to study music and only now finds that he has ample
time.(The Lighthouse News, Summer 1972, p 1)
Although braille music is studied in some cases at the Lighthouse
Music School, playing from memory with the aid of tapes, is very
popular, particularly with students in the popular field of music.
\.Jiththe development of jazz, music as entertainment has become
an integral part of American society. The aesthetic value of
classical music has been replaced by the financial gain in the
popular field.
"Today, music serves a three-fold purpose in the
educational program of blind persons.
192
1 - For a small group, it is training for an eventual
career [almost exclusively in the popular field].
2 - For a somewhat larger group, it is therapeutic,
especially for persons who lose their sight late
in life.
3 - For the great majority, it is cultural enrichment
[a social activity].
And it is in this three-fold way that the Lighthouse
Music School serves its students today."(T he Lighthouse
Music School brochure, May 1965, P 4)
The great diversity among the students requires that the staff
is guided by a flexible approach in the manner 'of teaching -
one which meets the needs of many people.(Bennette, 1986).
A materialistic approach, together with a flexibility and
diversi ty in music teaching leads to a depreciation of classical
music in the curricula at institutions for the blind. Music
is no longer regarded as the foremost profession for the blind.
Music as an aesthetical subject has given way to music as a social
activity. A sound knowledge of braille music is no longer
required; it has to a great extent been replaced by the use
of the tape recorder.
193
6. Supporting organizations for the blind
The following organizations, mostly voluntary and serving as
welfare agencies, are active in the United States.
The American Foundation for the Blind (AFB) is a private,
nonprofit agency, established in 1921 to collect and
disseminate information, to carry on research, and to
advise and give counsel on matters that improve and
strengthen services to blind persons. (Grayson, 1986,
p 7)
A special music Jibrary for blind and visually handicap-
ped individuals was created by the United States Congress
in 1962. This National Library Service (NLS) is located
in Washington DC as part of the Library of Congress.
It provides braille, recorded books and magazines to
visually. impaired citizens of the United States, and
the music collection consists of more than 30 000 titles,
containing braille music scores, braille books about
music, recorded self-instructional courses, books,
demonstrations, and other educational materials on
cassette and disc; as well as large print music scores
and books about music. (Music Library brochure, pp 1,
2, 3) The National Library Service is now the only
supplier of braille music in the United States. The
other printing houses do not produce braille music any
longer. Instead, the NLS buy braille music books from
194
abroad and employ numerous private music transcribers,
who are paid to transcribe braille music on request.
The braille music collection of this library is probably
the largest in the world. (Emanuel, 1986)
The National Association of Blind Teachers (NABT) is
a nonprofit organization, which depends entirely on
membership dues and gifts. (Cargill, 1983, p Ill) A
directory of blind teachers in the United States was
compiled and completed in 1983 by the NABT. The number
of teachers listed is 222. According to estimates by
some authorities, there should be about another 1 500
blind teachers active in the United States, of whom
there is no record as yet. (Eldridge, 1983, pI) Table
. II in this directory shows that only 10,8 per cent of
the blind teachers in the United States are active in
music, art and piano tuning. (Cargill, 1983, p 128)
7. An analysis of the current situation
The relatively small contribution by the blind to music in the
United States, which came to light in research for this thesis,
led to an on the spot investigation in 1986 by the author. The
research project included twenty-five interviews with officials
at the American Foundation for the Blind in New York, the National
Library Service in Washington DC, the National Association of
Blind Teachers in Springfield, Illinois, some educators, a
headmaster.of a residential school in Macon, Georgia, the director
,
of The Lighthouse Music School in New York and some fifteen blind
195
musicians and teachers. To lend further credibility to the
research project, thirty-five questionnaires were posed to
professional blind musicians, which resulted in a hundred per
cent feedback. The co-operation and enthusiasm for this project
among the officials and blind musicians in the United States
were astounding. Information compiled during the research project
showed, after analysis, an alarming decline in the contribution
made by professional blind musicians toward the development of
music in the United States. This can be inferred from statistics
at the end of this chapter. The reasons for the diminishing
role can be ascribed to the following:
In.the face of a financial crisis,'inflation and economic
recess, an overall cut in government expenditure can
be expected. The fine arts, being regarded as luxuries,
are very vulnerable in such a situation. Fewer vacancies
will be available in the Federal and State Civil
Services.
In the event of unemployment, a candidate with a handicap
will find it more difficult to secure a new ppsition.
During an economic recess the general public will spend
less money, especially on music lessons, these not being
essential for the struggle to survive.
The rise and popularization of jazz and other styles
of music used as entertainment, have a very strong
attraction, by no means confined to blind musicians
only. In the majority of cases musicians take to popular
music for financial gain.
196
Coping with autogenous problems, due to their impediment,
many blind people find it difficult to adjust themselves
to a normal life in society. Aided by a proper training,
this problem can be alleviated, but very little is done
to this effect at the present moment.
A career in classical music is a very hard profession
for any blind person; it requires much perseverance
and self-discipline. If the students are not
sufficiently trained, many of them will discontinue
and resort to occupations less demanding.
When a blind musician is incapable of coping with braille
music, he will rely exclusively on his memory, employing
his aural perception, often without any specialized
training. This method is highly undesirable in the
teaching profession and is more easily applied in the
field of popular music.
Integration of blind children into public schools has
resulted in their being illiterate with regard to the
braille music code.
An inadequate training in braille music is one of the
fundamental reasons why so few blind musicians in the
United States, particularly among the younger generation,
are interested in posts as church organists. The average
salary of a church organist in.the United States ranges
from $5 000 up to $30 000 per annum, which can provide
a much better income compared with that in the United
Kingdom, Europe or the Republic of South Africa.
, 197
Until recently every school for the blind offered in-
dividual instruction in piano, organ, various other
instruments and voice. In public schools, which most
normal blind children nowadays attend, very little if
any provision is made for indivi.dual instrumental
instruction.
Many blind persons are supporting themselves, and have
been enriched by being exposed to good music in their
formative years. Ray Charles, the well-known singer
and pianist of popular music, appeared on a television
show called Sixty Minutes, wher;e he stated emphatically
that his great love for music was cultivated during
his education at the Georgia School for the Blind, where
he was submitted to the influence of classical music.
Now that the enrolment at schools for the blind is
changing, certain policy makers feel that music should
play a lesser part in the lives of the blind.
Due to commercialism, enhanced by television and the
radio, there is a shift in cultural values at the expense
of spiritual and emotional development.
Insufficient training in staff notation is a crucial
deficiency in music education for the blind. The
inability to recognize and rectify on the part of the
perso~s responsible for the training, is incredible.
In modern society, due to the development of science
198
and technology, music is no longer accepted as the only
or most viable occupation for the blind. Hany of the
blind, especially those who are not properly versed
in the use of braille music, take to less demanding
vocations.
The two existing American music magazines for the blind,
Overtones (published by The Lighthouse Husic School
---
in New York) and The Musical Mainstream (published by
the National Library Service (NLS) in Washington DC),
provide excellent reading material. Both these
publications supply announcements of new publications
in braille, as well as offering a wide general knowledge
in music. However, more publicity can be given to blind
musicians, particularly those in classical music. These
two magazines can and must be employed to serve, not
only the layman, but also the professional, with less
emphasis on popular music and more on serious music
as an occupation. An appropriate example can be found
in the British equivalent, the Braille Nusic Magazine.
This authoritative music periodical is published since
1909 by the Royal National Institute for the Blind
(RNIB) , London. Despite various editors, all of whom
having given a very personal character to the magazine,
a close contact has been kept with past and present
blind musicians in the United Kingdom. Apart from
relevant articles on music education and other
interesting material, usually taken from daily newspapers'
199
or some leading British music magazine, the Braille Music
Magazine also presents announcements and reviews of concerts
and conferences, obituaries, a column for letters by the
readers, advertisements, as well as notices of vacancies
and competitions. In short, more recognition is given to
the part played by blind teachers, composers and performers
on the musical scene in the United Kingdom, as will be
evident in the following chapter of this thesis.
The diminishing role of blind musicians in the United States
has become apparent by means of questionnaires in which the
opinions of the respondents are reflected. (Appendix A, 1986)
8. Statistics based on questionnaires employed in research
for this thesis
8.1 The respondents who started their education as totally
blind represented 77,8% and the visually impaired 22,2%.
8.2 Residential schools were attended by 59%; public schools
by 34% , while 7% attended residential and public schools,
totalling 41% who had some experience of integration.
8.3 The persons who attended residential schools learned their
braille at the institutions. As for the rest, 73% received
their braille instruction from resource teachers, 9% learned
braille later in life, and 18% never mastered braille at
all. According to these figures it is possible that a large
number of blind children, attending public schools,
200
are denied the opportunity of aquainting themselves
with braille music.
8.4 At school level 85% used braille music, the other 15%
managed somehow, mainly by relying on their memories.
8.5 The music teachers of 59% knew braille music, teachers
of 11% knew very little about braille music, while 30%
were taught by music teachers who had no knowledge of
braille music. These figures reveal the deficiency
in the integration system, preparing blind musicians
without any knowledge of braille music.
8.6 Music instruction at school level included the following
instruments - piano 92%, organ 41%, violin 33%, clarinet
7%, trumpet 7%, flute 4%, French horn 4%, guitar 3%.
The statistics show the popularity of piano, but also
the relatively low percentage studying the organ, which
used to be a popular instrument with the blind.
8.7 At school level 63% received .tuition in theory, 67%
in harmony, 36% in history of music and only 44% in
staff notation. The statistics for theory and staff
notation are very low, providing the answer why so few
of the students have taken to teaching. These findings
reflect not only on integration, but also on the
institutions where theory and staff notation - of utmost
importance to prospective blind musicians - are to be
taught on a much larger scale. Without a thorough
knowledge of theory and staff notation, it is impossible
for a blind music teacher to be successful in his
201
profession, especially in teaching sighted children.
8. 8 At university level 93% used braille music, 4% large
print, while 3% relied on their memories and tape
recorders.
8. 9 Music instruction at university level was received in
the following instruments - piano 81%, organ 33%, singing
37% , violin 22%, clarinet 19%, trumpet 18%, cello 7%,
flute 7%, trombone 8%, percussion 8%, French horn 4%,
viola 4%, guitar 3%. The low rating of organ as a second
instrument is obvious.
8.10 In their profession 85% used braille music, 15% relied
on their memories, using tape recorders or employing
persons to play the music to them, thu~ forfeiting their
independence.
8.11 Permanent teaching posts were occupied by 44%; 33%
taught sighted children and 67% blind children.
8.12 Only 11% had any experience of teaching school music.
8.13 A meagre 11% were employed as church organists, the
profession in which so many blind musicians in the past
excelled. It is significant to compare the salaries
of organists in American churches with those in the
United Kingdom and the Republic of South Africa. In
1986.the following salaries were quoted by respondents:
United States: $5 000 - $30 000 p a,
United Kingdom: £600 - £800 p a,
Republic of South Africa: R3 000 P a.
202
8.14 Only 33% had any experience of conducting. This in-
dicates one of the weak spots in the music education
of the blind.
8.15 Music magazines were read by 66%, those supplementing
their training with the latest on the musical scene.
The statistics do not show a great desire on the part
of some musicians to improve their knowledge; little
interest in their musical magazines may be one reason.
8.16 Refresher courses were attended regularly by 30%, oc-
casionally by 14%, while 56% never attended courses.
8.17 The musicians interviewed and, questioned, ranged from
'42 to 75 years with the average being 54,' representing
men and women of considerable experience.
8.18 The ave rage teaching experience was 27 years, furnishing
the musicians with a knowledge of the problems
encountered by the blind.
8.19 As to mobility, 73% used canes, 14% were assisted by
friends, relatives or partners and 13% used guide dogs.
8.20 Statistics showed that 92,5% were academically qualified;
81% had Bachelor degrees and 48% Master degrees, while
7% graduated from the Juilliard School of Music.
8.21 In individual instruction discipline presented but few
difficulties. Group teaching posed problems to the
blind teachers. A solution of disciplinary problems
lies in the endeavour to stimulate and secure the
interest of the pupils. (Questionnaires USA, 1986)
203
8.22 Controlling the written work of sighted children can
be managed with the help of advanced pupils, colleagues,
friends or partners. The system of the pupils exchanging
books and the teacher supplying the correct answers,
as applied in the normal class situation, can be
successfully implemented.
8.23 The training of blind musicians during the past forty
years was described by 18% as having improved and by
82% as having deteriorated. In the majority of cases
the blame was put on integration and the absence of
specialized training at residential schools.
8.24 The majority (59%) of blind musicians saw the future
as very bleak, 15% made no comment and 26% were positive,
but they had reservations. They were mainly concerned
about the dw indlLng use of braille music, particularly
among the younger generation attending public schools.
Another concern was the general decline of interest
in classical music.
8.25 In theLr comments on the training of blind musicians,
the respondents were concerned about the insufficient
knowledge of braille music and staff notation. There
was an overwhelming appreciation for the growing demand
for some form of specialized training, as suggested
by 82%.
204
8.26 The training which the musicians had received, were
described by 66% as specialized, by 27% as a social
activity and by 7% as therapy.
8.27 In their profession as music teachers 41% regarded their
teaching as a social activity, 39% as specialized
training, 19% as therapy and 10% as cultural enrichment.
Music as entertainment was given by 41%.
8.28 Public schools tended to moderate instead of develop
blind and sighted pupils in all subjects~ Sighted
teachers in public schools did not think blind children
could take music with success. Blind children should
return to their special schools and receive the kind
of education in all areas that would be meaningful to
them. Public schools were not equipped to deal with
the special needs and problems of blind children.
Education for the blind should be reconsidered. If integration
of blind children into ordinary schools be the solution to their
problems, braille music should be given a major role in the
instruction of blind music students. The use of braille should
be made compulsory at all colleges and universities for the blind
embarking on a musical career. If in future, on the other hand,
there is to be a return to some form of ~nstitutionalized
education, allegations against the system cannot be ignored.
205
C HAP TER 6
THE PRESENT POSITION OF BLIND MUSICIANS IN THE UNITED KINGDOM
1. A historical background
The history of blind musicians in the United Kingdom can be traced
back to the activities of the Celtic bards and Ossian, son of
the Caledonian king Fingal , who lived c. 300 AD. The tradition
of the bards'was maintained through the Middle Ages and culminated
in Carolan (1670-1738), who was an itinerant musician, one of
the last, and the most celebrated of the Irish bards. (Lowenfeld,
1975, p 50)
The Welsh harpist, John Parry (1710-1782) and the English
organist, John Stanley (1713-1786), contemporaries and associates
of Handel, were two of the prominent blind musicians who lived
in the period immediately preceding the introduction of formal
education for the blind.
The first school for the blind was established in 1791 at
Liverpool through the instigation of the blind poet, Edward
Rushton (Wagg, 1932, p 9), providing the United Kingdom with
a tradition of nearly two centuries of education for the blind.
A trend of education, similar to that in most of the Western
European countries, was followed. Several of the British
institutions gained international fame, such as A College for
the Blind Sons of Gentlemen, started in 1866, and which became
206
the Worcester College for Boys in 1872, (in 1986 the famous
Chorleywood College for Girls amalgamated with the former, forming
the Worcester College for Boys and Girls); the Royal Normal
College and Academy for the Blind, Upper Norwood, Surrey, founded
in 1872, and which became the Royal National College for the
Blind at Hereford in 1978. (Hoare, 1987; James, 1987)
The British and Foreign Association for the Blind was founded
in London in 1868 by dr Thomas Rhodes Armitage (1824-1890).
The primary objective of the Association was the education and
employment of the blind (similar to the principles of Hauy),
as well as the provision of emboased literature. The braille
system was adopted in 1868 and the Association soon became the
centre for supplying printed books, maps, music, frames for
writing braille and educational apparatus. (Wagg, 1932, p 43)
In 1914 the name of the Association was changed to the National
Institute for the Blind and it eventually became the Royal
National Institute for the Blind. (Wagg, 1932, p 121)
2. The present situation
Currently the Royal National Institute for the Blind (RNIB) is
Britain's largest organization caring for people with little
or no vision. It is governed by ninety-six members, divided
into various· sub-committees, representing the blind from all
over the British Isles. The RNIB relies on covenants, legacies
207
and donations to maintain the services it offers to the 135 000
blind people in the United Kingdom. Today, the Institute spends
about £1 million per annum on the production of braille. (Hoare,
1986)
"We are now starting to develop our programme for the
next decade and will soon be spending an extra £1 million
a year and some £25 million capital to improve services
for blind people." (Bruce, 1985, p 18)
The following list represents the members of the sub-committee
on music chosen during September 1987:
"Co-opted members: mr Geoff Jackson (chairman); mr
Andrew Beaizley (vice-chairman); dr Simon Emmerson;
mrs Christine Gerrard; mr Michael Lloyd; mr .Bill
Martin; mr Brian Rogers; mr Peter Salt; ms Jill Smith;
(
ms Har gar-et; Townshend and ms Margaret Turnbull. Mr
Michael Campbell also attends our meetings.
Nominated members: from the Education Committee: mr
Hans Cohn ; mr Paul Crunden-White and mr Joe Pardini.
From the Publications and Equipment Committee: mr
Malcolm Dunlop and mr John Hunter.
208
These include: four university lecturers; four teachers
of the blind; two mainstream teachers covering primary
and secondary sectors; three private teachers and a
freelance professional performer. Together, they
represent the interests of pianists, organists, woodwind
players, singers and choral conductors ...
All committee members are only too well aware that their
responsibilities are two-fold: to spread information
from the institute to you, and equally important, to
bring your thoughts and needs to us." (Hoare ed, 1987,
pp 3-4)
Apart from rehabilitation work, several schools for the blind
are run by the RNIB. The printing press of the RNIB has developed
into one of the main suppliers of braille music in the world.
This is unique about the British system: blind people, not only
one or two, serving on the music committee monitoring matters
concerning blind musicians. In addit~on, there is the Braille
Music Magazine, issued by the RNIB since 1909, universally read
and appreciated, keeping contact with, relating on, and supplying
essential information to blind musicians.
\
Several schools for the blind in the United Kingdom, started
by voluntary charitable organizations, such as the RNIB, still
run them today. Others are run by local educational authorities.
All of these are boarding schools, but they also accommodate
209
day pupils. The schools all come under the general oversight
of the Departmerit of Education and Science and are staffed with
teachers who have special training and qualifications. (RNIB
brochure, November 1982, p 4)
Since there are so few blind children of school-going age, there
are only 18 schools for them in existence. All of these are
boarding schools, though a child who lives near enough can be
a day pupil. Many' children are weekly boarders and the schools
encourage their pupils to go home at weekends.
Some schools for blind children take all ages, others are separate
primary and secondary schools. The secondary ones, particularly,
are anxious to make close links with local sighted schools. (RNIB
brochure, N0vember 1982, pp 4-5)
The following are still retained as residential schools attended
by blind children in Britain and Wales:
Nursery Schools - four Sunshine Houses
Primary, secondary and all-age schools - Dorton House
at Seven Oaks, Kent; Henshaws School for the Visually
Handicapped, Yorkshire; Lickey Grange School, Worcester;
Linden Lodge School, Wimbledon; Liverpool School for
the Blind, Liverpool; Royal Victoria School for the
Blind, Newcastle-upon-Tyne; St Vincent's School for
210
the Blind and Partially Sighted Children (Roman
Catholic), Liverpool; Tapton Mount School, Sheffield;
West of England School for Children with Little or No
Sight, Exeter; Ysgol Penybont for Visually Handicapped
Children, Glamorgan
Secondary grammar - Worcester College for Boys and Girls,
Worcester (since 1986)
Schools for blind children with additional handicaps
Rushton Hall School, Northants; Condover Hall School,
Shropshire
Vocational Assessment Centres Hethersett, Surrey;
Queen Alexandra Technical College, Birmingham
Further education and technical training - Royal National
College for the Blind, Hereford; North London School
óf Physiotherapy, London; RNIB Commercial College,
London. (RNIB brochure, November 1982, pp 11-12)
With regard to the integration of blind children into public
schools, the position is very fluid:
"It is becoming more common now for some visually
handicapped children to go to ordinary schools. This
is known as open or integrated education. There must
be adequate support readily available, including
qualified teachers of blind children, if this is to
succeed." (RNIB brochure, November 1982, p 4)
211
Every year some 200 seriously visually handicapped students follow
a wide range of courses at colleges, universities and
polytechnics. (RNIB brochure, May 1985, p 3)
Following a research project, a booklet was compiled on Careers
with Music for Graduates. This pamphlet appeared in 1983, also
I, obtainable on cassette from the RNIB, London. The immense value
of this booklet was not only confined to the discussion on
possible careers in music, but in the relevant data supplied
to blind musicians in the United Kingdom. (Vaughan et al, 1983)
Besides some teachers, a few composers and seyeral church
organists, the following blind musicians are activ~ly involved
as performers in the United Kingdom - David LiddIe and Roger
Firman (organists), John James (pianist), Michael Campbell
(flautist, pianist. and organist), Margaret Townshend (soprano)
and John Henry (harpsichordist). (James, 1987)
Serious (classical) Western music originated and developed in
Europe and the United Kingdom. Commencing with the Greek modal
system, followed by the art of the bards, troubadours, trouveres,
Minnesá'nger, Meistersinger and the works of the musicians during
the Renaissance, Baroque, Classical and Romantic periods, Western
music was established in these countries. The Europeans have
a cultural tradition and musical heritage of about two milleniums.
212
Despite political changes, fluctuating economical conditions,
revolutions and wars, music survived. Considering this fact,
the following statement by a young British organist cannot be
regarded as presumptuous:
"Perhaps new technology may enable blind musicians to
take more part in conducting or ensemble or even
orchestral work, otherwise I imagine that they will
largely play the same roles as they have done for many
centuries: producing some notable performers, composers,
teachers and writers. If computer-transcription into
Braille music becomes readily and cheaply available,
this will be the answer to many a blind musician's
prayer, but I do not think it will much change the part
played by them in musical life in general." (Liddle,
1987)
Although few church organists in Europe and the United Kingdom
drew large salaries, blind musicians through the centuries were
anxious to be employed in the profession. It gave them prestige
and helped them in obtaining private pupils. (Zahl ed, 1962,
P 52) At present, the British organists are so undervalued and
underpaid, that according to an article by Fiona Hook, published
in Classical Music, 12 September 1987, at least forty-five
organists have crossed the North Sea during the past five years
to take up new jobs in Norway. (Braille Music Magazine, -Oc tobe r
1987, p 64) In spite of this tendency, the blind in the United
213
Kingdom kept to the organ as a second instrument and many of
them gained international fame as concert organists.
Questionnaires were posed to blind musicians in the United Kingdom
during 1986-1987 and the project resulted in a feedback of 43%.
(Appendix A,1986)
3. Statistics based on questionnaires employed in research
for this project
3.1 When starting their educatLon , 50% of the respondents
were totally blind, 34% visually impaired 'a.nd 16%
partially sighted.
3.2 The number of musicians who had received their education
at residential schools only, amounted to 50%, that at
public schools to 16% and that at both schools to 34%.
3.3 Instruction in braille were received by 50% at resi-
dential schools, by 16% from resource teachers at primary
level, by 16% only after attending residential secondary
schools, while 18% never learnt braille.
3.4 At school level braille music was used by 82%.
3.5 Of the teachers who taught the blind their profession,
50% knew braille music, 34% knew very little braille
music and 16% had no knowledge of the system.
3.6 Music instruction at school level included - piano 100%,
organ 67%, recorder 16%, flute 16%, clarinet 16%, violin
16%. The figures indicated why so many blind musicians
in the United Kingdom held posts as organists.
214
3. 7 At school level tuition in theory was given to 66%,
in harmony to 46%, in history of music to 50% and in
staff notation to 50%.
3. 8 At university level braille was used by 100%.
3. 9 Music instruction at uni versity level included - piano
100%, organ 80%, flute 20%, violin 20% and singing 20%.
3.10 In their profession 84% made use of braille music and
16% used print.
3.11 Only 32% were in permanent teaching posts - 50% taught
sighted pupils and 50% taught blind pupils; 33% relied
on private teaching only.
3.12 Some 32% had experience of school music instruction.
3. 13 A large number, (84%) were organists, showing the im-
portance attached to this genre by the British.
3.14 As in the the United States, the deficiency in the train-
ing of blind musicians was apparent in only 16% having
experience of conducting.
3.15 The Braille Music Magazine was very popular with the
respondents; it was read by 100%.
3.16 Refresher courses were attended by 84%.
3.17 The age of the respondents ranged from 27 to 76 with
an average of 51.
3.18 Teaching experience averaged 26 years, representing
a thoroughly knowledgeable group.
3.19 As to mobility, 30% used canes, 34% were assisted by
friends, while 16% made use of guide dogs.
.215
3.20 The respondents were very well qualified - 100% pro-
fessionally with an average of three diplomas each,
while 33% were academically qualified with Bachelor
degrees in music.
3.21 The following suggestions with regard to discipline
were made: to move about in the classroom, to give
a general impression· of alertness, and above all, to
secure the attention of the pupils by stimulating their
r interest in the subject.
3.22 In coping with the written work of sighted children,
it was suggested that the assistance of colleagues or
friends be employed.
3.23 The opinion was voiced by 84% of the respondents that
the training of blind musicians had improved during
the past forty years, that opportunities were more and
better; 16% stated that the quality of the training
was not the same as before.
3.24 On the future of blind musicians in the United Kingdom,
many reservations were voiced by the respondents; 50%
were positive, while 50% were negative.
- Music is a hard profession for any blind person.
- Economically musicians are going through a rather
difficult time.
- It is not easy to secure a suitable post immediately.
- Music education at colleges and universities is mainly
directed at proficiency in performance.
- Blind musicians need more specialized training to
become teachers.
216
3.25 Blind musicians should continue to receive the special
training of the past. A thorough knowledge of staff
notation and braille music was considered to be of
paramount importance to young blind students:
"A blind musician cannot be taken seriously if he is
not capable of using braille music." (Li.dld,e, 1987)
3.26 The respondents declared that the music instruction
which they had received, was aimed at specialized
training.
3.27 Music instruction given by the blind musicians was con-
sidered by 84% as a social activity, by 50% as
specialized instruction, by 16% as therapy. Only 16%
taught music as entertainment.
3.28 As to integration, the respondents commented that the
visually impaired, not dependent on braille and braille
music, should be able to adapt themselves to public
schools. The totally blind, however, need special
training to succeed in music as a profession.
It is highly improbable that prestigious institutions such as
the Worcester College and the Royal National College will be
replaced; they are expected to continue educating the blind
and supplying specialized training to music students.
217
C HAP TER 7
THE PRESENT POSITION OF BLIND MUSICIANS IN THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH
AFRICA
1. Some geographical and historical facts and figures
The following demographic, social and political data are given
for the information of the reader who may need some background
with regard to the educational situation of the visually
handicapped as dealt with in this chapter.
South Africa is a relatively big country, 1 224 402 km', very
nearly as big as Switzerland, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium
and the United Kingdom put together and about one-eighth of the
size of the United States. (Albertyn ed, 1977, vol 9 pp 352,
463; 1976, vol 8 p 38; 1975, vol 7, p 548; 1973, vol 4, p
203; 1972, vol 3, p 570; 1971, vol 2, p 192; 1977, vollO,
pp 204, 218)
In 1985 the total population of South Africa was estimated at
about 27,7-million. About 19-m were Blacks, representing at
least nine major distinctive ethnic groups - Zulu 6, 4-m, Xhosas
2,9-m, North Sothos 2,9-m, South Sothos 1,9-m, Tswanas 1,4-m,
Shangaan-Tsongas l,l-m and Swazis I-m. Each of these peoples
has its own cultural identity, including language and social
systems, as well as its own traditional territory settled in
the course of centuries. The Blacks are descendants from ancient
groupings who migrated from Central Africa - the Nguni, Sotho,
Tswana, Tsonga and Venda.
218
The White community traces its origins to the first Dutch
settlement at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652, some 33 years before
the birth of JSBach. Apart from a steady flow of new Dutch
immigrants ·over many years, some 160 French Huguenots (1688),
5 000 British settlers (1820) and a substantial group of Germans
(1848-58) were added. Today about sixty per cent of the Whites
are Afrikaners, speaking their own language, Afrikaans which,
although related to Dutch, has fully developed in South Africa.
Besides a strong English speaking community, there are also
several other groups of more recent immigrants mostly from Europe
- Portuguese 70 000, Germans 40 000, Greeks 20 000, Italians,
Dutch, French and Scandinavians, as well as an English speaking
Jewish communtty of about 120 000.
The 2,8-m Coloureds are the product of miscegenation between
the original Hottentot tribes of the Cape, the early White
settlers, slaves imported from the East and later also some
Blacks. The Coloureds include two distinctive subgroups - the
Cape Malays and Griquas. The Cape Malays reside mostly in the
Malay Quarter of Cape Town, where they have retained their Muslim
traditions, including Islam. The Griquas mostly live in the
north-western and north-eastern Cape Province.
The 861 000 Asians represent some 99 per cent from Indian descent
and the rest from Chinese origin. The first Indians were brought
to South Africa by the British Colonial Government in 1860 to
work on the sugar plantatio~s in Natal. The South African Indians
constitute the largest Indian community in Africa and the West.
(South African Digest, 10 April 1987, p 5).
219
The British finally colonized South Africa in 1806. Two of the
four provinces were under British rule, while the Boers
(Afrikaners) went inland and proclaimed two republics after 1838.
Following the Anglo-Boer war (1899-1902), the British took over
and South Africa, consisting of four provinces, remained a member
of the British Commonwealth. In 1961 South Africa became an
independent republic outside the Commonwealth.
2. The South African National Council for the Blind (SANCB)
Co-ordinated services to the visually handicapped in South Africa
started in 1929 with the establishment of the SANCB. The council
is constituted from 40 affiliated organizations, all' voluntary
privately funded bodies working for and with the visually
handicapped at national, provincial, or local level within the
Republic or in the national and ,independent states; and from
41 associated organizations which include services to the visually
handicapped among their activities.
The headquarters of the SANCB are situated in Pretoria, Transvaal.
This is the seat of the administration and the site from which
the majority of its special services operate. The complex is
known as Optima. (Hadley ed, 1985, pp 7, 8, 9) Since 1981 the
executive committee is multi racial.
3. Schools for the blind
The following schools for the blind and visually handicapped
were established in South Africa:
220
Worcester 1881 Pionierskool for Whites country-
wide, South West Africa, Zambia,
Zimbabwe, from pre-school to std
10, Afrikaans and English medium
Bellville 1927 Athlone for Coloureds countrywide,
nursery school, from pre-school
to std 10, English and Afrikaans
medium
Pietersburg 1951 Siloe for Blacks countrywide, from
pre-school to std 10, North Sotho
and English medium
Pietermaritzburg 1954 New Horizon for Indians, Coloureds
and Whites in Southern Africa, from
pre-school to std 10, English medium
Middelburg 1957 Bosele for Blacks in Lebowa and
Transvaal countrywide, from sub A to std 9,
North Sotho and English medium
Selosesha 1962 Bartimea for Blacks in Bophuthatswana
and Lesotho, sub A to std 6, South
Sotho and English medium
Nkandla 1962 Vuleka for Blacks in KwaZulu, from
pre-school to std 6, Zulu and English
medium
Pretoria 1963 Prinshot for Whites countrywide,
nursery group, from pre-school to
std 10 (totally blind to std 1),
Afrikaans and English medium
221
Umtata 1968 Efata for Blacks in the Transkei,
from pre-school to standard 8, Xhosa
and English medium
Letaba 1969 Letaba for Blacks in Gazankulu and
countrywide, primary to standard
5, Tsonga and English medium
Shayandima 1971 Tsilidzini for Blacks in Venda,
from pre-school to standard 5, Venda
and English medium
Witsieshoek 1982 Thiboloha for Blacks countrywide,
from sub A to standard 2, South
Sotho medium
Durban 1983 Enduduzweni for Blacks local and
Kwazulu, primary school, Zulu and
English medium
Port Elizabeth 1984 Khanyisa for Blacks in the Ciskei,
provincial and local, from pre-
school to primary, Xhosa medium
Soshanguve 1985 Filadelfia for Blacks countrywide,
Ciskei, Transkei, Bophuthatswana,
Venda and KwaZulu, secondary school
from standard 6 to 10, English medium
Pietermaritzburg 1986 Madressa Noor for all population
groups countrywide, English medium
Kathlehong 1987 Kathlehong for Blacks local, a
primary school, Zulu and English
medium. (Hadley ed, 1985, pp 35-50;
SANCB Report, 1985-1987, pp 54-55 )
222
4. Education for the blind
4.1 Het Doofstommen en Blinden Instituut
It was through the instigation óf two ministers, W Murrayand
C Rabie, that the first school for the blind was founded in 1881
at Worcester, CP under the auspices of the Dutch Reformed Church.
Mr B J G de la Bat was the first headmaster. This school was
to provide education and training to deaf and to blind, White
children. The training of the blind was discontinued after two
months. In 1891, education for the blind was resumed by one
of the teachers, mr M J Besselaar. (Vaughan, 1987)
4.2 The School for the Bïind
In 1905 the School for the Blind became asepara te insti tu tion.
Mr Besselaar was the first principal until 1928. From 1929-1961
dr P E Biesenbach was the second headmaster, ably assisted by
dr V H Vaughan as vice-principal from 1931-1950. Dr Theo Pauw
was the third principal from 1961-1979; he was succeeded by
dr J H van der Poel, the present headmaster. In 1981, at the
centenary of the school, the name was changed to Pioneer School
(Pionierskool). (Vaughan, 1987)
5. Music education
5.1 The era of Harry Greenwood and his students (1894-1932)
Music education for the blind was initiated in 1894 with the
arrl val of Harry Greenwood from England. He was a scholar of
223
the Royal Normal College at Upper Norwood. (Pauw, 1949, pS)
Greenwood (1868-1948) was inspired by the ambitions of Francis
Joseph Campbell and was recruited to set the scene for similar
training in South Africa. He established at Worcester a tradition
in which music education for the blind received the same priority
as in England. He gave his music students a very sound basis
in braille music, staff notation, theory, history and especially
in harmony. Greenwood inspired his pupils not only to qualify
as music teachers, but also as organists and piano tuners in
accordance with common practice in Europe and the United Kingdom
at that time. He prepared and entered his pupils mostly for
the LTCL and ATCL examinations of Trinity College, London,
England. This father of inusic education for the blind in South
Africa, took a keen interest in his pupils, trying to teach them
self-discipline. He succeeded in producing a constant flow of
well-equipped blind musicians, refined in character, diligent
in their work, the pride of their school and a credit to society.
In assessing his achievements, they become even more significant
when taking into account that the Afrikaners at that time (during
and immediately after the Anglo-Boer war) have been very poor
and that their cultural background in the field of classical
music has been extremely limited. His accomplishments were made
possible by the ideal surroundings at the institution, where
every pupil with talent, the ability to learn and the
determination to succeed, was provided with music education, guid-
224
ance, advice and assistance in a far better and effective way
than any conservatory could cater for. The institution at
Worcester was considered by Greenwood's pupils not merely as
a centre for formal educat ion, but also as the origin of and
specialized training centre for their entire music education
and ultimate careers. (Matthews, 1959)
"In 1930 there were 120 blind pupils, the older ones
being taught the usual trades. The Institute had a
Braille printing press, but also imported books from
England." (Wagg, 1932, pp 59, 60)
In 1923 Margaretha Malan, one of mr Greenwood's pupils, was
appointed as a second music teacher, mainly for teaching young
beginners and for tuition in braille music. She held the position
until her retirement in 1956. In 1933, following Harry
Greenwood's retirement, Johannes de Lange, one of his ex-pupils,
succeeded him until 1945. (School files, 1987)
5.2 A new phase in music education at the Pioneer School
In 1946, following the retirement of Johannes de Lange, a new
phase in music education for the blind began with the appointment
of Frederick J Stahl, the first sighted music teacher at the
.School for the Blind. The change was not abrupt, it realized
steadily since the middle of the century. In an interview with
225
the staff of the music department at the Pioneer School it was
stated emphatically that the school at Worcester was not a
conservatory. No music student was compelled to follow a career
in music and no decisions were made on behalf of students. If
such students intended pursuing music careers, they should attend
a university to acquire the necessary qualifications. (Van Niekerk,
1987)
This change in attitude can be attributed to the fact that the
sighted \musl.c teachers had studied at conservatories and that
they therefore recommended the benefits of tertiary academical
qualifications. It was also during the late 1940s that the first
blind pupils from the School for the Blind started with tertiarT~
education.
These moves, for better or worse, deprived the institution of
the initial autonomy. Gradually its role was reduced to that
of an ordinary school. The traditions and principles of Francis
Joseph Campbell and Harry Greenwood were relinquished.' A
situation similar to that in the United States has been created,
with the one exception, that braille music is still being taught
to blind music students attending the Pioneer School. Specialized
training, however, as furnished by the institutions of the
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries has been abandoned.
At uni versi ty the blind study the same courses as their sighted
fellow students. The importance of high academical qualifications
226
and the provision of a certain amount of proficiency in
performance are not being' disputed, but the blind musician
embarking on a teaching career needs careful training,
academically and technically, with consideration of his unique
situation and autogenous problems. The advantages of social
integration at college or university level are obvious and
imperative.
5.3 The necessity of a second instrument
Besides the piano, the study of other instruments, such as the
recorder, classical guitar or an orchestral instrument is highly
recommended and will be an asset to a teaching career (Bouwer,
1987).,
It is highly improbable that a blind musician will play in an
orchestra or earn a decent income from any instrument other than
the piano and organ. The decreasing number of organ students
at Worcester during the past thirty years is alarming, since
the organ provides the opportunity of a second occupation with
an additional income. The position of an organist also enhances
the process of social integration for a blind musician.
Since the first decade of the twentieth century professional
blind musicians, especially the students of Harry Greenwood,
settled in towns and cities throughout South Africa, teaching
music and procuring prestigious positions as organists in various
churches (Van der Vyver, 1956, p 68). Those blind musicians
227
made a significant contribution to the cultural development of
their respective communities and in some cases even promoted
the national cultural heritage, as will be seen in section 8
of this chapter.
Research has shown that the tradition of blind organists is still
upheld in the United Kingdom and Europe, while a similar position
to that in the United States is developing in South Africa.
The following statistics, taken from questionnaires posed to
blind musicians in the United States, United Kingdom and Republic
of South Africa during 1986-1987 illustrate the percentage of
blind musicians still interested in and capable of employment
in this profession in the three countries
United States 11%,
United Kingdom 84%,
Republic of South Africa 39%.
Only one of the nine professional blind musicians who have
matriculated at the Pioneer School and Prinshof since 1957 is
at present employed as an organist. Only eight blind musicians,
mostly of the older generation, are currently active as organists
in the Republic of South Africa.
It involves hard work and a sound knowledge of braille music
to qualify as an organist. A blind music student attending a
university, cannot expect to reach an adequate proficiency of
performance in organ or to procure a sufficient repertoire within
228
the three or four years at his disposal. To become a competent
organist, keeping pace with sighted colleagues, the blind music
student is advised to start with some specialized training in
organ playing while still at school.
Organ playing was the one profession in which the blind of the
past excelled - Paumann, Schlick and Walcha (Germany); Cabezón,
Bruna and Nassarre (Spain); Vierne, Marchal and Langlais
(France); Stanley, Walstenhalme and Hollins (United Kingdom);
Meldrum, Geibel and Maitland (United States); Van Velden,
Matthews and Basson (South Africa).
5.4 The present situation of music education for the blind
During 1987 the state of music education for the blind was as
follows: .
The Pioneer School had 302 pupils, including totally blind,
partially sighted, deaf-blind and multiple handicapped, taught
by a personnel of 82. (Van der Poel, 1987) Individual
instrumental instruction was given to some sixty students by
four music teachers. The music students were selected by means
of Musical Ability in Children and its Measurement by Arnold
Bentley. All the pupils were provided with an elementary
knowledge of braille music by implementing it in the school music
programme at primary level. (Botha, 1987)
Prinshof , the other school for blind \fuites, was established
in 1963 as a school for partially sighted children, accommodating
229
only a Kindergarten for the totally blind. The present headmaster
is mr PP Peach. The enrolment was 348 pupils, of whom about
130 received music instruction from three music teachers.
(Freyer, 1987)
Music instruction at all the schools for the blind of other races
was confined to ethnic music training and choral singing. At
Athlone, however, individual instruction in piano, organ,
clarinet, flute, recorder and saxophone was provided by three
music teachers. Provision was also made for school music.
(Pizer, 1987) At Filadelfia the recorder was taught on
considerable scale, together wi th theory. (Aspeling, 1987)
Both these schools used braille music and made provision for
their stud~nts to take music as a subject. Nei ther of these
schools had produced any blind professionals in classical music
at the time of the research.
6. Popular music
In the field of popular music the blind were very active. Some
professional musicians, as well as many others representing
various races, originally trained for other vocations, took to
music as entertainment. Members of numerous dance bands,
vocalists and instrumen talists emerged, appearing on radio,
television and in variety concerts. Quite a substantial number
have already made recordings. These people, usually playing
by rote and improvising, contributed considerably to the
development of popular music in this country.
230
The art of improvisation has been and still is an important part
of music making:
"Not since the Baroque has improvisation played such
an important role as in the 20th century. It is confined
mainly to three areas: impiovisation by concert
organists (Marcel Dupré, Jean Langlais and others),
jazz, and most recently aleatory music." (Miller, 1973,
p 173)
7. Amateur musicians
As in the past, some amateur blind musicians, trained for and
employed in various occupations, are organists. Relying mainly
on their aural perception, memory and natural talent, their
contribution to the musical activities in their communities must
not be underestimated. Although not professionally qualified
as organists, they show a genuine interest in and an aptitude
for the art of accompaniment, which may account for the reasons
why in many cases, their services are in demand.
It is the responsibility of the amateur and the professional
blind musician to make a contribution to the growth of serious
(classical) Western music in this country.
231
8. Reasons for the biographies and directory
The following biographies and directory were compiled to record
and list the blind musicians who made a contribution to the growth
of serious (classical) Western music in the Republic of South
Africa. The information for the directory was drawn from all
the available sources over a period of more than eighteen months.
A great deal of information was gathered from elderly persons
who had had personal contact with the previous generation. While
it cannot claim to be absolutely complete, the research has been
done extensively to ensure accuracy. The biographies and
directory were compiled
to give an accurate account of the contribution of blind
musicians to the growth of serious (classical) music
in the Republic of South Africa,
to assemble and preserve relevant historic data for
future generations,
to provide the necessary information and statistics
concerning the music education of the blind in this
country.
8.1 Short biographies of blind musicians in the Republic
of South Africa
8.1.1 Harry Greenwood (1868-1948)
Harry Greenwood was born in England and educated at the Royal
Normal College for the Blind, Upper Norwood, London. He was
recruited to come to South Africa as the first qualified blind
musician. Greenwood started at the Institute, Worcester, Cape
Province (CP) in 1891 as the first blind music teacher. He worked
at the school until his retirement in 1932. He was responsible
for a steady flow of blind .piano teachers, organists and piano
tuners. Apart from teaching, Harry Greenwood was a famous organ
recitalist and composer. He ought to be credited for having
trained all the blind musicians at Worcester during the first
forty years.· His students left Worcester and settled in various
places where they contributed to the cultural development of
their communities. (Pauw, 1949, p 5)
8.1.2 Andries Christoffel (Boet) van Velden (1886-1957)
Van Velden was born at S~ellenbosch, CP. He attended the
Institute at Worcester, CP from 1896-1907. He was piano teacher
and organist at Boshof, Orange Free State (OFS) from 1908-1909.
In 1910 he went to London and succeeded in obtaining the FRCO
diploma. Van Velden returned to South Africa and for the last
forty-four years of his life he was organist of the famous
Strooidakkerk at Paarl, CP. Besides serving as a member of the
committee for church music in the Dutch Reformed Church, he
composed some Afrikaans psalms and hymns. In the 1944 hymn book
233
psalms 16, 33 and 34 as well as hymns 59, 82 and 131 (2) were
his compositions. In the latest edition (1978) psalm 33 and
hymn 241 were retained. (Die Nuwe Pionier, December 1957, pp
8.1.3 Pieter Kruger (1886-1962)
Pieter Kruger was born at Barkly West, CP and he attended the
Institute at Worcester from 1896-1907. He was piano teacher
and organist at Burgersdorp, CP for the greatest part of his
life. (School files, 1987)
8.1.4 Johannes Hendrik de Lange (1889-1968)
De Lange was born at Elliot in the Eastern Cape Province. He.
attended the Institute at Worcester from 1903-1911. After serving
as teacher and organist at Senekal in the Orange Free State,
he succeeded Harry Greenwood as music teacher at the School for
the Blind, Worcester from 1933 until his retirement in 1945.
He was the last blind music teacher solely responsible for the
training of blind musicians. He was organist at Worcester, CP
until 1955. (Basson, 1987)
8.1.5 Hendrik J L du Toit (b 1890)
Du Toit was born at Warrenton in the Northern Cape and he attended
the Institute at Worcester, CP from 1903-1910. He became an
organist. (School files, 1987)
234
8.1.6 Pieter Gilles (Peter) Cruse (1893-1970)
Peter Cruse was born in Pretoria, Transvaal and educated at the
School for the Blind, Horcester, CP from 1905-1914. He settled
in Pretoria where he became a well-known music teacher. He was
one of the founders and chairman of the Pretoria Musical Society.
Cruse was collaborator in the foundatïon of the music department
of the University of Pretoria. He acted as an advisor to the
University of South Africa on matters concerning blind music
candidates. The Peter Cruse Trust was founded at Worcester after
his death, providing financial assistance to blind music students
at the Pioneer School~ Among his ex-pupils were Bosman de Kock,
Pierre Malan and mrs C de Ridder. (School files, 1987)
8.1. 7 Hendrik Tjaart Kruger (1893-1969)
Kruger was born at Potchef st r oom, Transvaal and he attended the
School for the Blind from 1907-1916. He was piano teacher and
organist in the Transvaal, inter alia in Johannesburg. He was
a brother of Pieter Kruger. (Oosthuizen, 1987)
8.1.8 Johannes Petrus Pienaar (b 1894)
Pienaar attended the School for the Blind from 1907-1916. He
was piano teacher and organist at Richmond in the Cape Province.
(Sulter, 1987)
235
8.1.9 Thomas Harold Matthews (1896-1970)
Tom Matthews was born in Cape Town, CP. He attended the School
for the Blind from 1907-1914. He became a well-known piano
teacher and organist at Ladybrand, Lindleyand Viljoenskroon,
OFS. During the 1920s he acted as a part-time inspector of music
at public schools in the Northern Orange Free State. Besides
the numerous organ recitals which he gave, he composed some songs,
e g the school song for the School for the Blind, Horeester ,
CP and Ek hou van jou. (School files, 1987)
8.1.10 Jeremias Daniël (Jerry) Nel (1897-1977)
Jerry Nel was born at Bedford in the Eastern. Cape Province and
educated at the School for the Blind from 1912-1917. He settléd
at Beaufort West, CP where he was a well-known piano teacher
and organist. (Botha, 1987)
8.1.11 Michiel Jozef van Vuren (b 1898)
Van Vuren was born at Potchefstroom, Transvaal. He attended
the School for the Blind from 1911-1921. He was piano tuner
and organist at Hakkerstroom and Ventersdorp, Transvaal. (School
files, 1987)
8.1.12 Margaretha Maria Malan (1898-1979)
Miss Malan was born at Bethal, Transvaal and educated at the
School for the Blind from 1913-1922. From 1923-1956 she was
a teacher at the School for the Blind where she was responsible
for singing classes and the instruction of braille music to young
pupils. (School files, 1987).
236
8.1.13 Anna Elizabeth Cerenberg (1899-1957)
Miss Cerenberg was barn at Ficksburg in the Orange Free State
and was a pupil at the School for the Blind from 1913-1923.
After leaving school, she settled at her home town as piano
teacher and organist. (Die Nuwe Pionier, November 1957, p 44)
8.1.14 Barend Viljoen (b 1900)
Viljoen was a pupil at the School for the Blind, Worcester from
1909-1918. He was piano teacher and organist at Vredenburg, CP.
He later returned to Worcester to complete a diploma in music
teaching. (Sieberhagen, 1987)
8.1.15 Scheepers Muller (b 1903)
Muller was barn at Graaff Reinet, CP as a member of a family
with several blind children. He was enrolled at the School for
the Blind from 1914-1922. As a senior student he assisted in
teaching beginners at the School for the Blind, Worcester. During
the 1930s he served under dr Vaughan on an Afrikaans braille
committee. He worked at Pietersburg, Transvaal as piano teacher
and organist and was said to have been very good at choir
conducting. (Basson, 1987; School files, 1987; Vaughan, 1987)
8.1.16 Jan Harm Thomas Schutte (1903-1929)
Schutte was barn at Senekal, OFS and was a pupil at the School
for the Blind, \~orcester from 1916-1922. In 1924 he became piano
teacher and organist at Boshof, OFS. (Dutch Reformed Church
Archive OFS, 1987)
237
8.1.17 Louis August van der Walt (1905-1975)
Louis van der Walt was born at Philipstown, CP and was a student
at the School for the Blind from 1915-1923. He was piano teacher
and organist at Kestell, OFS; Britstown and Hanover, CP and
eventually in Pretoria, Transvaal. He composed some works.
(Basson, 1987; Mostert, 1987; Oosthuizen, 1987)
8.1.18 Philippus Jacobus W Schutte (b 1905)
Schutte was born at: Bank Station, Transvaal and he attended the
School for the Blind from 1915-1926. He initially settled at
Harrismith, OFS as piano teacher and organist. He became
interested in the law and subsequently qualified as a lawyer,
spending his last years at Randgate, Transvaal, where he was
also employed as organist. (Oosthuizen, 1987; School files,
1987; Vaughan, 1987)
8.1.19 Hendrika Muller (1906-1971)
Hendrika Muller was born at Graaff Reinet" She was a sister
of Scheepers Muller. Hendrika Muller was a pupil at the School
for the Blind from 1916-1928. Though partially sighted, she
used braille music. She was music teacher and organist at
,Aberdeen, CP and later at Ermelo, Transvaal. She became mrs
Fourie. (Mostert, 1987; School files, 1987)
8.1. 20 Petronelia Aletta Vosloo (l906-1987)
Ms Vosloo was born at Somerset East, CP and she attended the
School for the Blind from 1920. She returned to her home town
where she was a very famous piano teacher at Gill College.
(School files, 1987).
238
8.1. 21 Hendrik Ossewald Eksteen (1909-1983)
Eksteen was born at Wakkerstroom, Transvaal. He was partially
sighted and did not attend a school for the blind. He learned
braille and braille music initially from Michiel van Vuren.
Afterwards he studied music and braille music notation with
Johannes de Lange at Senekal, OFS. Eksteen settled.at Hendrina,
Transvaal, where he became a famous piano teacher and organist.
He was elected mayor of Hendrina eleven times and served as a
member of many important committees, inter alia the Witbank
Middelburg Committee of the Department of Planning and Resource.
(Krige, 1987)
8.1. 22 Carel van Tonder (1912-1965)
Carel van Tonder was born" at Zastron, OFS and was enrolled at
the School for the Blind from 1923-1936. Although he was
partially sighted, he used braille music. He was the son-in-law
of mr J H de Lange. Van Tonder was piano and singing teacher,
as well as organist at Zastron and Kroonstad in the Orange Free
State, also at Swellendam, Rawsonville, Malmesburyand De Doorns,
CP. (Basson, 1987; School files, 1987)
8.1.23 Gerrit Albert Wiggett (1916-1989)
Gert Wiggett was born at Zastron, OFS. He attended the School
for the Blind from 1927-1939. Wiggett qualified as piano tuner
and vocal teacher. He was a competent organist and contributed
considerably to the musical activities at Worcester, CP. (Botha,
1987; School files, 1987)
239
8.1.24 Hester Johanna Magrieta Kruger (Nieuwoudt) (1917-
Hester Nieuwoudt was born at Barkley East, CP to a family with
several blind children. She was a pupil at the School for the
Blind from 1926-1939. She settled in Transvaal, where she was
a private music teacher and served as organist at Brakpan,
Alberton and Mayfair,West. (Nieuwoudt, 1987)
8.1.25 Ada Aletta Alberts (1917-
Ada Alberts was born at Oudtshoorn, CP. She was a pupil at the
School for the Blind from 1926-1940. Although not a professional
musician, she contributed considerably as a singer to the cultural
society at Worcester, CP. (Botha, 1987)
8.1.26 Francina Hendrika Buys (1917-
Francina Buys was born at Benoni, Transvaal and she attended
the School for the Blind' from 1926-1937. She concentrated on
a vocal career. Although partially sighted, she used braille.
She went to Holland for eye surgery, which improved her vision.
On returning to South Africa, she continued her vocal career.
Her eye trouble, however, started again. From 1945-1956 she
was attached to Die Christelike en Nasionale Sekondêre Meisieskool
Oranje in Bloemfontein, OFS. She became mrs Weitz. (Department
of Education OFS, 1987)
240
8.1.27 Johannes Jacob (Jannie) Neethling (1917-1979)
Jannie Neethling attended the School for the Blind from 1934-
1940. Although he was not a professional musician, he possessed
exceptional musical talent. He was for many years organist in
Johannesburg, Transvaal. (Neethling, Bloemfontein, 1988)
8.1. 28 Eduard Venter (1918-1965)
Venter was born at Ventersdorp, Transvaal to a family with several
blind children. He was a pupil at the School for the Blind from
1926-1940. Eduard Venter was probably the last blind musician
who received his professional training from the blind music
teacher, Johannes de Lange, at the School for the Blind. He
was piano teacher and organist at Bethulie, OFS and Steynsburg,
CP. (Basson, 1987)
8.1. 29 Angelique van der Spuy ( 1919-
Angelique van der Spuy was born at Durbanville, CP and educated
at the School for the Blind from 1928-1940. Although she did
not hold a post as a professional musician, she was fully
qualified as a vocalist and as such, she contributed considerably
to the cultural society, especially at Worcester, CP. She became
mrs Wessels. (Botha, 1987)
241
8.1.30 Johanna Christina Brits (1921-1988)
Johanna Brits was barn at Senekal, OFS and was a pupil at the
School for the Blind from 1930-1943. Although she was not a
professional musician, she contributed with her singing to the
musical life at Worcester, CP. (Botha, 1987)
8.1.31 Frans Hendrik Sadie (1922-
Sadie was barn at'Artais , CP and he attended the School for the
Blind from 1934-1941. He was piano teacher and organist at
several places, among others Jamestown, Warrenton and Victoria
West, CP. (School files, 1987).
8.1.32 Isabella PetronelIa Swart (1922-
Bella Swart was barn at Gordon I s Bay, CP and was a pupil at the
School for the Blind f~om 1930-1939. Although she was not a
professional musician, she sang at numerous concerts at Worcester,
CP and Port Elizabeth, CP. She became mrs Newcombe. (Newcombe,
1988)
8.1.33 Monica Booysen (1923-
Monica Booysen was barn at Maclear, CP. She attended the School
for the Blind from 1930-1943. Although not a qualified musician,
she was active as a singer and contributed considerably to the
cultural development at Worcester, CP and later in Johannesburg,
Transvaal. She became mrs Kruger. (Botha, 1987)
242
8.1. 34 Daniël Jacobus Roelofse (1923-1974)
Roelofse was born at Victoria \.Jest, CP and was educated at the
School for the Blind from 1939-1946. He was organist, piano
and vocal teacher at Kenhardt, Knysna, Douglas and Warrenton,
CP. In 1946 he obtained the UTLM (piano). His qualifications
included Singing Grade 8, Organ Grade 8 and Violin Grade 7.
(Basson, 1987)
8.1.35 Hendrik Stephanus van der Linde (1926-1987)
Van der Linde was born at Grikwastad, CP. He was a pupil at
the School for the Blind from r937-1947. After completing a
correspondence course (BA Music) at Worcester, CP in 1949, he
attended the University of Stellenbosch, CP where he obtained
UTLM(organ) in 1950, UPLM (organ) in 1951, UTLM(piano) in 1953
and graduated (B Mus) also in 1953. He was partially sighted
and did not use braille music. Van der Linde was piano teacher
and organist at Burgersdorp and Rawsonville, CP. (School files,
1987)
8.1.36 Johannes Gerhardus Basson (1926-
Basson was bom at Malmesbury, CP and was enrolled at the School
for the Blind from 1933-1946. He obtained the UPLM (organ) in
1947, Singing Grade 8 in 1948 and UTLM(piano) in 1951. Basson
was organist and .piano teacher at Marquard, OFS and Grikwastad,
CP. Currently he is organist .at Richmond, CP. He is probably
the last of the famous organ recitalists trained at Worcester,
CP. (School files, 1987)
243
8.1.37 Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg (1926-
Dr Loeb van Zuilenburg was born in Amsterdam, Holland. He became
visually impaired at the age of twenty-one. After studying at
the conservatoire of Amsterdam from 1948-1952, he attended the
Ecole de Musique in Paris, where he studied among others, under
the famous pianist, Alfred Cortot. Paul Loeb van Zuilenburg
obtained his M Mus· degree from the University of South Africa,
Pretoria, Transvaal and a Ph D from the University of the
r Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Transvaal. He also qualified with
I the following professional diplomas: UPLM (piano), LMusTCL
(composition and theory) and LTCL (recorder).
In 1959 he founded the Hendrik Verwoerd Music School in Pretoria.
He was assistant director of the conservatory in Pretoria from
1961-1968. At present dr Loeb van Zuilenburg is senior lecturer
in aural training and recorder at the University of Stellenbosch,
CP. He founded the Stellenbosch Concert Wind Orchestra in 1976.
Dr Loeb van Zuilenburg is examiner of theory and harmony for
the University of South Africa.
Loeb van Zuilenburg's compositions include music for the recorder:
Musica Variata and 36 Logos; a piano concerto and several
compositions for trumpet and piano dedicated to his son Paul,
a very promising young trumpeter; Drie Oosterse Liedere dedicated
to the soprano, Nellie du Toit; a suite for wind orchestra.
Although Loeb van Zuilenburg did not attend a school for the
blind, he learnt braille. Dr Loeb van Zuilenburg, however,
uses inkprint in his profession. (Loeb van Zuilenburg, 1988)
244
8.1.38 Frederik Simon le Roux (1927-
Le Roux was barn at Horcester , CP and he attended the School
for the Blind· from 1935-1947. He obtained the UTLJ'1(piano) in
1951 and a BA degree. He was piano teacher and organist at inter
alia Tulbagh, Aberdeen and Prieska, CP. At present he is music
teacher and organist at Knysna, CP. (School files, 1987)
8.1.39 Christie Marius Frans Kruger (1929-
Kruger was barn in Bloemfontein, OFS and was educated at the
School for the Blind from 1937-1948. He qualified with a UTLM
(piano) in 1951, LRSM (harmony) in 1972, TLHC in 1973 and obtained
a M Mus degree in 1986 from the University of the Orange Free
State. Kruger specialized in harmony and music as a subject
in the secondary school. He was music teacher and organist at
Viljoenskroon, Vredefort and Bultfontein, OFS. Currently he
is active as music teacher and organist in Bloemfontein, OFS.
8.1.40 Dina Johanna Jacomina Smith (1929-
Dina Smith was barn at Alberton, Transvaal. She was a pupil
at the School for the Blind from i939-1947. Although not a
prof~ssional musician, she was church organist at Alberton.
(School files, 1987)
8.1. 41 Nicolaas Mostert (1932-
Mostert was barn at Riebeeck West, CP. He attended the School
for the Blind from 1941-1952. He studied at the University of
Stellenbosch, CP where he obtained the following diplomas:
245
UTLM (piano) in 1954, those as church organist and music teacher
in 1955, as well as LSMT in 1957. He is partially sighted and
does not use braille music. He is music teacher and organist
at Riebeeck West, CP. (Botha, 1987)
8.1.42 Martin Stephanus Oosthuizen (1932-
Martin Oosthuizen was born in Bloemfontein, OFS and he attended
the School for the Blind from 1940-1949. Although not a
professional musician, he is a church organist in Pretoria,
Transvaal. Oosthuizen is an exponent of popular Afrikaans music.
(Basson, 1987)
.8.1.43 Antonnette Botha (1933-
Ms Botha was born at Rawsonville, CP. She was a pupil at the
School for the Blind from 1940-1953. She studied at the
University of Stellenbosch, CP obtaining LTCL (piano) and UTLM
(piano) in 1955, UTLM (organ) and a diploma in music in 1956.
She was appointed as music teacher at the School for the Blind
at Worcester, CP in 1957. At present she is responsible for
the functioning of the Braille Music Library at Worcester.
(School files, 1987)
8.1.44 Johan Nicolas Roos (1934-
Roos was born in Pretoria, Transvaal and he attended the School
for the Blind from 1962-1971. He did much private study.
Currently he gives private music lessons at Brits, Transvaal.
(Questionnaire, 1987)
246
8.1.45 Roma Evelyn Escojido (1934-
Roma Escojido was born in Johannesburg, Transvaal. She was a
pupil at the School for the Blind from 1944-1950. She went to
the United States where she obtained a BA degree in music (flute,
violin and organ) from the University of Utah. (Botha, 1987)
8.1.46 Elize Snyman (1939-
Elize Snyman was born at Ventersdorp, Transvaal. She attended
the School for the Blind from 1947-1959. Ms Snyman studied at
the University of Potchefstroom, Transvaal where she obtained
a diploma in music teaching in 1963, as well as UTLM (piano)
in 1968 and LSMT in 1970. She has settled in Kimberley, CP and
teaches at a primary school. (Questionnaire, 1987)
8.1.47 Maria Elizabeth Coetsee (1941-
Bettie Coetsee was born at Burgersdorp, CP and was a pupil at
the School for the Blind from 1952-1963. She obtained a diploma
in music teaching from the University of Potchefst"room,Transvaal.
Bettie Coetsee currently teaches music at a primary school in
Kroonstad, OFS. (Questionnaire, 1987)
8.1.48 Isak Dawid du Plessis (1943-
Isak du Plessis was born at De Aar, CP to a family with several
blind children. He attended the School for the Blind from 1950-
1963. Du Plessis qualified at the University of Potchefstroom,
Transvaal. He obtained a B Mus degree and Licentiate diplomas
in Piano, ?inging, French horn, Trumpet and Clarinet. He was
247
attached to the Technical College in Kimberley, CP. At present
he is a music teacher at Springbok, CP. (Snyman, 1987)
8.1. 49 Anna Wilhelmina Johanna Loubser (1951-
Annette Loubser was born at Montagu, CP and was a pupil at the
School for the Blind from 1962-1969. She obtained a diploma
in music from the University of Stellenbosch, CP where she also
graduated (B Mus). She was a music teacher at Paarl, CP and
Roodepoort, Transvaal. At present she gives private music lessons
in Johannesburg, Transvaal. She became mrs Dollman.
(Questionnaire, 1987)
8.1.50 Nicolaas Gert Johannes (Nicol) Viljoen (1952-
Nicol Viljoen was born at Worcester, C:P and educated at the School
for the Blind from 1959-1970. He studied at the University of
Stellenbosch, CP where he obtained the UPLM (piano) in 1976 and
a M Mus degree in 1977. Nicol is a lecturer at the University
of the Orange Free State and church organist in Bloemfontein.
(School files, 1987)
8.1.51 Christene Scholtz (1953-
Christene Scholtz was born in Germiston, Transvaal. She was
a pupil at the School for the Blind from 1959-1970. Christene
Schol tz obtained a diploma in music from the University of the
Orange Free State, as well as Flute Grade 8. She taught music
at Worcester, CP and Ladybrand, OFS. Currently she is a music
teacher at St Helena, OFS. She is partially sighted and does
248
not use braille music. She became mrs Rezazadeh. (Questionnaire,
1987)
8.1.52 Margaretha Elizabeth Hofmeyr (1953-
Rita Hofmeyr was born in East London, CP. She attended the
Prinshof school for partially sighted children in Pretoria,
Transvaal from 1959-1971. Ms Hofmeyr obtained a diploma in music.
Currently ,she gives private music lessons in Pretoria. She is
partially sighted and does not use braille music. She became
mrs Rita Esterhuizen. (Questionn~ire, 1987)
8.1.53 Lenore Anne Deeb (1954-
Lenore Deeb was born in Johannesburg, TransvaaL She attended
the School for the Blind at Worcester, CP from 1963-1973. She
studied at the University of Potchefstroom, Transvaal where she
qualified with a diploma in music in 1976. In 1981 she obtained
a B Mus degree (UNISA). At present she gives private music
lessons in Johannesburg, Transvaal. She became mrs Swart.
(Questionnaire, 1987)
8.1.54 Christelle Kilian (1956-
Christelle Kilian was born at Barberton, Transvaal. She was
a pupil at the Prinshof school for partially sighted children
in Pretoria, Transvaal from 1962-1975. She obtained the UTLM
(piano) in 1979 as well as a diploma in music from the Technicon
in Pretoria, Transvaal in 1980. At present she teaches music
at Prinshof school. She is partially sighted and does not use
braille music. She became mrs Freyer. (Questionnaire, 1987)
249
8.2 A directory of blind South African musicians in serious
(classical) music
1. Alberts Ada Aletta 1917-
2. Basson Johannes Gerhardus (Janna) 1926-
3. Botha Antonnette 1933-
4. Brits Johanna Christina (Hannetjie) 1921-1988
5. Cerenberg Anna Elizabeth 1899-1957
6. Coetsee .Maria Elizabeth 1941-
7. Cruse Pieter Gilles (Peter) 1893-1970
8. De Lange Johannes Hendrik 1889-1969
9. Dollman Anna Wilhelmina Johanna (Annette) 1951-
née Loubser
10. Du Plessis Isak Dawid 1943-
11. Du Toit Hendrik J L 1890-?
12. Eksteen Hendrik Ossewald 1909-1983
13. Escojido Roma Evelyn 1934-
14. Esterhuizen Margaretha Elizabeth (Rita) 1953-
née Hofmeyr
15. Fourie Hendrika 1906-1971
née Muller
16. Freyer Christelle 1956-
née Kilian
17. Greenwood Harry 1868-1948
18. Kruger Christie Marius Frans 1929-
19. Kruger Hendrik Tjaart 1893-1969
250
20. Kruger Monica 1923-
née Booysen
21. Kruger Pieter 1886-1962
22. Le Roux Frederik Simon 1927-
23. Loeb van Paul E 0 F 1926-
Zuilenburg
24. Malan Margaretha Maria 1898-1979
25. Matthews Thomas Harold (Tom) 1896-1970
26. Mostert Nicolaas 1932-
27, Muller Scheepers 1903:-?
28. Neethling Johannes Jacob (Jannie) 1917-1979
29. Nel Jeremias Daniël (Jerry) 1897-1977
30. Newcombe Isabella Petronella (Bella) 1922-
née Swart
31. Nieuwoudt Hester Johanna Magrieta 1917-
née Kruger
32. Oosthuizen Martin Stephanus 1932-
33. Pienaar Johannes Petrus 1894-?
34. Rezazadeh Christene 1953-
née Scholtz
35. Roelofse Daniël Jacobus 1923-1974
36. Roos Johan Nicolas 1934-
37. Sadie Frans Hendrik 1922-
38. Schutte Jan Harm 1903-1929
39. Schutte Philippus Jacobus W 1905-?
40. Smith Dina Johanna Jacomina 1929-
41. Snyman Elize 1939-
251
42. Swart Lenore 1954-
née Deeb
43. Van der Linde Hendrik Stephanus 1926-1987
44. Van der Walt Louis August 1905-1975
45. Van Tonder Carel 1912-1965
46. Van Velden Andries Christoffel (Boet) 1886-1957
47. Van Vuren Michiel Jozef 1898-?
48. Venter Eduard 1918-1965
49. Viljoen Barend 1900-?
50. Viljoen Nicolaas Gert Johannes (Nicol) 1952-
51. Vosloo Petronella Aletta 1906-1987
52. Weitz Francina Hendrika (Sienie) 1917-
née Buys
53. Wessels Angelique 1919-
née Van der Spuy
54. Wiggett Gert Albert 1916-1989
252
9. Deductions
Blind music teachers were active since the first decade of the
twentieth century. (Van der Vyver, 1956, p 68)
According to the biographies some 31 blind musicians, including
25 organists, received their musical training at the School for
the Blind, Worcester, CP before 1946. During 1946, 10 young
.blind musicians were preparing themsel ves for careers in music;
8 eventually became organists. In 1950, 25 blind musicians were
active in South Africa, while 8 students were still studying
music. During 1957, 30 blind musicians, including 23 organists,
were active in the country, while 4 students were busy with their
musical training. Since 1957 only 10 pupils of the School for
the Blind, Worcester, CP and Prinshof, Pretoria, Transvaal
qualified as musicians; only one of them became an organist.
In 1987 only 19 blind and visually impaired musicians remained;
only 7 were still employed as organists.
Despite a tradition of about eighty years, the situation of the
music teaching profession is not very promising. Of the 19 blind
.music teachers currently active in this country, 5 are partially
sighted, using inkprint and therefore, not like the blind,
subjected to professional discrimination. Only 7 of the remaining
14 are in permanent teaching posts - 1 at a university, 1 at
a school for the blind, 2 at secondary schools and 3 at primary
schools. This means that 50% of the blind teachers depend on
private teaching only.
253
On 14 May 1988 a committee, representing blind music teachers,
the South African National Council for the Blind and the South
African Blind Workers Organization, was formed in Pretoria.
This committee discussed two letters, one received from the
Minister of Education and Culture (Clase , 1987), the other from
the Committee of Heads of Education (Terblanche, 1988). With
regard to recommendations contained in these two letters, the
representative committee of blind workers decided to negotiate
with the authorities on the future of blind music teachers at
schools controlled by the government of the RSA.
10. Statistics based on questionnaires posed to blind
musicians in the Republic of South Africa (RSA)
In order to clarify the present position of blind musicians in
the RSA, the following statistics were compiled from interviews
and questionnaires posed to persons concerned. The feedback
was 83%.(Appendix, 1987)
10.1 When starting their education, 61% of the musicians
were totally blind and 39% visually impaired.
10.2 A total of 89% received their education at the School
for the Blind, Worcester, CP; 11% were educated at
Prinshof, Pretoria, Transvaal.
10.3 Because integration is not applied in the RSA, none
of the South African"born respondents have attended
a public school.
254
10.4 At school level 72,2% used braille music, 22,2% used
print, while 5,6% used braille, but relied to a great
extent on their memories in studying music.
10.5 The responden ts who declared that their music teachers
knew braille music, totalled 89%, 11% were taught by
music teachers who had no knowledge of braille music.
10.6 At school level tuition was received in piano by 100%
and in organ by 33%; as in the United States, the organ
did not receive its due recognition. The disadvantage
started at school, where the pupils did not receive
the necessary tuition in organ playing, rendering it
almost impossible for them to meet the required standard
in performance. The organ should not· be considered
merely as a second instrument; for many blind musicians
it could be the main instrument.
10.7 Tui tion in theory, harmony, history of music and staff
notation was given to all blind musicians to a limited
degree at school level. The preparation work for the
examinations of the University of South Africa (UNISA)
is not sufficient; the blind music student, on leaving
school, must have a thorough knowledge of theory,
harmony, history of music and especially staff notation.
At university these subjects are dealt with in courses
to comply with the requirements for specific diplomas
and degrees for sighted students. The blind music
studen t, embarking on a uni versi ty course ought to have
received specialized training beforehand, not only to
255
meet the requirements, but also to enable him to teach
sighted children. In the RSA there has been a contingent
of blind teachers and organists. Special efforts should
be made to improve their image and promote their
position.
10. 8 Braille music was used by 75% of the blind students
at university, 25% used print, while 8% used print and
braille.
10. 9 At university level music instruction was received in
piano by 100% , organ by 33%, singing by 33%, clarinet
by 8%, flute by 16%, trumpet by 8% and French horn by
8%.
10.10 In their professions as musicians 61% used braille music,
22% used print, 11% relied mainly on their memories,
while 6% used print and braille.
10.11 The number of musicians in permanent teaching posts
amounted to 55,5%; of those 70% taught sighted children,
20% blind and visually handicapped pupils and 10%
university students; 27,7% were involved in private
teaching.
10.12 Only 27% had experience in teaching school music.
10.13 The number of blind musicians who occupied posts as
organists amounted to only 39%.
10.14 Only 33% had any experience of conducting.
10.15 In the RSA no musical magazines for the blind were avail-
able. Blind musicians had to subscribe to music
magazines from abroad and to wait for the transcription
256
into braille of Musicus, the publication of UNISA.
The transcription of Musicus into braille is a laborious
affair and it is recommended that this excellent magazine
should be taped in an effort to keep pace with the
printed issue.
10.16 Only 17% of the respondents attended refresher courses
regularly; it was, however, not always possible for
the musicians in rural areas to attend such courses.
10.17 The age of the respondents ranged from 32 to 62 with
an average of 49,2 years.
10.18 The teaching experience of the respondents ranged from
10 to 48 years, with an average of 25,7 years. The
group .included members of the older generation.
10.19 As to mobility, 39% of the visually impaired had no
problems; as for the blind, 18% used guide dogs, 55%
used canes and 27% were assisted by sighted persons.
10.20 The qualifications of the respondents:
39% were academically qualified and 83% professionally
with some 33 diplomas - 5 in performance and 28 in
,. teaching. The respondents who were not professionally
qualified, were at least in possession of Grade 8
certificates. Only 17% were neither academically nor
professionally qualified.
10.21 Discipline, a bone of contention and a cause of dis-
crimination in the case of a blind teacher applying
for a post, concerned only 22% of the respondents, those
being engaged in public schools. They had no problems
257
because they gave LndLvi.duaL instruction. Small groups
proved to be manageable. Problems emerged in some
instances where large groups of pupils were entrusted
to a blind teacher. A solution was found by providing
a sighted teacher to help with the discipline. The
system proved successful in several public schools where
blind teachers were responsible for class singing.
Some blind musicians conducted choirs and school
orchestras successfully. It is quite feasible for a
blind teacher to conduct a choir in collaboration with
a sighted accompanist, or for the blind teacher to act
as accompanist with a sighted conductor. The instruction
of theory, harmony and aural training to small groups
did not present any disciplinary problems.
lO.22 The written work of sighted children was controlled
by the pupils exchanging books and marking each other's
work under the supervision of the teacher; advanced
pupils and sighted colleagues were also employed. This
system was perfected by blind teachers responsible for
Music as a subject in the secondary school.
10.23 According to 64% of the respondents the training of
blind musicians had improved, 14% were doubtful, while
22% declared that it had deteriorated. The following
reasons were given for the deterioration
The blind music pupil was too busy academically and
extramurally to prepare himself properly for a career
in music.
258
The requirements for the various music examinations,
theoretical and practical, were raised and the quality
of music teaching improved considerably during the past
forty years. Teachers have to be very well trained
and pupils really keen to study music.
The development of technology brought about a wider
range of vocations available to the blind.
Some of the qualified blind music teachers encountered
great difficulty in obtaining permanent teaching posts,
due to job discrimination.
Many respondents realiz~d the demand for specialized
training.
10.24 The future of blind musicians in the RSA was considered
positively by 64% and negatively by 36%. The respondents
emphasized the following reservations
Blind music teachers and organists should be appointed
on merit, according to qualifications and ability.
More specialized training should be provided by the
schools for the blind.
The braille printing press should employ more private
transcribers to meet the shortage of prescribed works
for music examinations.
There was general consensus that the present economical
condition was rather unfavourable for the teaching
profession.
Blind musicians should be able to cope with the compe-
tition in the open labour market.
259
10.25 Numerous suggestions for the training of blind musicians
were received, and after careful selection and analysis
the following list was compiled:
10.25.1 The standard of music teaching at schools for the blind
should be improved to enable young music students to
start earlier with their actual training.
10.25.2 The highly appreciated services of the Braille Music
Library, Worcester, forming an integral and essential
link in the normal functioning of blind musicians, would
benefit significantly if a fully qualified librarian
and an expert on braille music could be employed.
10.25.3 An additional year after standard 10, during which the
blind music students are being prepared for a university
course, should be made compulsory to meet the following
requirements
to pass Grade 8 in the first instrument
to start studying a second instrument
to pass Theory Grade 6 (UNISA)
Accompaniment and improvisation should receive urgent
attention.
An intensive study of staff notation is imperative.
The music student should be acquainted with the various
systems of braille music notation.
-Sight-reading of braille music, thought-processes and
musical memory should be developed.
Special attention should be paid to clothing, mannerisms,
attitudes, independence and adaptability to society.
260
Opportunities should be given to prospective blind teach-
ers to instruct sighted pupils.
The use of the optacon should be promoted.
The usefulness of computers in music and daily life
should be emphasized.
Special attention should be paid to conducting.
Opportunities should be given to blind music students
to learn from experienced teachers.
10.25.4 Music magazines such as Musicus, should be made available
on tape immediately after publication.
10.25.5 Braille music magazines from abroad should be obtained
regularly by the Braille Music Library.
10.25.6 Music students at schools for the blind should be entered
regularly for competitions such as Prelude and Debut,
as well as for· music examinations and eisteddfodau to
familiarize them with the idea of competition.
10.25.7 Braille music could be made more readily available by
the employment of private transcribers, a common practice
abroad. The first three voluntary braille music
transcribers are at present being trained by an authority
on braille music from the Braille Music Library,
Worcester, CP. (Imfama, October 1988, p 35)
10.25.8 Prospective music teachers and organists should be hand-
picked, but once selected, every bit of advice, guidance,
assistance and support should be given, not only by
the music department, but also by the school authorities.
10.25.9 A society should be formed to act on behalf of profes-
sional blind musicians.
261
10.26 Specialized training in music was received by 100% of
the respondents.
10.27 Emphasis was laid on specialized training by 100% of
the respondents.
10.28 The majority of respondents had no experience of inte-
gration into public schools. They stressed that the
image of the blind could be improved by integration
with sighted children, provided that sufficient resources
were available.
262
C HAP TER 8
CONCLUSION
1. Attitudes toward the blind
Blindness was regarded as such a tragedy in ancient times, that
the Greek author Euripides (c.. 485-406 BC) advised the blind
to commit suicide. (DSE, 1980, p 3)
The great Dutch painter, Pieter Breughel (1525-1569), depicted
in his painting The Parable of the Blind Men (on exhibition
in the National Museum, Naples), six blind men in a most realistic
manner. Five shabbily clad blind beggars are following their
leader who has already stumbled into a ditch. The remaining
five are still holding onto the staff or shoulder of the man
ahead. Their faces betray the misery of which their posture
and expression are further proof. The whole painting is
immeasureably sad, because one senses that the five beggars,
still standing on their feet, are about to follow their leader
into the ditch. (Lowenfeld, 1975, p 40)
In 1771, while passing through the market of Sainte Oivide,
France, Valentin Hauy saw a group of blind men placed before
a long desk on which sheets of music and lighted candles were
placed. Grotesquely dressed, wearing high pointed caps and large
cardboard spectacles, they were forced to make a burlesque attempt
at playing various instruments to the amusement and great delight
263
of the spectators. (Zahl ed, 1962, p 3) The scene made such
an impression on Hauy, that he, conscious of the achievements
of some blind intellectuals like Maria Theresia Paradis , Marianne
Kirchgassner and others, devoted himself to bring formal education
to the blind by establishing the first school for them in 1784
in Paris.
In spite of about two centuries of formal education and
significant contributions by numerous individuals since the time
of Didymus (308-398 AD), many people are still regarding the
blind as a homogenic group, quite different from other human
beings. Like any other person, each blind individual has his
own identity and personality. The basic difference is lack of
sight, consequently the movements of the blind are restricted
to a greater or lesser extent. Their desires, needs and ambitions
are the same as those of other humans, except in cases where
blindness is not the only handicap. The frustrations of the
blind derive from improper treatment and discrimination due to
ignorance.
In writing about the blind and their role in society, it is
amazing to find so much mutual ignorance and prejudice. The
blind themselves, with embarrassing blindisms and mannerisms,
are to be blamed for the apprehension on the part of the seeing.
The blind must· be taught at school that the world is not against
them. Instead of antagonism and confrontation caused by
frustration, positive thinking, politeness in negotiations and
a refined and gentle character will serve a much better purpose.
264
It is not for the blind to claim rights, but to bear their burden
with dignity and humility; above all to be efficient in their
occupations.
Given a fair chance and provided with specialized training, there
are professions in which they can excel and even surpass their
sighted colleagues; music is one of these. A careful study
of this thesis will leave the reader impressed by the
qualifications and achievements of blind musicians. Let them
be credited for what they can, and are so eager to accomplish.
Competence is not applicable to all the blind. Many of them
are incapable of supporting themselves and their families. The
dependent blind are being cared for in sheltered workshops.
Maladjustment to society is not only an alarming problem, but
undesirable for the image of the blind with no other.handicaps.
Individuals liable to such conduct should never have been allowed
to enter the open labour market.
2. The psychological disposition of the blind
A blind person cannot be expected to submit himself
unconditionally to his fate. The physical loss of vision is
a great enough problem, but the emotional shock on discovering
the consequences, is almost devastating. It can shatter the
afflicted person's ambition and render it well-nigh impossible
for him to cope with reality. Allowances should be made for
this predicament, not because of sympathy for the blind, but
by understanding them.
265
Initially the young blind child will find himself excluded from
many activities. He has no other option than to withdraw. He
will be left with a feeling of insecurity, deprived of the normal
activities of sighted people. He will tend to sulk and his
frustrations will give rise to resentment, antipathy and even
antagonism. (School Psychiatrists, 1987)
It is during this period, the formative years, that the blind
child is to be encouraged to participate in group activities,
a prerogative of boarding school pupils. He is surrounded
by other children with the same fears and suspense. His
confidence might be restored by the feeling of unity.
At secondary school the adolescent will be puzzled by numerous
questions. All possible means of communication between the pupil
and the teachers are to be employed to combat any form of
self-pity, retribution or isolation, which may lead to
instability.
During the secondary school phase it is of the utmost importance
that the blind student be prepared for his future career. Once
he has managed to come to grips with himself, he will realize
that resposibilities await him in future; he must, however,
find something within himself to accept the challenge. That
something can only be his specialized education, providing him
with the skills for daily life and with the assurance that he
will be capable of procuring a decent and meaningful existence.
266
This confidence will sustain him throughout his entire career.
The quality of his training will guarantee his ultimate success
in life.
3. Specialized training
At the time of research for this thesis,' it became evident that
some institutions for specialized training of the blind existed.
The Federal German Republic provided the best example of
specialized training. In 1987 it was reported that there was
a school for musically-gifted blind children in Munchen, operating
along the same lines as special music schools. The following
account, given by the dLr ector, could serve as an appropriate
example of specialized training. The ideal should be that such
specialized training be provided at schools for the blind, and
not only at special music schools.
"Our music school has been going since autumn 1983 and
is solely. developed to the preparation of blind and
visually-impaired children intending to study for a
musical career at a university or music academy. These
aims are not pursued at a secondary school including
vocational training to the sighted, at least not as
a primary object, so that by comparison the demands
on our pupils are set at a much higher level. Our
standards are those required for entrance into a music
academy, whereas vocational schools for the sighted
aim at a thorough grounding in adult music teaching,
ensemble direction and C-category church music provision.
267
Moreover, our curriculum is geared specifically to the
needs of the blind: subjects in which the blind student
starts with a built-in disadvantage are taught more
intensively. One example of this is conducting - an
extremely difficult task for a blind person. We have
arrived back at the subject of music and movement, but
in a much more complex correlation. But a music teacher
who cannot conduc.t a choir, or a church musician who
cannot conduct an orchestral mass or a Bach cantata
need not apply, for he would have no chance. On the
other hand, in aural training, the blind teacher is
far superior to the sighted. So we need not spend so
much time on this subject. Particular care is devoted
to the cultivation of instrumental technique. Every
pupil must play two instruments, and receives two
one-hour lessons on each instrument per week. The
demands in this field are technically, as well as
musically, extremely high. They are determined as
already mentioned by the entrance requirements of
the academies as much as by the fierce, almost
oppressive, competition by the sighted. Inability
to sightread is, of course, an enormous handicap for
the blind. It is, therefore, absolutely essential to
teach the best possible method of developing musical
memory and thought-processes and the mastery of braille
music notation. The timetable is restricted to
purely technical subjects and looks like this:
268
4 lessons in instrumental playing, 2 lessons in
composition, 2 lessons in conducting and choral
direction, 2 lessons in choral singing, 1 lesson in
history of music, 1 lesson in aural training, 1 lesson
in singing and playing-circle, 1 lesson in voice
production, 2 lessons in sport. Much is expected of
the individual pupils, and it is clear that only the
musically most-gifted and hard-working are accepted.
r For the study of music is no promenade and requires
- particularly for a blind person - great stamina and
good nerves. But I could well imagine that here and
there a talent is lying dormant which it would be a
pity not to train. The second instrument may be
started on· entry. The training takes two years and in
this school year we have five trainees who - don't laugh
- are instructed by six teachers. The reason for that
is that we have specialized·everything." .(Forstpointner,
1987, pp 55-58)
Such specialized training will enable the prospective blind music
student to attend a university and to complete his course with
success. It is to be regretted that so few educators recognize
I
I'. the urgent need for specialized training and that so little has
been done to this all-important issue for the blind musician.
Once his fears have been curbed and his aspirations stirred,
269
the blind music student will be capable of, and confidently
striving at success. Endowed with faith in God, the blind will
find the strengh to be reconciled.
The successful implementation of social integration with the
seeing can only be achieved after specialized training has been
accomplished.
4. General education
On account of the lack of specialized training,· integration into
public schools is not the solution of the problems encountered
by the blind. The only viable alternative to institutionalized
education for the blind must be found in some variation of
integration with sighted pupils. In a model system the pupil
lives in· parental care, attends a public school and receives
specialized training at a nearby institution with the necessary
facilities and equipment. Some Scandinavian countries seem to
be heading in this direction. (Pauw, 1987)
Such a scheme of integration can only be successfully implemented
when a sufficient number of institutions are available and easily
accessible to blind children in public schools. It is also
~'
r imperative that no stigma be attached to these institutions.
To attain this ideal situation, the multiple handicapped and
the mentally retarded should be cared for in separate
institutions. The financial aspect of this scheme will eventually
be the determining factor in planning future education for the
blind.
270
5. A thing of beauty is a joy for ever (Keats, Endymion)
At this stage it is appropriate to emphasize the tremendous
advantage which a blind person has who is married to a sighted
partner. In such a relationship assistance, advice and support
are obvious, while mobility and other autogenous problems are
minimized. Under these circumstances norm~l family life and
social integration with the seeing are possible.
r There are many well-known instances of blind men married to
I
sighted women. Full credit should be given to sighted women
like Victoria Kahmi (wife of Rodrigo) and Ursula Polch (wife
of Walcha), as well as:to many others remaining anonymous. Their
unselfish love, assistance, sacrifice and inspiration can never
be comprehended or rewarded. They have been, and still are
responsible for their blind husbands exceeding their limitations
and even surpassing their own expectations.
6. The noblest profession
The blind music student is apt to find that music in his life
is more important to him than to the seeing. If he is talented
and willing to work hard, music provides a more rewarding
profession economically, socially and spiritually, than most
other occupations. The many examples set forth in the historical
271
background furnished in Part One of this thesis, provide
sufficient proof, not only of their achievements, but also of
the significance of their contributions to the growth of serious
(classical) Western music.
"Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our lives sublime,
And, departing, leave behind us
Footprints on the sands of time." (Longfellow, The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Quotations, 1975, p 133)
From Homer to the present, professional blind musicians have
established themselves in society. They proved themselves to
be teachers, performers, composers and theoreticians of
significance, who enriched the cultural heritage of their
countries. The German author, Friedrich· Rochlitz, wrote the
following:
"Das Gebiet der Tonkunst ist von je her der besuchteste
und wohltatigste Zufluchtsort fur Blinde, denen die
Net.ur nicht alle Empfá·nglichkeiten fi;r Harmonie versagt
hatte. gewesen. Wie magte es auch anders sein? Wie
kannte es auch anders sein? !vie konnt:« der Mensch.
dem von dieser Erdenwel t der sichtbare Teil verschlos-·
sen ist. sich lieber ansiedein als in dem harbaren.
der mi t jenem keine oder nur zufá·llige Verbindungen
hat?"
272
The field of music has always been the most sought-after
and charitable refuge for the blind whom nature has
not denied all susceptiblity for harmony. How too would
it be otherwise? How too could it be otherwise? How
else could the person for whom the visible part of this
world is wasted, settle himself better than in the
audible, which has no or only casual connection with
the former? (Maser, 1956, p 75)
The accomplishments of isolated privileged individuals and those
of the Greek poets and singers, were succeeded by a long musical
tradition which .the bards carried through the Middle Ages.
Gradually, as instrumental music developed, the blind bec8me
involved in the process with· several teachers, composers and
theoreticians developing the new keyboard style. After pioneers
such as Landini, Paumann, Schlick and Cabezón, who flourished
during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the flow of
virtuosi with John Parry, John Stanley, Maria Theresia Paradis,
Marianne Kirchgassner, Alfred Hollins, Louis Vierne and many
others culminated in the twentieth century with the composer,
Rodriga and the organ recitalist, HelrnutWalcha.
According to a League of Nations survey undertaken in 1920 and
published in 1929 in the Braille Musical Review, there were at
least some 383 blind musicians in the United Kingdom 291 in
England and Wales and 92 in Scotland. At the same time it was
reported that more than 500 blind musicians, 387 men and 119
women, were active in the United States. (Eldridge, 1987)
273
7. Quo vadis
Sixty years after the League of Nations survey of blind musicians,
the scene has changed drastically. It is incomprehensible that
after two milleniums of involvement of the blind in the
development of music and two centuries of formal education, so
few blind people are engaged in the music profession. In
responding to questionnaires circulated during research for this
thesis, many reasons were given by the blind for the apparent
decrease in their numbers. After careful analysis of the opinion
poll and subsequent discussions with some educators, the following
list of reasons crystalized:
7.1 The decline of the institutions
7.2 Integration of the blind into public schools
7.3 An insufficient knowledge of braille music
7.4 Discriminating practices
7.5 A wider range of vocations available to the blind
7.6 The rise of popular music
7.7 Raised standards required
7.8 Economical conditions
7.1.1 During the latter half of the twentieth century, in-
stitutions have expanded their scope and general interest
to cope with the needs of the blind community at large.
Coinciding with general education the emphasis,
previously focussed on the individual and specialized
training, has been shifted to cover the broad community,
that is mainstream. Music is no longer regarded as
a priority, neither in general, nor in specialized
274
education. Blind students, forming a minority, have
to seek their own salvation. Despite formal education,
the blind find themselves back in a position of self-
emancipation and for their training dependent on private
tutors. The institutions, after losing their grip on
the blind intellectuals due to integration into public
schools, have become asylums for the multiple handicapped
and the mentally retarded.
7.2.1 Integration of the blind into public schools started
in the United States at the beginning of this century.
It is at present in an experimental stage in Western
Europe and the United Kingdom; it is logical to expect
that' the Republic of South Africa will be coping with
this policy before the end of the century. Integration
entails parental care and home environment as a
substitute for the boarding school system. The blind
student with normal intelligence is thus being
assimilated with society and severed from the blind
community with its ensuing social and psychological
problems. There are at least six variations of
integration with the seeing (dealt with in chapter 2
pp 147, 148 of this thesis) currently being experimented
with in various countries. The ultimate model should
make provision for the teaching of braille, a sound
knowledge of braille music to music students, programmes
in school preparedness, courses in mobility, physical
education, sporting activities, participation in social,
275
cultural and religious activities, visual and tactile
training, libraries, textbooks in braille and large
print, braille machines, closed circuit television and
other optical devices, computers, optacons, versabrailles
etc. (Pauw, 1987)
,,15 Suppose there are brothers or sisters who need
clothes and don't have enough to eat. 16 What good is
there in your saying to them, God bless you! Keep warm
and eat well! - if you don't give them the necessities
of life?" (Good News Bible, 1977, NT p 286)
7.3.1 There is at present no substitute for braille or ,the
braille music code. In the fourth century, Didymus
employed persons to read to him. Textbooks were
inaccessable to him and the blind intellectuals who
came after him. The braille system, introduced in 1829,
made books available to the blind. Talking books and
tape recorders can never replace braille. Too much
money is spent on these projects, instead of on the
production of braille material.
Although resource teachers are supplied to assist blind
pupils in public schools, braille music is not being
taught. At public schools blind children are in the
position to select their own music teachers, presumably
the best sighted professionals, but without any knowledge
276
of braille music. The' result is that tape recorders
are employed, rendering the present generation almost
illiterate as to braille music. This undesirable state
of affairs resulted in the publication of two books
in the United States. The authoress of the first book,
They Shall Have Music, wrote the following:
"This book is written in an informal style, directed
to the average sighted keyboard teacher who is presen~ed
with the challenge of teaching a blind or partially
sighted student. It is readable, and as accurate as
I could make it." (Dykema, 1987)
The second book, Music through Braille, was written
by dr Anne Burrows, a well-known Edmonton pianist and
music educator. She wrote:
"It is also a symbol of hope for a richer life for
musicians who cannot see, and it presents a small but
important contribution to world literacy."
I The book was published in two parallel volumes, a printed
r copy for- the use of the sighted teacher, with a
corresponding braille volume for the blind pupil.
(MacLean, 1987, pp 22-24)
277
A treatise to the same effect appeared in the Republic
of South Africa. (Kruger, 1986) Every sighted music
teacher teaching the blind should obtain these three
books.
7.4.1 Legislation cannot prevent prejudice, but it can prohibit
r discrimination. Job reservation, based on racial
I·
discrimination, is totally inacceptable and is condemned
by the UN and almost every country in the world; in
the meantime, however, certain educational boards are
allowed to discriminate against the blind when applying
for teaching posts. The curricula. vitae of the blind
musicians interviewed and subjected to questionnaires,
indicated their outstanding qualifications. Therefore
they should be considered for the posts for which they
apply and have merits. The following evaluation of
blind music teachers in the Republic of South Africa
was published in a treatise.
"Questionnaires which were completed anonymously by
seeing ex-pupils depict a competent image of the blind
piano teacher. The relationship between teacher and
pupil, the blind piano teacher's competency, his
educational achievements as well as his ability to impart
knowledge were evaluated as very good.
An opinion poll among headmasters who have experience
of blind piano teachers on their staff, has recorded
278
the blind piano teacher as competent in his subject
with a good rating in teaching achievements.
In the majority of cases the teacher is accepted by
the pupils and their parents as well adapted to the
normal school situation. The blind piano teacher's
ability for class discipline is adequate and his mobility
sufficient. The blind piano teacher's efficiency' in
extra-mural activities is adequate. With regard to
autogenous p~oblems, he needs some assistance from a
sighted person." (Kruger, 1986, pp 191-192)
Bengt Lindqvist was appointed as Deputy Minister of
Social Affairs in the Swedish cabinet in 1985 by the
late Olof Palme. He became Europe's first blind cabinet
minister at the age of 49. He was in charge of a lO-year
plan, allowing th~ handicapped to play as normal a role
as possible in Swedish society. His immediate ambition
was to improve employment possibilities for the disabled.
In an interview he stated his views:
"It is totally inacceptable that so many people with
excellent qualifications cannot find work simply because
they are handicapped." (Mosey, April 1987, p 75)
Henry Fawcett (1833-1884), an Englishman who became
blind in his twenties, managed to become a professor
279
in political economics at the University of Cambridge
in 1863. In 1865 he became a member of parliament for
the Liberal Party, first for Brighton and afterwards
for Hackney. In 1880 he was promoted to Postmaster
General by Gladstone. His last speech in the cause
of the blind was made shortly before his death, and
was a plea to his audience to
"replace the depressing misery of dependence by the
buoyant activity which comes from self-reliance and
from the consciousness of the power to earn one's own
living." (Thomas, 1949, p 41 et seq)
If the blind are to earn their own living, it is only
fair that they be not subjected to unreasonable pressure
when seeking to become established in the music teaching
profession. The personal prejudices of some individuals
should not supply the criteria.
7.5.1 Progress in technology and computer science have brought
about several work possibilities for the blind. Music
is no longer regarded as the only viable profession
for the blind. The following information was supplied
in the United Kingdom:
"Some 1,500 blind people work as clerks, shorthand and
280
audio typists, telephonists and computer programmers.
There are more than 150 blind and partially sighted
computer programmers, working in government departments,
commercial and industrial organizations.
Some 1000 blind and partially sighted people work in
the professions. There are blind lawyers and social
workers, economists and scientists. They have the same
qualifications and do the same work as their sighted
colleagues.
The 4000 blind production workers in UK factories do
a wide range of jobs including machine operating and
assembly, press work and inspection, on equal terms
with their sighted fellow workers." (RNIB brochure,
November 1985, pp 3, 5, 6)
"Many professional training courses for sighted people
in subjects such as law, teaching, social work and speech
therapy accept blind and partially sighted students."
(RNIB brochure, May 1985, p 6)
The availability of new vocations, however, need not
exclude the blind automatically from their oldest
profession, music. If they are accepted in other spheres
of life, why not in the one profession in which they
have already established themselves with considerable
distinction?
281
7.6.1 In Western countries there is a notable increase in
the popularity of music as entertainment. Music without
any demand on the intellect is preferred by the present
generation. Besides, popular music seems an easy way
of earning much money. It is totally inacceptable in
literature, science, technology, politics and religion
for the layman and illiterate to manipulate public
opinion, but in music, the finest profession, this is
common piactice. Music as entertainment has its place
and as such supply in the needs of millions. Popular:
music poses a very luring profession to some of the
blind. The implementation of serious music in formal
education for blind and sighted children should be
promoted in order to counteract the materialistic appeal
of the twentieth century.
7.7.1 Competition in music is very strong and affects the
seeing and the blind, the music student and the
professional. Musicians with inferior or insufficient
training, whether sighted or blind, will find it
increasingly difficult to survive in their profession.
For the blind music student contemplating a career in
serious music, specialized training is essential. His
training must include a thorough knowledge of braille
music, an intensive study of staff notation, performing
proficiency in at least two instruments, a sound train-
282
ing in theory of music and experience in teaching sighted
children. Every blind musician ought to exploit
refresher courses, available teaching aids and music
magazines to the full.
7.8.1 During an economical recess the arts, including music,
will be more vulnerable than most other professions.
The blind musician in particular, must endeavour to
procure his employer's appreci~tion for his services
in order to retain his position, not because of, but
in spite of his blindness.
8. Deduction
At the sixth quinquennial conference of the International Council
for Education of the Visually Handicapped in Paris in 1977,
R L Borg made the following two statements with regard to the
blind and music:
"After years of experience one can only conclude that,
of all the avenues of communication open to the blind
music is the most important ...
Without doubt music can and does provide a meaningful
function in expediting the normal development of the
visually handicapped physically, intellectually,
socially and emotionally. The teacher's part is the
obvious one." (MacLeod, February 1988, p 45)
283
These statements, together with the proof of the musical feats
accomplished by the blind, dealt with in the historical part
of this document, substantiate the thesis that they have made
a significant contribution to the growth of music in Western
civilization. It is only logical to expect that they will
persevere and succeed, provided that educators realize the
indispensability of music in the lives of the blind, that they
receive the essential training and that they are granted the
opportunity to devote themselves to music:
"It is interesting to note that the one art in which
the blind are pr ofi.ic.errtis the only art that cannot
be subjugated to visual values and visual meanings."
(Cutsforth, 1972, p 188)
\ve are obliged to encourage the future generation as we have
been inspired by our predecessors. John F Kennedy declared:
"It is our task in our time, in our generation, to hand
down unfinished to those who come after us what was
handed down to us by those who went before us. To do
this requires constant attention and vigilance, sustained
vigour and imagination." (SABWO News, March 1988, p
9)
APPENDIX A, 1986, 1987
QUESTIONNAIRE POSED TO BLIND ~ruSICIANS
QUESTIONNAIRE NUMBER I I 1- 4
1. You started your education as blind 1
visually impaired 2
sighted 3 5
2. You attended a residential school 1
public school 2
both 3 6
3. If blind and while attending
a public school, were you Yes
assisted by a resource teacher? No Ea 7
4. Did you use braille music at
school level? Yes
No EB 8
5. Did your music teacher(s) Yes
have any knowledge of
braille music? No rn 9
6. In which of the following Piano 1
did you receive tuition
at school level? Organ 2
Violin 3
Flute 4
Clarinet 5
Trumpet 6
French horn 7
Guitar 8
Specify Other ......... 9 10-18
2
7. Did you study the following Theory 1
subjects at school level?
Harmony 2
Historv of music 3
Staff notation 4 19-22
8. Did you use braille music
at university level? Yes
No 23
9. In which of the following
did you receive tuition at Piano 1
.university level? Organ 2
Violin 3
Flute 4
Clarinet 5
Trumpet 6
French horn 7
Guitar 8
Specify Other ••••••••. e 9 24-32
10. Which of the following do Braille music 1
you use in your profession?
Large print 2
Ordinary print 3
Memory 4
Tape recorder 5 33-35
Il. You occupy a permanent
teaching post at a residential school 1
public school 2
11.1 You adhere only to private teaching 3 36
3
12. Are you responsible for
school music programmes? Yes
No Ef] 37
13. Do you occupy a post as Yes
a church organist?
No Ef] 38
14. Do you conduct a choir or an orchestra? Yes
No EE 39
15. Do you read musical magazines regularly? Yes
No EE8 40
16. Do you attend refresher Regularly 1
courses?
Occasionally 2
Never 3 41
17. What is your age? ffi 42-43
18. What is your experience? ffi 44-45
4
19. For your mobility you are cane 1
dependent on a
guide dog 2
sighted person 3
19.1 You are independent 4 46-47
20. How are you qualified? Academically 1
Professionally 2
Neither 3 48-49
, 21. Your discipline in the excellent 1class situation is
good 2
adequate 3
poor 4 50
22. For controlling the written colleagues 1
work of sighted pupils you
rely on friends 2
advanced pupils 3
ex-pupils 4
pupils exchanging books
iR tbe ,...1""",,,, <::;1"""':'1"";,,n c; 51-55
23. According to your oplnlon improved 1
the training of blind
musicians during the past deteriorated 2 56
forty years has
5
24. You consider the future promising
of blind musicians as
bleak 57
25. Do you consider the following Specialized training 1
as essential to blind musicians?
Braille music 2
Staff notation 3 58-60
26. The musical training you specialized training 1
received was aimed at
social activity 2
therapy 3
entertainment 4 61-63
27. You'consider 'your music specialized training 1
teaching as
social activity " 2
therapy 3
entertainment 4 64-66
28. According to your oplnlon advantageously 1
integration into public
schools affects blind pupils detrimentally 2 67
284
SUMMARY
This thesis concerns the part played by blind musicians in the
development of serious (classical) musi~ in Western civilization.
It is divided into two sections. Part One serves as a historical
background and contains biographies and a directory of blind
musicians from abroad, and is an attempt to ascertain and evaluate
their contribution to music. Part Two deals with the development
of print and education for the blind. It contains an assessment
of the present position in the United States of America, United
Kingdom and Republic of South Africa. The chap~er on the Republic
of South Africa includes biographies and a directory of blind.
musicians and their contributions to serious music. In Part
Two some suggestions are made with regard to the future of blind
musicians.
The blind were involved in music centuries before the birth of
Christ, as illustrated by an example found in an ancient Egyptian
tomb. Numerous Greek poets and singers, including Homer,
Xenocritos and Thamyris were blind. Some blind musicians
established themselves as bards, being active and enriching
considerably the cultural heritage of various countries since
the pre-Christian era until the nineteenth century. The
contribution of the blind bards was of no less significance than
that of the troubadours, trouveres, Minnesanger and Meistersinger.
From Ars Nova to the Renaissance blind musicians mainly occupied
themselves with the development of the new instrumental style
285
with Paumann, Schlick and Cabezón as leading figures in this
genre. During the Baroque and the classical period blind
musicians such as Waldkirch, Parry, Stanley, Paradis and
Kirchgassner procured by their own achievements, not only the
right to live, but they also gained international recognition
and the goodwill of their fellow citizens. Their feats in the
realm of music led to the establishment of the first school for
the blind, L'Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles in Paris
by Valentin Hauy in 1784.
During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries several notable
blind performers, teachers and composers such as Hollins, Vierne,
Walcha, Beetz and Rodriga achieved international fame.
Prior to the invention of braille, education for the blind was
confined to some privileged individuals, instructed by private
tutors. The blind were compelled to use regular writing and
staff notation either cut out, incised or embossed. Because
textbooks could not be reproduced for them, they relied almost
exclusively on their memories. The raised dot system was invented
in 1829 by the blind Louis Braille (1809-52) and this unique
code, their contact with the written word, eventually superseded
all other methods of communication for the blind.
Since 1784 numerous institutions for the blind were founded in
various countries and they flourished until about the middle
286
of the twentieth century, supplying the blind with formal
education and specialized training. Since 1900 blind children
in the United States were steadily integrated into public (day)
schools. In the United Kingdom integration is at present in
an experimental stage, while in the Republic of South Africa
education for the blind is confined to residential schools
providing for each population group.
Despite the accomplishments of their predecessors, blind musicians
are deeply concerned about the drastic decrease in their .:numbers
since the middle of the twentieth century. There seems to be
a general consensus among the blind that the diminishing role
of blind musicians can be ascribed to the following reasons
derived from questionnaires:
The decline of the institutions
Integration of blind children into public schools
An insufficient knowledge of braille music
Discriminating practices
A wider range of occupations available to the blind
The rise of popular music
Raised standards required
Economical conditions.
r
It is only logical to anticipate that the blind will be able
to repeat their feats in the future, provided that educators
recognize the indispensability of music in their lives and
education, that the necessary specialized training is available
and that they be not barred from employment by discrimination.
I
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LITERATURE
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III
Krolick, Bettey Dictionary of braille music signs.
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New encyclopaedia Chicago, London, Toronto,
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Riemann, Hugo Musik-Lexikon, 3 yols .. Mainz:
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IV
Sadie, Stanley ed The new Grove dictionary of music
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Bachelder, Louise ed The gift of music. Mount Vernon,
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Booyens, Bun Fiat Lux. Worcester, RSA: In-
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VI
Haydon, Glen Introduction to musicology.
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VII
Lowenfeld, Berthold ed The visually handicapped child
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IX
THESES AND DISSERTATIONS
Burford, Leonard The blind in music education of
the sighted. Unpublished D thesis.
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Kruger, C M F Klavierdidaktiese problematiek
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Cargill, Floyd Rand National directory of blind
Eldridge, Carlton B et al teachers. Washington DC, NABT,
1983.
Hadley, Anne Directory of services for
visually handicapped South Africans,
3 vols. Pretoria: SANCB, vols
1, 3, 1985.
Wagg, Henry J A chronological survey of work
for the blind. London:
Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd, 1932.
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The South African National 28th Biennial report 1985-1987.
Council for the Blind Pretoria: SANCB, October 1987.
x
School files and Worcester, RSA: School for the
register 1886-1973 Blind, 23-27 March 1987.
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Labunski, A "Pipe dreams." Classical1.
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Darrow, Alice-Ann and "Loweil Mason." The Musical
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Estrella, Miguel Angel "Music for all." UNESCO Braille
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XII
Haare, Bob "RNIB Music Committee." Braille
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XIII
Neiges, Marie des "Nazareth Institute for the Blind."
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Peotrowski, Kenneth R "The glassharmonica and sacred
music." Musical Mainstream,
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its future." Overtones, vol 26,
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XIV
Shehan, Patricia "Major approaches to music edu-
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ARTICLES ON
"Aldridge, Richard" Braille Musical Magazine. London:
RNIB, January 1974.
"Braille music - Braillorette, 30. Johannesburg:
standardization" SABWO, 1 May 1987.
"Braille musiek: Imfama, vol 28, no 5.
'nnuwe projek " Pretoria: SANCB, October 1988.
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Worcester, RSA: Skool vir Blindes,
1 November 1957.
xv
"Crosby, Fanny" Musical Review. Paris: American
Braille Press, December 1930.
"Dawber, James and the ISM" Braille Musical Magazine. London:
RNIB, December 1969.
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"Greenhill, Harold" Braille Musical Magazine. London:
RNIB, August 1978.
"Hollins, Alfred" Braille Music Magazine, vol 276,
no 2. London: RNIB, February
1983.
"Japanese music Braille Music Magazine, vol 296,
and the blind" no 1. London: RNIB, January 1988.
"Logan, Sinclair" Braille Musical Magazine. London:
RNIB, March 1965.
"Marchal, André" Musical Mainstream. Washington
DC: NLS, November/December 1985.
"Milsap Foundation" Lifeprint, vol 3, no 1. Salem,
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NIB, November 1921.
"Organ Morgan" Braille Music Magazine, vol 295,
no 1. London: RNIB, October 1987.
XVI
"Osborn, Thomas Gardiner" Braille Musical Magazine. London:
NIB, July 1921.
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no 1. London: RNIB, January 1983.
"Priest, Frederick WIt Braille Musical Magazine. London:
NIB, March 1921.
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NIB, September 1921.
XVII
"Wolstenholme, W" Braille Musical Magazine, vol
265, no 2. London: RNIB, May
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NIB, August 1921.
BROCHURES
Bruce, Ian "Forward after an exciting year".
r London: RNIB, 31 March 1985.
Catalogue of braille London: RNIB, 1981.
music and music literature
Grayson, Dava Facts about blindness & visual
impairment. New York: AFB, 1986.
Music library for blind Washington DC: NLS, [s a].
and visually handi-
capped individuals
Royal National Institute "Blind children at school." London:
for the Blind RNIB, November 1982.
"Blind people at work." London:
RNIB, November 1985.
"Looking for work." London: RNIB,
I May 1985.
f Tarazona, Andres Luiz "José Ortiga: Piano." Madrid:
ONCE, 1988.
The Lighthouse Music New York: AFB, May 1965.
School
The Lighthouse news New York: AFB, Summer 1972.
Vaughan, Martin et al AGCAS careers information. London:
RNIB, October 1983.
XVIII
NEWSPAPERS
South African Blind Johannes burg: SABVJO, March 1988.
Workers Organization News,
vol 31, no 2.
South African Digest Pretoria: Bureau for Information,
10 April 1987; 4 March 1988.
~vorcester St.enderd & Worcester, RSA: 3 May 1957;
Advertiser 23 August 1974; 22 May 1981.
CORRESPONDENCE (in the possession of the writer)
Basson, Janna Richmond CP, RSA: 27 April 1987;.'
6 July 1987; 10 July 1987;
26 January 1988.
Botha, Antonnette \vorcester, RSA: 15 June 1987;
22 July 1987; 12 October 1987;
17 January 1988.
Bouwer, J D Bloemfontein, RSA: 17 November
1987.
Clase, minister P J Pretoria, RSA: 29 April 1987.
Coetsee, M E Kroonstad, RSA: 31 March 1987.
Department of Education Pretoria, RSA: 26 April 1988.
and Culture/Administration:
House of Assembly
Dollman, Annette Johannesburg, RSA: 5 May 1987.
,
Dykema, Dorothy Carbondale Il, USA: 1 March 1987;
31 July 1988.
XIX
Eldridge, Carlton Springfield Il, USA: 21 October
1985; 17 March 1986; 11 July
1986; 1 December 1986; 25 January
1987; 10 December 1987.
Esterhuizen, H E Pretoria, RSA: 4 May 1987.
Hoare, Robert London: 24 May 1987; 10 June
1987; 19 October 1987.
Huebner, dr Kathleen M New York: 8 November 1986.
James, John Hereford, England: 24 April 1987;
18 May 1987.
James, Michael Borth, Wales: 18 May 1986.
Kearney, Renzie A Worcester, RSA: 29 May 1987.
Liddle, David London: 15 Jari~ary 1987.
Loeb van Zuilenburg, P E 0 F Stellenbosch, RSA: 24 August 1988.
Mostert, ·Japie Springs, RSA: 3 April 1987.
Natal Education Department Pietermaritzburg, RSA: 29 April
1985.
Neethling, P J Bloemfontein, RSA: 6 July 1987.
Oosthuizen, Martin Pretoria, RSA: 22 May 1987;
3 July 1987.
Pauw, prof Theo Strand, RSA: 24 November 1987.
Peach, P P Pretoria, RSA: 10 June 1985.
Pretorius, W M Johannesburg, RSA: 12 January
1987.
Rezazadeh, Christene Welkom, RSA: 10 May 1987.
Roos, Johan Brits, RSA: 12 May 1987.
Rowland, dr William Pretoria, RSA: 15 June 1987.
xx
Snyman, Elize Kimberley, RSA: 12 April 1987.
Swart, Lenore Johannesburg, RSA: 5 May 1987.
Transvaal Education Depart- Pretoria, RSA: 18 February 1985.
ment
Van der Poel, dr J H Worcester, ~SA: 17 February 1987.
Williams, Barbara Camberwell, Australia: 15 December
1986; 12 January 1987.
INTERVIEWS
Aspeling, M E Pretoria, RSA: 30 November 1987.
Aucamp, Connie Worcester; RSA: 25 March 1987.
Basson, Janna Richmond CP, RSA: 20 March 1987.
Bennette, George New York: 23 June 1986.
Blom, Danie Worcester, RSA: 26 March 1987.
Bosch, J Bloemfontein, RSA: 6 January 1988.
Botha, Antonnette Worcester, RSA: 22 March 1987.
Cargill, Floyd Spring field Il, USA: 9 July 1986.
Department of Education Pretoria, RSA: 24 August 1988.
and Culture Administration:
House of Assembly
Di Francesco, John Knoxville Te, USA: 3 July
1986.
Dutch Reformed Church Bloemfontein, RSA: 30 June 1987.
Archive
Eldridge, Carlton Springfield Il, USA: 9 July 1986.
Emanuel, Shirley Washington DC: 27 June 1986.
XXI
Ferreira, S C Bloemfontein, RSA: 2 July 1987.
Freedman, dr Saul New York: 24 June 1986.
Freyer, Christelle Pretoria, RSA: 3 December 1987.
Gerrard, Christine Dunstable, England: 16 July 1986.
Hattingh, dr J F J Pretoria, RSA: 26 October 1987.
Hoare, Robert London: 14 July 1986.
Kelly, Sandra Washington DC: 27 June 1986.
Kogler, Marcia Mendelson New York: 23 June 1986.
Krige, J Pretoria, RSA: 23 July 1987 .
Matthews, Tom .Bult f ont e.i.n , RSA: December 1959.
Miller, Gerald New York: 24 June 1986.
Mostert, Nicolaas Riebeeck-Wes, RSA: 14 December
1987.
Music Department Worcester, RSA: 23 March 1987.
Pioneer School,
Mynhardt, Leatitia Bloemfontein, RSA: 25 November
1987.
Naude, Heila Johannesburg, RSA: 13 April 1987.
Odendaal, W J Bloemfontein, RSA: 17 February
1988.
OFS Department of Education Bloemfontein, RSA: 2 July 1987.
Oosthuizen, Martin Pretoria, RSA: 25 July 1987.
Pauw, prof Theo Strand, RSA: 24 November 1987.
Petersen, Janiece Knoxville Te, USA: 4 July 1986.
Pizer, B P Bellville, RsA: 30 November 1987.
Psychiatrists, Pioneer School Worcester, RSA: 24 March 1987.
XXII
Rallo, Joseph P Knoxville Te, USA: 3 July 1986.
Ridgeway, Thomas H Macon Ga, USA: 30 June 1986.
Sieberhagen, H Bloemfontein, RSA: 30 June
1987.
Stofberg, Jack Bloemfontein, RSA: 2 July
1987.
Sulter, W C Bloemfontein, RSA: 16 August
1987.
Tomson, Barbara New York: 23 June 1986.
Van der Poel, dr J H Worcester, RSA: 23 March 1987.
Van Niekerk, Magriet Bloemfontein, RSA: 21 October
1987.
Vaughan, dr V H Potchefstroom, RSA: 1 July
1987.
Viljoen, Nicol Bloemfontein, RSA: 26 March
1988.
Votta, Myrna New York: 23 June 1986.
Wiggett, Gert \.Jorcester,RSA: 27 March 1987.
Williams, Barbara Springfield Il, USA: 7 July 1986.