UOVS - SASOL-BIBLIOTEEK
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199901294101220000019
CHILD ABUSE AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF ADOLESCENTS
IN LESOTHO - A QUALITATIVE STUDY
by
'MAKHOJANE MONYANE
B. Ed. (NUL), B. Ed. (UOFS)
DISSERTATION
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF EDUCATION
in the
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
of the
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
at the
UNIVERSITY OF THE ORANGE FREE STATE
BLOEMFONTEIN
STUDY LEADER: DR. E VAN ZYL
MARCH 1999
Univer~iteit van die
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T 371.78096885 MON
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To my supervisor, Dr. E. van Zyl, for her generous time, guidance, invaluable
assistance and insight.
To the students of Save our Soul school and Hleoheng Primary in Lesotho who were
involved in interviews and for their frank responses as to the needs and problems.
Without their contributions, this study would not have been a success.
To Mrs. Joan Nel for having assisted me in typing this work.
To ALL my colleagues at the Free State University for their encouragement and
upliftment throughout my study.
To ALL my friends for their emotional support throughout my study and who never
doubted in my abilities.
I also thank the Almighty God for the wisdom, strength, patience and health He gave
me to finish this work.
DEDICATION
TO: MY LATE BELOVED SISTER: NTSOAKI
MY PARENTS: 'MATUMELO AND SELOMI MONYANE
MY OTHER SIBLINGS: TUMELO, 'MALEFASO AND CHELETE
Declaration
I 'Makhojane Monyane, sincerely and solemnly declare that this dissertation is my original
and independent work and has never been submitted to any University or faculty for the
degree purpose.
.....~.....\.......~... \~Q~ .
M. Monyane
OPSOMMING
Kindermishandeling is die doelbewuste gebruik van geweld met die oog op die
besering of benadeling van die kind. Mishandelde kinders word in die meeste gevalle
gekarakteriseer deur In lae selfbeeld, wangedrag soos jeugmisdaad en stokkiesdraai,
ongenoegsame taalontwikkeling, depressie, negativisme en In neiging om anti-sosiaal
te wees. Die probleemstelling van die studie is om vas te stelof daar In verband is
tussen kindermishandeling en akademiese prestasie. Die studie fokus op In groep
adolessente van SOS-skool en Hleoheng primêre skool in Lesotho.
Die doel van die ondersoek is om aan te toon hoe kindermishandeling die
akademiese prestasie van In kind kan beïnvloed sowel as die gevolglike
gedragsverandering van die mishandelde kind. Die gesin en die skool as die
opvoedkundige ongewing van die kind word verder bestudeer asook maniere waarop
hierdie instellings bronne kan wees van kindermishandeling. Die oorsake van en
tipes kindermishandeling word ook ondersoek.
In hierdie studie word relevante plaaslike en internasionale literatuur bestudeer. In
Groep mishandelde adolessente van SOS-skool en Hleoheng primêre skool in
Lesotho is gebruik as respondente. Gestruktureerde onderhoude is gebruik om data
te versamel vir die doel van die studie. Familie-agtergrond, die tipe mishandeling,
emosies, sosiale verhoudings, konsentrasie-vermoëns, potensiaal en spesifieke
karaktertrekke is verder bestudeer as moontlike invloede op akademiese prestasie.
Die eerste deel van die studie definieer die konsep kindermishandeling. Die
algemene oorsake en tipes kindermishandeling word bestudeer. Verskeie faktore
beïnvloed ouers, of enige een wat in loco parentis optree om kinders te mishandel.
Soortgelyk kan aangetoon word dat kinders self ook skuldig kan wees aan
kindermishandeling. Ouers mishandel kinders egter op In verskeidenheid van
maniere soos, onder andere, fisiese, seksuele, emosionele en ekonomiese
mishandeling, sowel as verwaarlosing.
Die ideaal is dat die kind se huis die beste plek is vir sy opvoeding. Dit volg dus dat
die gesin verantwoordelikheid moet dra vir die beswil van die ontwikkelende kind. Die
skool, aan die ander kant, moet die kind tot hulp wees om sy of haar vermoëns te
realiseer. Die gesin en die skool word beskou as die belangrikste opvoedkundige
omgewings van die kind. Die gebrek aan verantwoordelike volwasse intreding en
leiding gebaseer op beginsels van liefde, warmte en sekuriteit in die kind se lewe kan
lei tot die funksionering van die gesin en die skool as instellings van mishandeling.
Op so In wyse word die funksies van die gesin en die skool verander. Kinders word
dus mishandel binne die struktuur van die gesin en die omgewing van die skool. Die
mishandelde kinders presteer gevolglik swak akademies. Huidiglik reik SOS-skool in
Lesotho uit na hierdie kinders in In poging om hulle op te voed ten spyte van vroeë
lewensondervindings. Ongelukkig kan SOS-skool nie voorsien in die behoefte van
hierdie vinnig-groeiende getal mishandelde kinders.
Hierdie navorsing bevestig die verband tussen kindermishandeling en akademiese
prestasie.
SUMMARY
Child abuse refers to the intentional use of force aimed at injuring or damaging the
child. Abused children are in most cases characterised by a low self concept
misbehaviour such as delinquency and truancy, inadequate language development,
depression, negativism and abused children appear to be anti-social. The statement
of the problem for this study is whether a relationship exists between child abuse and
academic performance. The study focuses on a group of adolescents at SOS school
and Hleoheng primary school in Lesotho.
The objectives of this investigation are to show how child abuse can affect the
academic performance of a child and to identify subsequent behavioural changes of
abused children.
The family and the school as the child's educational environments, are further
investigated and ways in which these institutions can be the major sources of child
abuse are studied. The causes and types of child abuse are also investigated.
In this study related local and international literature on child abuse and academic
performance were reviewed. A group of abused adolescents from SOS school and
Hleoheng primary in Lesotho were used as the target group for the purpose of this
study. Structured interviews were used to collect data on the family background of
abused children, the type of abuse they experienced, their emotions, how they relate
with other people, their concentration potential, and specific characteristics that can
be attributed to poor academic performance.
The first part of the study defines the concept of child abuse. The general causes
and types of child abuse are examined.
Numerous factors influence parents or anybody in loco parentis to abuse children. In
the same way, it has also been discovered that children can also be perpetrators of
child abuse. Parents, however, abuse children differently, resulting in various forms
of abuse namely physical, sexual, emotional and economic abuse as well as neglect.
Ideally, it is expected that a child's home is the best place of the upbringing of a child.
Therefore, it follows that the family of a child is charged with the responsibility of
nurturing a developing child. The school on the other hand should supplement the
child's family to help the child realise his or her abilities. The family and the school
are regarded as the major educational environments of a child. The lack of
responsible adult intervention and guidance based on the principles of love, warmth
and security in the life of a child results in many families and schools being the
institutions of abuse of children. Hence, the ideal functions of both the family and the
school are changed. The children thus find themselves being abused in the privacy
of their own homes and in the school environment. The abused children
consequently fail to perform well academically due to these complications in their
upbringing. At present, only SOS school in Lesotho reach out to these children in an
endeavour to educate them despite their early life experiences. However, due to the
rapid increase in the number of abused children in Lesotho, SOS school is not in a
position to cater for all these children.
This research confirms the relationship between child abuse and academic
performance.
CHAPT£.R 1
GENERAL ORIDlTATION
PAGE
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 2
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 4
1.4 RESEARCH METHOD 4
1.5 DEMARCATING THE RESEARCH AREA 5
1.6 ELUCIDATION OF CONCEPTS 5
1.6.1 Abused child 5
1.6.2 Battered child 6
1.6.3 Child abuse 6
1.6.4 Caretaker 6
1.6.5 Educational environment 6
1.6.6 SOS 7
1.7 RESEARCH PROGRAMME 7
1.8 CONCLUSION 8
CHAPT£R2
CHILD ABUS£: CAUSES AND TYPES
PAGE
2.1 INTRODUCTION 9
2.2 A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 12
2.3 DEFINITION OF CHILD ABUSE 14
2.4 CAUSES OF CHILD ABUSE 16
2.4.1 Inheritance/Poor early childhood 16
2.4.2 Stress 17
2.4.3 Large families 19
2.4.4 Out-of-wedlock pregnancies 20
2.4.5 Young and insecure parents 21
2.4.6 Unwanted, unplanned babies 21
2.4.7 Aggressive parents 22
2.4.8 Inadequate or mentally subnormal parents 23
2.4.9 Alcohol or drug abuse and ill-health 24
2.4.10 Isolation 25
2.4.11 Women who have been refused termination of pregnancy 27
2.4.12 Inadequate social learning 28
2.4.13 Dysfunctional family structures 29
2.4.14 Parenting styles 30
2.4.15 Divorce 30
2.4.16 Cultural ideologies/Social norms 32
2.4.17 Excessive demands from parents 33
2.4.18 Working couples 33
2.4.19 Interpretation 34
2.5 TYPES OF ABUSE 36
2.5.1 Physical abuse 37
2.5.2 Sexual abuse 41
2.5.3 Emotional abuse 48
2.5.4 Neglect 51
2.5.5 Economic abuse 54
2.6 CONCLUSION 55
CHAPT£R3
RELATIONSHIP B£TW££N CHILD ABUSE AND
ACADEMICP£RFORMANC£
PAGE
3.1 INTRODUCTION 56
3.2 THE CHILD'S EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS 58
3.2.1 Family/home environment 60
3.2.2 School environment 63
3.3 INSTITUTIONS OF ABUSE 69
3.3.1 Family 69
3.3.1.1 Physical abuse in the familiy 70
3.3.1.2 Sexual abuse in the family 72
3.3.1.3 Neglect in the family 75
3.3.1.4 Emotional abuse in the family 76
3.3.1.5 Economic abuse in the family 78
3.3.2 School 81
3.3.2.1 Physical abuse at school 82
3.3.2.2 Sexual abuse at school 84
3.3.2.3 Emotional abuse at school 85
3.3.2.4 Neglect at school 85
3.3.3 Interpretation at school 86
3.4 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHILD ABUSE AND 86
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
3.4.1 Characteristics related to under-achievement 87
3.4.1.1 Low self concept/esteem 87
3.4.1.2 Misbehaviour 89
5
3.4.1.3 Inadequate language development 90
3.4.1.4 Mental retardation 91
3.4.1.5 Depression 92
3.4.1.6 Negativism 92
3.4.1.7 Lack of motivation 93
3.4.1.8 Fearfulness 95
3.4.1.9 Anti-social 95
3.4.2 Other effects 96
3.4.2.1 Grade repeating 96
3.4.2.2 Early school leaving 97
3.4.2.3 Discrepancy between the attained and attainable levels of 97
achievement
3.4.3 Conclusion 97
CHAPTER4
RES£ARCH DESIGN
PAGE
4.1 INTRODUCTION 98
4.2 AIMS OF THE EMPIRICAL STUDY 98
4.3 PREPARA TION OF THE STUDY 98
4.4 AREA OF CONCENTRA TION 99
4.5 SAMPLING 99
4.6 RESEARCH METHOD 100
4.7 ETHICAL MEASURES 101
4.8 THE ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER 102
4.9 VALIDITY AND RELlABIL TIY 102
4.10 CONCLUSION 103
CHAPTER5
DATA ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
PAGE
5.1 INTRODUCTION 104
5.2 OPERA TIONALlSATION OF FIELD WORK 104
5.3 ANAL YSIS OF DATA 105
5.3.1 Child 1 105
5.3.1.1 Family 105
5.3.1.2 Abuse 105
5.3.1.3 Emotions 106
5.3.1.4 Social relationship with other people 106
5.3.1.5 Academic performance 107
5.3.1.6 Concentration in class 107
5.3.1.7 Punishment at school 107
5.3.2 Child 2 107
5.3.2.1 Family 108
5.3.2.2 Abuse 108
5.3.2.3 Emotions 108
5.3.2.4 Social relationship with other people 109
5.3.2.5 Academic performance 109
5.3.2.6 Concentration in class 110
5.3.2.7 Punishment at school 110
5.3.3 Child 3 110
5.3.3.1 Family 110
5.3.3.2 Abuse 111
5.3.3.3 Emotions 111
5.3.3.4 Social relationship with other people 111
5.3.3.5 Academic performance 112
5.3.3.6 Concentration in class 112
5.3.3.7 Punishment at school 113
5.3.4 Child4 113
5.3.4.1 Family 113
5.3.4.2 Abuse 113
5.3.4.3 Emotions 114
5.3.4.4 Social relationship with other people 114
5.3.4.5 Academic performance 114
5.3.4.6 Concentration in class 115
5.3.4.7 Punishment at school 115
5.3.5 Child 5 115
5.3.5.1 Family 115
5.3.5.2 Abuse 115
5.3.5.3 Emotions 116
5.3.5.4 Social relationship with other people 116
5.3.5.5 Academic performance 117
5.3.5.6 Concentration in class 117
5.3.5.7 Punishment at school 117
5.3.6 Child 6 118
5.3.6.1 Family 118
5.3.6.2 Abuse 118
5.3.6.3 Emotions 119
5.3.6.4 Social relationship with other people 119
5.3.6.5 Academic performance 119
5.3.6.6 Concentration in class 120
5.3.6.7 Punishment at school 120
5.3.7 Child 7 121
5.3.7.1 Family 121
5.3.7.2 Abuse 121
5.3.7.3 Emotions 121
5.3.7.4 Social relationship with other people 122
5.3.7.5 Academic performance 122
5.3.7.6 Concentration in class 123
5.3.7.7 Punishment at school 123
5.3.8 Child 8 123
5.3.8.1 Family 124
5.3.8.2 Abuse 124
5.3.8.3 Emotions 124
5.3.8.4 Social relationship with other people 125
5.3.8.5 Academic performance 125
5.3.8.6 Concentration in class 125
5.3.8.7 Punishment at school 126
5.3.9 Child 9 126
5.3.9.1 Family 126
5.3.9.2 Abuse 127
5.3.9.3 Emotions 127
5.3.9.4 Social relationship with other people 127
5.3.9.5 Academic performance 128
5.3.9.6 Concentration in class 128
5.3.9.7 Punishment at school 128
5.4 SYNTHESIS OF DATA 129
5.4.1 Family 129
5.4.2 Abuse 131
5.4.3 Emotions 132
5.4.4 Social relationship with other people 133
5.4.5 Academic performance 134
5.4.6 Concentration in class 137
5.4.7 Punishment at school 138
5.5 CONCLUSION 138
5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 139
CHAPT£R6
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
PAGE
6.1 SUMMARIES 140
6.1.1 Statement of the problem 140
6.1.2 The causes and types of child abuse 140
6.1.3 The relationship between child abuse and academic 141
performance
6.1.4 Objectives of the study 142
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 144
6.2.1 Protection of children's rights 144
6.2.2 Compulsory and free education for children 144
6.2.3 Parental involvement in children's education 145
6.2.4 Education for all 146
6.2.5 Child care orientation for parents 147
6.2.6 Establishment of SOS schools country-wide 147
6.2.7 Appointment of school social workers 148
6.2.8 Introduction of sex education in schools 149
6.2.9 In-service workshops for teachers 150
6.2.10 Establishment of a child protection department in Lesotho 151
6.3 CONCLUSION 152
6.4 FINAL REMARKS 152
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ADDENDUM
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 2.1 A social psychological model of the causes of child abuse 35
Figure 3.1 Personality development based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs 68
Figure 3.2 Idealised representation of Yerker-Dodson Law 94
Figure 3.3 How the presence of others affect performance: social 96
facilitation versus inhibition.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Characteristics of a potential abuser, an abuse victim and the 36
situation which promote abuse
Table 2.2 Factors that physically abused children possess 38
Table 2.3 Circumstances which promote sexual abuse 44
Talbe 2.4 Sexual abuse 46
Table 2.5 Behavioural and physical indicators of an emotionally abused child 50
Table 5.1 Family as a potential institution of abuse 130
Table 5.2 Types of abuse 131
Table 5.3 Emotions of abused children 132
Table 5.4 Behavioural indications of abused children 133
Table 5.5 Record of marks for students' performance 136
Table 5.6 Marks before the abuse 137
Table 5.7 Marks after the abuse 137
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL ORIENTATION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Academic performance in schools is attributed to a number of factors
(Mayekiso, 1989 : 61). Many researchers are of the opinion that child abuse
as one of these factors impacts negatively on the child's academic
performance. Parton (1985 : 166) illustrates the above point by arguing that
"abused children score lower than the non abused children across a range of
variables, including height, weight, language development, intellectual
functioning, emotional development, aggressive behaviour, poor self-concept
and school performance."
These arrays of factors, which affect the child's academic performance, are
related to changes in our environment. For example, things like poverty which
is more common and widespread today (Pelton, 1985 : 33) forces many
parents to abuse their children and as a result, such children's academic
performances are affected at schools.
This research arises out of the initiative to bring about an academic
development orientated change in the educational environments of the
Mosotho child. It delineates the management deficiency syndrome in the
upbringing of the child in both the family and the school environment (Doyle,
1994 : 35). It is observed that such a deficiency is brought about by among
other factors what is termed "child abuse" (Krugman, 1993 : 587).
Child abuse is a source of concern both in schools and societies. Attempts
either legal, managerial or administrative are being made to prevent child
abuse from increasing. In South Africa, for example, the government has
2
passed a law that protects children from abuse. This is stated in the
constitution of the Republic of South Africa Section 28 (1) 108 of 1996. It
reads as follows: "Every child has the right to be protected from maltreatment,
neglect, abuse or degradation". Subsection 3 further states, "A child's best
interests are of paramount importance in every matter concerning the child".
This section emphasises the need for children's protection and is regarded as
one of the legal steps that are being taken to prevent child abuse.
The phenomenon, child abuse, has a negative impact on education. Martin
and Beezly (1977) in Calam and Franchi (1987 : 6) argue that "abused children
are characterised by school learning problems". Many types of child abuse
can be identified - physical, sexual, emotional, neglect and economic (Salter
and Findlay, 1992 : 5) which have an influence on the child's academic
performance. Having said these, the researcher will focus on the statement of
the problem for the study.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The child's poor academic performance in schools is attributed to a number of
factors. These include school related factors like a lack of qualified teachers,
pupil related factors like emotional factors and parent/caretaker related factors
like the socio-economic status of parents [which may lead to the abuse of
children] (Motsau, 1990 : 10). Wagstaff and Kibel (1995 : 303) further support
the above point by arguing that "the causes of school failure are complex and
often multiple and include physical factors and family dysfunction such a
alcoholism and child abuse.
The concept child abuse emanates from cultural/societal changes in
behavioural patterns (Gil, 1970 : 4). A concise example here can be drawn
from what used to happen in the past as far as women were concerned. It was
believed that men were heads of the families and as a result, they were
expected to work and maintain their families. On the other hand, the women
3
were expected to stay at home and raise the children. However, as countries
undergo globalisation, structures changed. Mothers had to leave children at
home and go to work to help their husbands in supporting the families. As a
result many children were neglected, or rather abused and such children's
(abused) performances were affected at school. Dubanoski (1984) in Vander
Mey & Neff (1986 : 14) argues that "Child abuse is becoming recognised as a
world-wide social problem, taking various forms with new forms emerging as
countries undergo urbanisation, modernisation, and rapid social change".
If parents or anybody in loco-parents abuse a child in either way, that child's
academic performance will greatly be affected (Parton 1985 : 166 and Martin &
Beezly (1977) in Calan & Franchi 1987 : 6) and such a child is likely to:
• Drop out of school at an early age;
• Repeat grades due to lack of material such as books;
• Lack motivation which will help him or her perform adequately
academically;
• Have a low self concept which can contribute towards his or her failure;
• Misbehave and fail completely;
• Lack concentration in class and fail;
• Conceive at any early age and under-achieve due to frustrations;
• Be truant;
• Have or develop a school phobia;
• Be overanxious and fail at school.
The purpose of this research however is to find out from students if there really
is a relationship between child abuse and academic performance.
4
1.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The general objective of this research is to investigate the relationship
between child abuse and academic performance. The study will also explore
the different types of abuse, and their impact on a child's academic
performance.
In this study, the following specific objectives will be dealt with:
• To show how child abuse can affect the academic performance of a child,
that is, the relationship between child abuse and academic performance
will be investigated.
• To investigate the behavioural changes of the abused child which can be
attributed to the academic performance of a child.
• To investigate the family and the school as the child's educational
environments and how these institutions can be major sources of abuse as
far as children are concerned.
• To investigate the causes and types of child abuse.
• To make recommendations on how to deal with abused children.
1.4 RESEARCH METHOD
In order to achieve the stated objectives of the study, a literature study and a
qualitative investigation will be undertaken in the following way:
• Relevant books, journals and research reports which have been written on
child abuse will be studied;
5
• Students at Save Our Soul school and Hleoheng primary school in
Lesotho will be interviewed to gather personal information relating to the
concept.
1.5 DEMARCATING THE RESEARCH AREA
The study fits into the study field of educational psychology due to the
following reasons:
• It shows how abuse can distort the child's life cognitively, affectively, and
emotionally.
• It shows how abuse can affect the child's academic performance.
The research will focus on students ranging from 10 - 18 years at Lesotho in
the Maseru and Leribe district. The researcher will specifically interview
students at SOS in the Maseru district in Lesotho since that school is mainly
concerned with educating abused and neglected children in Lesotho. The
other two sexually abused children will be obtained from Hleoheng primary
school in the Leribe district in Lesotho.
1.6 ELUCIDATION OF CONCEPTS
For the sake of clarity it is essential that certain relevant concepts used in the
study should be clearly defined. Below are definitions of some of the
concepts, which have been used extensively in this research.
1.6.1 Abused child
Barnhart, Whitneyand Nault (1964 : 9) defines abuse as "to use wrongly or
badly or to mistreat". Crystal (1994 : 28) on the other hand defines abuse as
the unjust or improper use of something. This being the case, Crystal (1994 :
6
259) and the Terminology Committee for Social Work (1984 : 54) have
concluded that an abused child is any child under the age of eighteen years
old that is being physically or psychologically mistreated by the person in
whose care the child is. An abused child is synonymous with a battered
child.
1.6.2 Battered child
A young child that shows symptoms (battered child syndrome) that results
from repeated serious injuries, which have been administered to him/her over
a period of time (Terminology Committee for Social Work, 1984 : 56).
1.6.3 Child abuse
For the purpose of this study, child abuse is used in a generic way to refer to
all types of maltreatment that can be practised on a child. Gill (1970 : iii) and
Crystal (1994 : 259) refer to these types of maltreatment as acts of
commission and omission.
1.6.4 Caretaker
Caretaker refers to any person who is given custody over a child either
temporarily or permanently. (Somebody who acts in loco-parentis).
1.6.5 Educational environment
This refers to a building or place where children stay either temporarily or
permanently. This will include the home of a child and the school.
7
1.6.6 SOS
SOS an acronym for save our soul. Save Our soul School is a registered
school for abused children in Lesotho. This school is located in the Maseru
district. Its main aim is to educate the children who have been abused by
their parents/caretakers and help those children overcome their problems.
The American Government with the help of the Lesotho government founded
this school in 1994.
1.7 RESEARCH PROGRAMME
In order to achieve the stated objectives, the research will evolve as follows:
Chapter 2
The concept child abuse will be placed within a theoretical framework. Apart
form the historical view, the study will focus on the general causes of child
abuse - inheritance/poor early childhood, stress, large families, out-of-
wedlock pregnancies, young and/or insecure parents, unwanted/unplanned
babies, aggressive parents, inadequate or mentally subnormal parents,
alcohol, drugs and ill health, isolation, women who have been refused
termination of pregnancies, inadequate social learning, dysfunctional family
structures, parenting styles, divorce cultural ideologies, excessive demands
from parents and working couples. The exploration of different types of child
abuse - physical, sexual, emotional, neglect, and economic abuse will also
be discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 3
In chapter three the structure of the school and the family as institutions will
be presented.
8
After presenting an initial description in a broad context of both the school and
the family as institutions where the upbringing of the child occurs, the
investigation will focus on ways in which those institutions can become harmful
to the child.
The last section of the chapter deals with the relationship between child abuse
and academic performance.
Chapter 4
The methods of data collection will be presented in chapter four.
Students will be interviewed to gather information relating to child abuse and
academic performance. The researcher will concentrate on the children in
SOS school in the Maseru district in Lesotho since it is easy to reach and it is a
registered school for abused children in Lesotho.
Chapter 5
The findings of the empirical research will be analysed in this chapter.
Chapter 6
The research will be finalised in the form of summaries, recommendations and
conclusion.
1.8 CONCLUSION
In summary, chapter one deals with the overall planning and organisation of
the research. Moreover, it gives insights of how children's academic
performance can be undermined by child abuse.
9
CHAPT£R2
CHILD ABUSE: CAUSES AND TYPES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
What immediately comes into mind when the concept "child abuse" is
mentioned is an image of a small child with mucus on his cheeks asking for
food in the streets. Child abuse is a well known phenomenon which has
attracted and forced many people like singers, writers and poets to write
about it. Ngugi wa Thiongo (1976 :25) can be cited as one example of a
writer who has written a poem of an abused child:
I'm ... tired ... of ... running
All my life I have been running
On the run. On the road
Men molesting me.
I was once a dutiful daughter
A nice Christian home
It was in the settled area
CHRIST IS THE HEAD OF THIS HOUSE.
THE UNSEEN GUEST AT EVERY MEAL
THE SILENT LISTENER TO EVERY CONVERSATION.
I ran away from school
Because the headmaster wanted to do wicked things with me.
Always: You, remain behind.
You, take the wood to my house
You, take this chalk and books to the office.
Then he would follow me
10
And all he wanted was to touch my breasts.
So, I left school
I wanted to stay home and teach
Myself how to sew or do something with my life.
But my father would have nothing of it.
He called me an idler and sent me
To pick tea leaves for that cruel settler, Mr. Jones.
How he used to abuse and punish us!
I had to run away from home
From my father, from Mr. Jones.
In the city, it was the boys
Always harassing me ...
And yet I did not want to starve!
I lost my virginity while trying to run
Away from losing it.
How else could I live?
Yet, the money was so miserable
And sometimes they would beat me afterwards
Calling me a child.
No. I'll not run away again
A girl cannot run, run, run all her life.
(Ngugi wa Thiongo (1965) - "The trial of Dedan Kimathi").
This poem illustrates the magnitude and the seriousness of child abuse.
It is a well-known fact that a percentage of children all over the world are
abused. This happens in both developing and developed societies. Children
are exposed to poor pre-natal and post-natal care, malnutrition, disease and
11
poverty, all which characterise abuse. As Westman (1979 : 336) states "... in
developing societies, children are mostly exposed to inadequate pre-natal
and post-natal care ... thus denying/robbing them the first stage of essential
health care which each and every child requires.
It therefore follows that parents are expected to play major roles during
children's early lifes. Parents are to be responsible for the physical,
emotional and spiritual well-being of their children. Their role should be a
protective and nurturing one (Green 1980 : 9 in De La Rey, Norman, Tamara
& Van Niekerk, 1997 : 159).
However, this is not true in most cases. Massive literature shows that some
parents do not act in the interest of their children hence they are agents of
child abuse (Korbin 1981 : 30, Gelles & Lancaster, 1987 : 17 and Le Roux,
1993:5).
An African writer, Ngugi wa Thiongo (1965 : 33) tells the story of a family that
denied their daughter the opportunity to go to the initiation school. In fact,
the father did that as the family was converted to christianity (Western
culture) which regards initiation as an abusive practice. As a result, the child
decided to rebel against her family because she could not betray the
principles of the African culture she was brougth up in. Unfortunately, that
child died because of circumcision. However, she was happy that she died
as a woman in her tribe.
This story therefore confirms the argument that child abuse is viewed
differently in different cultures. Hence the reason why child abuse is prone to
different interpretation by different people/cultures/nations. As (Korbin, 1981
: IX) argues; "definitions of child abuse vary form culture to culture and evolve
over time, and they may reflect the necessities for survival of the group".
Wagstaff and Kibel (1995 : 55) also adds that ".... what constitute child abuse
will vary in other cultural settings".
12
The next section presents a historical overview of the concept of child abuse.
2.2 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
Child abuse has been in existence since the inception of society. It is not
surprising therefore, that today, due to urbanisation and impoverishment; it
has become worse. Richter (1988 : 10) argues that: "the phenomenon of
children who are abandoned, unwanted neglected or abused (today) has
been linked to socio-structural factors which primarily through urbanisation
and impoverishment cause distortions in family life and community life".
Child abuse as mentioned earlier has a very long history. It goes back to
ancient times. De Mause, (1974) in Calam and Franchi (1978 : 1) argues
that: "... children as a form of abuse were used for ritual sacrifices and
unwanted children were thrown away to die".
The case of child abuse is further captured by the powerful and most famous
Greek legend by Sophocles (1959 : 20). It relates a story of a parent's
attempt to kill his own son because the traditional doctors had predicted that
the child would kill its father and marry his mother. The father therefore
decided to give his child to the shepherd to kill because he said the child was
useless.
This shows the seriousness of the phenomenon of child abuse over the
centuries. It has been rampant in nature. Shakespeare (1964 : 43 Act I,
scene 7) in "Macbeth" captures the above point very well. He shows how
Lady Macbeth was determined to kill her son for the sake of kinship. Child
abuse is further illustrated in the Holy Bible (1995 : 16, Genesis - 22) where it
is depicted that Abraham was willing to sacrifice his own son.
During the nineteenth century, child abuse took a different turn. In fact, it
worsened as children were forced to leave schools and forced to work for
long hours in the industries with little pay. This period is described by Parton
13
(1985 : 23) as: "a period of indifference and even active and cruel exploitation
of children".
It was only towards the beginning of the twentieth century that children's
rights began to be considered (Parton, 1985 : 30). The initiative to declare
war against child abuse was taken up by the United Nations in 1989. It
adopted the Internal Declaration of Children's Rights as tabled below: (Le
Roux, 1993 : 53)
• regardless of race, colour, sex, language or religion, all children are
entitled to these rights;
• children have a right to special protection and opportunities and facilities
so that they can develop in a normal and healthy way, in freedom and
dignity;
• children have a right to a name and nationality from birth;
• children have a right to be given enough to eat, to have a decent place,
to live as well as to play and to receive good medical care when they are
iII;
• handicapped children have a right to special treatment and education;
• children have a right to grow up with love, affection and security. Babies
should not be separated from their mothers. Children should be brought
up by their parents wherever possible. Children without parents should
be cared for by the state;
• children have a right to free education;
• they have a right to be among the first to be protected in times of
disaster;
14
• they have a right to be protected form all forms of neglect, cruelty and
exploitation;
• children should not be made to work before a certain age or do work that
endangers their health or prejudices, their education or physical or moral
development;
• they should be protected form anything that causes racial, religious or
other forms of discrimination. They should be brought up in a spirit of
understanding, friendship, peace and universal brotherhood;
• children should be brought up to understand that their energy and talent
should be devoted to the service of their fellow man.
It can therefore be concluded that child abuse is not a new concept at all. It
has been in existence since the inception of societies.
2.3 DEFINITION OF CHILD ABUSE
There are many definitions for the concept "child abuse". Gill (1975) in Cook
and Bowles (1980 : 13) defines child abuse as: "inflicted gaps of deficits
between circumstances of living which would facilitate the optimal
development of children ... and their actual circumstances irrespective of the
sources or agent of the deficit".
Carter (1974 : 22) has another definition for child abuse. According to him
child abuse refers to: "a larger area of child maltreatment than the term
battered child syndrome including the attitudes of parent or guardian as well
as the child's injury". Herzberger (1996 : 3) also defines child abuse as "the
intentional use of force aimed at injuring or damaging the child. Gelles and
15
Lancaster (1987 : 19) define child abuse as: "the battered child syndrome
caused by deliberate physical assault by a caretaker or a parent".
The researcher is of the opinion that abuse does not only encompass
physical assault. It embodies inter alia failure to thrive, sexual abuse,
educational neglect and mental abuse. The researcher agrees with Korbin
(1980 : 4) in Vander Mey and Neff (1986 : 52) when he defines child abuse
as: "departure from culturally and socially acceptable standards that results in
harm to a child or comprises his or her physical, emotional (sexual) cognitive,
social or cultural development".
Corby (1993 : 43) further captures this point of view. According to him, child
abuse, is perceived as: "the physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, negligent
treatment or maltreatment of a child under the age of eighteen by a person
who is responsible for the child's welfare under circumstances which would
indicate that the child's health or welfare is harmed or threatened thereby".
The following conclusions can be drawn from these definitions. An abused
child is the one who:
• is generally under the age of eighteen;
• is generally unable to escape his or her abuser or to tell others how she
or he was injured;
The abuser on the contrary is:
• usually a parent or someone who stands in loco-parentis;
• comes from any level of society;
• somebody who generally seems to be a person whose life is filled with
frustrations;
16
• offenders who are frequently persons who themselves have been the
subjects of abuse during childhood. (Servamus, 1998 : 38).
However, the above conclusions are not exhaustive as there are many
causes which might influence parents or caretakers to abuse their children
and these would be discussed in the following section.
2.4 CAUSES OF ABUSE
Child abuse is not the result of single causes but the outcome of complex
conditions (Halperin, 1979 : 50). There are many causes of child abuse as
will be shown below. These include inheritance, stress, large families, out-of-
wedlock pregnancies, young and insecure parents, unwanted unplanned
babies, aggressive parents, inadequate or mentally subnormal parents,
alcohol or drug and ill health, isolation, women who have been refused
termination of pregnancy, inadequate social learning, dysfunctional family
structures, parenting styles, divorce, cultural ideologies, excessive demands
from parents and working couples.
2.4.1 Inheritance
To inherit means to acquire something from either a parent, a relative or a
friend (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 1995 : 612). In this case, one
may find that parents, who were abused as children, will in most cases abuse
their children. This may be due to the fact that their parents did not give them
the necessary love and guidance, which a child needs to develop into a
responsible adult. As a result, such parents also lack those elements
towards their children. In return, they tend to abuse their children instead of
guiding them. Halperin (1979 : 57) argues that: "a predisposition to child
abuse is an intergenerational phenomenon taught by one generation to the
next ... thus the lack of intimacy between parent and child affects yet another
generation".
17
Gelles and Lancaster (1987 : 157) further supports the above point by
arguing that: "mothers who themselves had experienced disturbances in
early attachment, effected by experimental separation from their own mothers
in infancy, appeared to be at greater risk for subsequently abusing their own
infants".
Therefore parents are a reflection of their parents. That is, they will exhibit
the behaviour of their parents. Halperin (1979 : 58) argues that: "parents
behaviour towards their children is almost a carbon copy of the maltreatment
they experienced as youngsters ... whether a parent uses his hand, belt or a
curtain rod in punishing his or her child is greatly determined by how he or
she was hit or punished as a child".
2.4.2 Stress
There are many definitions for stress. Some educationists refer to it as any
pain which a person experiences while other refer to it as any abnormality
which might affect a person's way of functioning. However Norton in Louw,
Gerdes, Louw, Meyer, Piek, Raubenheimer, Schoeman, Thom, Van Ede &
Wait (1991 : 628) defines stress as "the physiological and the psychological
reaction people exhibit in response to environmental events called stressors).
Stress has been found as another contributing factor to child abuse. Parents
or caretakers under the influence of stress can find themselves abusing their
children. This however, does not mean that "abusive parents are monsters
but rather normal people with human needs (Carter, 1974 : 12). who under
the influence of frustration abuse children. Stress factors according to Green
(1980 : 90) may include: "current events that widen the discrepancy between
the limited child rearing capacity of the parents and increased child rearing
pressures".
18
These events that widen the gap between the child rearing capacity of the
parents and the increased child rearing pressures may include poverty,
under-employment, unemployment, and minority status. These factors may
put pressure on the parent and such a parent may find himself or herself
abusing his or her children. Halperin (1979 : 62) argues that: "actors like
poverty, unemployment, underemployment, minority, status or insufficient
education can be seen as elements that affect a parent's self-concept, and
his or her ability to perform the parenting role adequately".
A number of researchers even argue that an unemployed parent is more
capable of abusing his or her child as opposed to an employed parent. Gill
(1970) in Giovannoni, Jeanne, Becerra & Rosina (1979 : 18) states that "the
majority of parents who are unemployed abuse their children". Gladstone
(1965) and Young (1964) in Green (1980 : 92) furthermore demonstrate the
relationship between unemployment and child abuse: "In addition to
financial problems, the lack of a job poses a threat to the father's self-
esteem". Lower socio-economic status has also been found as another
factor contributing to an increase in environmental stress. A family with
financial problems will obviously not be in a position to provide enough for
children. As a result, such a family will experience stress due to failure to
provide for its children. Green (1980 : 93) argues that: "Low socio-economic
status contribute to an increase in environmental stress through family
disorganisation, problems of unemployment, inadequate income, poor
housing and excessively large numbers of children".
Kibel and Wagstaff (1995 : 54) further strengthen the above points by arguing
that: "socio-economic deprivation, social and cultural upheaval and isolated
families are situations which predispose children to any form of abuse".
To avoid abusive acts, a family must have enough money to meet all the
needs of the family. Green (1980 : 94) argues that little or no money
contributes to parental stress, which leads to child abuse: "Lack of money,
19
inadequate, over crowded and unsanitary living conditions, family
disorganisation, high crime rate and unsafe neighbourhood exert a stressful
impact on family life and parental functioning and might trigger the onset of
child abuse".
In conclusion, the researcher may say that stress is a contributory factor to
child abuse.
2.4.3 Large families
Many people today especially newly married couples prefer to have one child
or no children at all. However, some researchers like Bermans and O'Hara
(1984 : 16) have shown that couples with no children suffer from stress and
loneliness. One childless parent who was interviewed over the media as
quoted by Berman and O'Hara (1984 : 19) said: "Sometimes I will
accidentally walk through the children's department of a large store, and then
get this little tight feeling in my throat. And I start thinking how wonderful it
would be to hug and dress, and care for a little baby". This suggests or
shows how childless parents suffer though some of them did not like or
wanted children initially.
Similarly, if parents have many children (large families) one may find those
parents do not give attention to all the children. As a result, some children
suffer from neglect from their parents. Berman and O'Hara (1984 : 13),
however, further argues that "many families with four or more children ...
experience some pressures (when it comes to maintaining those children)
and as a result, abuse in the form of neglect occurs". Korbin (1981 : 29)
argues that many children in a family place burdens on parents and this fact
contributes to abuse. He continues that "due to large family size more
parents experience intolerable burdens which might even force them to
abuse their children".
20
In conclusion the researcher is of the opinon that large families might in one
way or other contribute to child abuse as indicated above. Likewise, small
families or one child families might find themselves lonely and end up
adopting children which they might also abuse due to lack of blood ties
between the family members. (Olthuis, 1975 : 30).
2.4.4 Out-of-wedlock pregnancies
According to many African cultures, it is a taboo for a girl (or a woman) to
conceive outside wedlock. An example, which can be drawn here, is the
Basotho culture. Culturally, it is a taboo for a Mosotho girl to conceive
outside wedlock or engage in any sexual activities before marriage. Due to
the above reasons, it is obvious that if a girl conceives outside wedlock,
chances are that that a parent might abuse his/her child. Korbin (1981 : 39)
argues that "out-of-wedlock pregnancies, divorce ... result in large numbers
of children whose physical care and socialisation are likely to be less than
optimal for the ultimate production of mature adults as defined by the
standards of those societies".
In an interview with SABC 2 on 11 May 1998, a life motivator also reported
that children born outside wedlock stand a high risk of abuse since they are a
responsibility of one parent who might abuse the child in times of frustrations.
The researcher in this case may like to argue that there are unmarried people
today who might like to have children of their own and raise those children
without abusing them
In conclusion, one may say that out-of-wedlock pregnancies coupled with
other factors like poverty and lack of social support might lead to many
parents abusing their children.
21
2.4.5 Young and insecure parents
For every person to function efficiently in a society, he or she must be
mature. Maturity in this context refers to a person's ability to cope with the
demands made on him or her by the environment. Therefore, normally
children who marry at a tender age tend to abuse their children. This may be
due to the fact that they are very young and they cannot allocate enough time
to their children for parental care (Little, 19a9 : 225). Valida (1977) in First
National Workshop on child abuse (1997 : 127) argues that "young and
insecure parents are often over anxious and create their own problems. As a
result, they do not give their children enough care". This is a form of abuse.
Apart from being young, parents can also be insecure. Many things can
bring about insecurity in parents; for example, poverty can be one of the
causes of parents' insecurity. Families characterised by poverty can feel
insecure when they discover that they are not able to meet the demands of
their child. As a result parents from such families stand a greater risk of
abusing their children. Davies (19a3) in Fitzgerald, Lester and Zuckerman
(1995 : 275) argues that "child abuse occurs more frequently in poor families
than in more affluent families".
In conclusion one can say that young parents, in terms of age stand a higher
risk of abusing their children as opposed to mature parents. However, there
are still mature couples who abuse their children due to other problems like
poverty which bring about insecurities in families as indicated by Fitzgerald
et. al earlier on. This does not, however, erase the fact that young and
insecure parents abuse their children.
2.4.6 Unwanted, unplanned baby
Normally, people plan their babies. This is why there are institutions like
family planning clinics and the like to help people plan their families.
22
The concept "unwanted/unplanned baby" is more common among girls who
are not married though this can also be the case with married couples. If a
mother conceives and the pregnancy was not planned, it is highly possible
that the parent is going to abuse that child either intentionally or
unintentionally. Le Roux (1993 : 4) argues that "precipitation of many ...
people into parenthood without preparation can create problems (like abuse)
for mothers".
Parton (1985 : 135) further says "premarital conception, unplanned,
unwanted and youthful parenthood have been identified as features in the life
history of abusing parents". As mentioned earlier on people who conceive
outside wedlock are at a higher risk of abusing their children as compared to
married couples. However, married couples on the other hand stand a
chance of abusing their children if these children were not planned especially
in cases of families with financial problems.
It can therefore be concluded that an unplanned baby stands a high risk of
abuse as opposed to a planned baby.
2.4.7 Aggressive parent
Aggression refers to "behaviour of a person characterised by forceful and/or
assertive contact and communication with other people in order to promote
own interests (Terminology Committee for Social Work, 1995 : 39). From
this definition it can be deduced that an aggressive parent is the type of
parent who is very rude and who does not relate well with his or her children.
Aggression can however be divided into two sections, namely physical
aggression and verbal aggression. A physically aggressive parent abuses
his or her children physically and a verbally aggressive parent will say "bad"
things to his or her children. For example, he or she can insult them.
23
Parton (1985 : 135) argues that aggressive parents are potential abusers
since they are characterised by impaired impulse control and grossly
immature personalities, so it is most likely that such parents due to their
immature personalities would not be in a position to guide their children into
responsible mature adults. This act is referred to as being abusive since
parents should care for their children for better or worse.
It can therefore be concluded that an aggressive parent stands all the
chances of abusing his or her children.
2.4.8 Inadequate or mentally subnormal parent
A mentally subnormal parent might have problems with his/her mental
capabilities either temporarily or permanently. A parent can be subnormal in
many ways. If it happens that such a subnormal person has children, it is
quite obvious that he/she will encounter problems in bringing up the child.
Halperin (1979 : 59) argues that "The parent who is marginally mentally
retarded has difficulty handling many of the routine tasks of life including child
care".
Barlowand Durand (1995 : 598) also argue that "people with mental
retardation experiences difficulties with day-to-day activities. Although the
degree of difficulty they face is both a severity of their cognitive deficits and
the amount of assistance they receive". It is obvious that such parents will
have problems raising their children due to their abnormalities. The children
of such parents stand a high risk of being abused and neglected by their
parents and they can also be abused by strangers as there will be no one to
guide them, especially in cases where an abnormal mother or father does not
have any relatives to help him or her with the upbringing of the child.
Some researchers are of the opinion that abuse of children by mentally
retarded parents occur in situations whereby the parents fail to meet the
24
Parton (1985 : 136) strengthens the above point by arguing that many
mentally retarded parents stand a great chance of neglecting their children.
Parton (1985 : 35) argues that leaving children unattended is the most
prevalent form of abuse.
In conclusion, the researcher may say that mentally subnormal parents stand
a high risk of abusing their children like it has been shown above.
2.4.9 Alcohol or drug abuse and ill health
Parents who abuse alcohol or drugs and have problems with their health are
found to be abusive in most cases. Herzberger (1996 : 148) argues that "it is
much more likely that alcohol abusing parents will abuse their children or
inflict psychological harm to them". Inciardi, Lockwood & Pottieger (1993) as
in Herzberger (1996 : 148) further argues that parents who abuse alcohol and
drugs will not only abuse their children, but they will also participate in violent
activities outside their home (some of which embarrass their children).
Drug abusing parents may abuse their children: when they are drunk, they
shout and mock their kids. Green (1980 : 50) even argues that "alcohol
obliterates feelings of inadequacy, depression, support and self esteem".
This means that all these feelings are temporarily removed from a parent. He
or she sees himself/herself as a free person and regards other people as
worthless. This on it's own is an abusive act for children as they have a right
to be cared for. Green (1980 : 50) further argues that drug abuse "enhances
the potential of child abuse by undermining inhibitions and brittle defences
against pent-up rage and aggression". Herzberger (1996 : 150) further
argues that people who abuse alcohol and other drugs are people who
undergo severe economic or personal hardships and as a result, turn to
alcohol and drugs and they may also take out their frustration on family
members especially the children as they are defenceless.
25
In conclusion, it may be stated that subnormal parents are at a risk of
abusing their children due to ill-health.
2.4.10 Isolation
According to the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of English (1995 :
633) isolation means "to keep or put something or somebody entirely apart
from other people or things". If one says that a person is isolated it means
that that particular person does not associate himself or herself with other
people. He or she is alienated from other people.
Isolation has been cited as another cause of child abuse (Korbin, 1981 : 6).
A parent/caretaker who is isolated form his or her family members or the rest
of the society may end up abusing his or her children when encountering
problems since there will be no one to share his or her problems. Carter
(1974 : 24) argues that "parents who abuse their children appear to share a
number of characteristics - they are often socially isolated and fail to
establish satisfactorily marital relationships".
The communist philosophy does not advocate an individual to exist in
isolation, implying that a person must relate well with his or her environment
so that these relationships can console him or her in times of depression and
frustrations. The Holy Bible also refers to God creating man and woman to
live together because he saw that man needed a helper. In situations where
a parent is isolated, abuse cases are likely to occur. Cook and Bowles,
(1980 : 131) state that "lack of family roots in the community, lack of
immediate support from extended families, social isolations contribute to child
abuse".
On the contrary families that are characterised by love and support from
other people do not stand a risk of abusing their children. Justice and Justice
(1976 : 5) further add that "child abuse is more likely to occur in those
26
families which are socially isolated than it is in families which are emeshed in
a net work of social support".
In conclusion, isolation has been found by many researchers to promote
abuse as opposed to adequate social support. Extra-familiar support
systems are very helpful and can serve as a source of practical and
emotional support for parents experiencing family transition (which might lead
to abuse) (Hethersington, 1993 in Walsh, 1993 : 220). This support from
other people may partially relieve a parent as well as providing the child with
another source of needed emotional support. Barlowand Durand (1995 :
278) support this view that adequate social support relieve tensions and
prevent abuses. Their argument is based on the fact that when frustrated, a
person with social support might turn to his or her friends for help instead of
abusing that child. They argue that when confronted with problems or
adversity of daily life, parents/caretakers might go to their friends or relatives
for advice on how best to cope with the situation. Even if the situation turns
out badly, friends and relatives will be there to support and reassure them.
As the old saying goes, "good friends double our joy and divide our grief'.
However, in situations whereby a person is living far away from his or her
relatives or if he or she does not relate well with either relatives or friends,
one can resort to support groups for social support. In this support groups,
one is at a risk of developing different approaches to child rearing due to
advices given to him or her by other members of the group.
Support groups refer to small organisations where people with problems are
helped. They discuss, their problems with other group members. Procidano
and Fischer (1992 : 75) state that "support groups have a range of
approaches. Some offer an opportunity to talk about problems and issues
while others include educational information and training". These groups
provide a forum to discuss problems openly and help members realise that
their experiences are not uncommon.
27
Through support groups, elements of isolation, which might contribute to
abuse of children and feelings of hopelessness, are decreased (Procidano
and Fischer, 1992 : 75). At support groups one can even find there are other
people who share the same problems and that the very same people might
have solutions to offer.
Isolation can cause parents to abuse their children. Jones, Pickett, Oates
and Barbor (1982 : 251) argue that "isolated parents stand a greater risk of
abusing their children as opposed to parents with adequate social support".
In conclusion, it can be stated that every person in life needs social support
from people around him or her to avoid frustrations which might lead to abuse
of children.
2.4.11 Women who have been refused termination of pregnancy
God created man with adequate mind to make decisions concerning the
problems he or she encounters in his or her daily life. Every person has a
right to make decisions concerning things relating to him or her. Children
(anybody under the age of 18) are the only people who cannot make
decisions concerning themselves. In this case, parents or caretakers are
responsible for deciding for a child until that child reaches an age when he or
she can decide for himself or herself. The South African Law has also taken
this into consideration. According to its constitution (The constitution of the
Republic of South Africa, 1996, Act 108 of 1996 (12) (2)) it is stipulated that a
person has a right over his or her body: "Everyone has the right to bodily and
psychological integrity, which includes the right:
• To make decisions concerning reproduction
28
• To security in and control over their body; and
• Not be subjected to medical or scientific experiments without their
informed consent.
If it happens that a woman is not given a fair chance or rather is refused to
terminate her pregnancy, it is possible that such a parent will not have
enough time for the baby. Such parents might also tend to abuse their
children because they were not prepared for them. However, in some cases
one may find that a parent may want to terminate her pregnancy because of
financial problems and if it so happens that she is denied access to terminate
her pregnancy, she might not have enough money to raise the child and end
up abusing such a child. Valida (1977) in The First National Workshop on
Child Abuse (1977 : 127) reported that "woman who have been refused
termination of pregnancy are most likely to abuse their children".
In conclusion it may be stated that it is dangerous to prevent a woman from
terminating her pregnancy as she might abuse that child since it was not
planned.
2.4.12 Inadequate social learning
It is possible for a parent/caretaker to abuse a child unintentionally. This may
be a result of parents not gaining enough knowledge about their children to
avoid abusive acts on the part of the child. According to Halperin (1979 : 59)
"... (such parents) hamper their youngsters' development out of ignorance
rather than as a result of personal psycho-dynamic factors".
Some researchers argue that parent/caretakers with inadequate social
learning may not motivate their children in doing certain things and tend to
abuse the children. Green (1980 : 46) argues that: "these parents are often
unmotivated to seek help or even overtly hostile to the suggestion that they
might experience emotional difficulties. They typically lack insight of normal
29
child rearing patterns and deny to project their problems onto other people or
situations.
According to Halperin (1979 : 60) parents with inadequate social child rearing
patterns may include both normal and abnormal parents. Such parents "may
not understand the importance of good nutrition in the physical development
of their youngsters while others fail to realise that children need intellectual
stimulation to help them learn and grow".
The researcher agrees with Halperin (1979) because children of parents with
inadequate social skills will suffer from neglect at the hands of their parents.
Such parents will abuse their children when failure to meet parental
expectations exists. Parents with inadequate social learning may expect
miracles from their children. They might expect them to accomplish tasks for
which they are not developmentally prepared and failure to perform such
tasks lead to abuse. Halperin (1979 : 61) furthermore argues that: "... their
parents see them as different, these youngsters are often in line for harsh
physical punishment, neglect or emotional abuse."
To conclude, one may say that parents must be orientated with regard to
child rearing.
2.4.13 Dysfunctional family structure
Another factor which has been found to lead to child abuse is dysfunctional
family structure (Richter, 1988 ; 30). It is a well-known fact that the family is
the major or primary institution in which a child grows up. In the family, a
child is taught both societal and behavioural values. A child who grows up in
a well caring family with both the mother and father living together is
expected to love and relate well with other people. On the contrary, a child
who grows up in a problematic family situation, that is, in situations where
there is no peace or harmony, is more exposed to abuse. This will be so,
30
because parents will abuse the child while trying to get rid of frustrations.
Gelles and Lancaster (1987 : 18) even argue that: "the family can be a
potentially dangerous institution rather than the proverbial scene of love and
tranquillity and this is the case in dysfunctional family structures where child
abuse is apparent".
In conclusion, it may be stated that a family that is not well organised and
harmonious stand a high risk of abusing its children as compared to a normal
family.
2.4.14 Parenting styles
The personalitly of a parent can also contribute towards child abuse. For
example, an authoritarian parent characterised by rejecting children;
communicating little with the child and severely punishing the child is
automatically abusing his or her child as parents are supposed to care for
their children (Louwet. ai, 1991 : 352). Uninvolved parents have also been
found to stand a better chance of abusing their children (Louwet ai, 1992 :
353). Such parents "make no demands (from/to) their children. They are
indifferent to their children and may even reject them (abusive act). They do
the minimum that is expected from them as caregivers of their children. They
do, however, respond to certain short-term demands of their children (e.g. for
food and clothes) but they fail to set long-term guidelines and goals for them".
It can therefore be concluded that what constitutes the personality of a parent
can be harmful to the well-being of a child.
2.4.15 Divorce
Divorce refers to a situation whereby two people who were married separate.
Normally, if parents divorce, one may find that the custody of children is given
to one of the parents if the couple happen to have children. The parent who
31
is given custody over the children will definitely encounter problems when it
comes to raising those children single-handedly. Walsh (1993 : 95) argues
that "divorce triggers a series of adverse transactional factors such as
economic decline, parental stress and physical and psychological dysfunction
in family members".
Due to these pressures which a single parent experiences, one may find that
such parents sometimes withdraw from their children. That is, they tend to
neglect them (Walsh, 1993 : 213). This again is regarded as an abusive act
since parents should care for their children. In some cases one may find that
the parent who has been given custody over the children does not have
enough money for proper schooling. As a result, children do not attend
school. Halperin (1979 : 20) refers to this type of abuse as educational
neglect.
Sometimes, the conditions, resutling from divorce, can force a parent to
abuse his or her children. For example, a single parent due to a lot of work to
attend to, may find himself or herself allocating some of the household work
to children who might even not be mature enough to perform those duties.
Walsh (1993 : 221) here agues that immediately following divorce household
routines and roles break down and parents experience task overload, as a
single parent attempts to perform the tasks usually assumed by two parents.
In such situations children, especially girls in divorced families are often
asked to assume responsibilities for household chores and care of younger
siblings as a form of abuse.
Walsh (1993 : 217) argues that divorce causes many people to be
emotionally disturbed and this affects the children as the well-being of the
parent is related to the well-being of the child. An emotionally disturbed
parent will tend to neglect his or her child and in the same way, the child will
also be emotionally disturbed. Herzberger (1996 : 9) further emphasizes this
32
argument that the children from "single parent families are at a great risk of
abuse as compared to children from two-parent families".
To conclude, it may be stated that single parents due to cases like divorce
are at a great risk of abusing their kids as they cannot afford to raise the child
single handed.
2.4.16 Cultural ideologies
According to Little, Fowler and Cowlson (1992 : 1016), an ideology refers to
an idealised idol, that is, the set rules, governing individual cultures. Each
culture has its own ideologies. Due to these differences in cultural ideologies
one may find that certain cultures allow the use of physical force against
children as a means of disciplining them. These physical forces used against
children often lead to abuse. Jones et. al (1982 : 142) even argues that
"cultural attitude permitting the use of physical force in child rearing is the
common cause of all abuse of children".
Gil (1970 : 8) also points out that other cultures encourage the use of
physical force against children. He argues that the educational philosophy
reflected in the popular proverb "spare the rod and spoil the child"
encourages most parents to abuse their children. Herzberger (1996 : 90)
even argues that societal norms promote the abuse of children as one may
find that parents exercise certain rights over their child and as a result, may
practice all forms of maltreatment on their child.
In conclusion, one may say that different cultural ideologies result in parents
to abusing their children.
33
2.4.17 Excessive demands from parents
Excess means more or extra (Oxford Advanced Dictionary of English, 1995 :
210). Many parents expect too much from their children. A parent/caretaker
may expect his or her children to perform extraordinarily at school despite
taking the child's capability into consideration (Van Rensburg, 1991 : 6).
While children fail to achieve what their parents expect of them, the parents
might feel very disappointed and some of them might even scold their
children. Children on the other hand, according to Van Rensburg might tend
to separate themselves form their parents or caretakers or decide to leave
school completely, when failure to meet their parents expectations occurs.
To conclude, it may be said that excessively demanding parents will in most
cases appear abusive as they demand what their children cannot provide.
2.4.18 Working couples
One would think that unemployed parents are the only people who can abuse
their children. However, it has been found that if both parents are working,
both parties very often do not have time to attend to the child and as a result,
the child is neglected (Walsh, 1993 : 397). Working couples can also abuse
their children due to the problems they encounter at work, that is, they can
bring problems of work to their homes and punish or abuse their children in
return.
The conclusion that can be drawn from the above statement is that all
parents, whether working or not working can be potential abusers of their
children.
34
2.4.19 Interpretation
To conclude, it can be indicated that there are many factors which urge
parents to abuse their children. Abuse is not just an act that happens
haphazardly. Certain factors, can be attributed to its occurrence. Gelles
and Lancaster (1987 : 369) have schematically summarised those causes in
figure 2.1. Kibel and Wagstaff (1995 : 70) also characterise the factors that
promote abusing situations in table 2.1.
In summary figure 2.1 shows how the social position of a parent, socialisation
experience of a parent plus psychopathetic traits of a parent link with
situational stress, class and community values regarding violence resulting in
different but related forms of abuse.
Table 2.1 shows the factors that promote abusing situations which can lay
foundations for the causes of child abuse in societies. The first category
shows the characteristics of the abuser, which can promote child abuse. The
second category shows possible qualities possessed by an abused victim
which can also promote child abuse and the third category indicates the
situations which can promote child abuse.
35
Figure 2.1 A social psychological model of the causes of child abuse
SOCIAL POSITION OF PARENT
Age CLASS AND COMMUNITY VALUES REGARDING
Sex ... VIOLENCE "SUBCULTURE OF VIOLENCE"
Socio-economic status
SOCIALISATON EXPERIENCE
Abuse
Role model of violence
Aggression
SITUATIONAL STRESS
A. Relations between parents
IMMEDIATE CHILD ABUSE1. Intermarriage
2. Marital disputes PRECIPITATING
1. Single physical
B. Structural stress SITUATIONS
assaults
2. Repeated assaults
1. Excess children Child misbehaves
_. 3. Psychological attacks2. Unemployment Argument, etc. e.g. verbal attacks.
3. Social isolation ~
4. Threats to parental authority, values, self-esteem.
C. Child produced stress ~~
1. Unwanted child
2. Problem child
a. Colicky
b. Incontinent
c. Discipline problem
d. ill
e. Physical deformed
f. Retarded
PSYCHOPATHIC STATES
Personality traits
Character traits
Poor control
Neurological disorder
(Source Gelles and Lancaster 1987 : 369)
36
Table 2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A POTENTIAL ABUSER, AN ABUSE
VICTIM AND THE SITUATION WHICH CAN PROMOTE ABUSE
1 ABUSER 2 ABUSE VICTIM
• Childhood deprived of love and • Young child (under five years of
nurturance. age).
• Poor self control. • Stepchild/adopted/fostered
(biolog ical).
• Unrealistic expectations of child. • Hyperactive/behaviour problems.
• Poor empathy with child. • No bond with mother.
• Poor parenting skills
3 SITUATIONAL CONTEXT
,t • Life stress events - loss of a job,
death of friend, etc.
• Marital breakdown.
(Source Krbel and Wag staff, 1995 : 70)
2.5 TYPES OF ABUSE
Child abuse can take many forms. Halperin (1979 : 21) argues that child
abuse takes a variety of forms, for it may include any act or omission that
adversely affects a child's development.
Broadly stated, child abuse falls in the following categories: physical, sexual,
emotional, neglect and economic abuse (Halperin, 1979 : 29).
37
2.5.1 Physical abuse
According to many researchers, this is the most common type of abuse and it
is often reported. Halperin (1979 : 21) argues that: "physical abuse is the
most easily recognised and most often reported kind of maltreatment for the
marks of physical assault are visible on the child". (Refer to portraits as
shown at the end of this section).
Salter and Findlay (1992: 5) argue that physical abuse, was the first type of
abuse to receive public and professional attention. However, Gill (1970 : 6)
defines it as: "the intentional, non-accidental use of physical force or
intentional, non-accidental acts of omission on the part of a parent or other
caretakers, interacting with a child in his care, aimed at hurting, injuring or
destroying the child".
Normally physical abuse takes place in the family. Parents or caretakers in
most cases tend to (physically) abuse their children because of the
frustrations of daily life combined with other factors (Halperin, 1979 : 65).
There are many factors which cause parents to physically abuse their
children. Gillham (1991 : 25) argues that these factors include
unemployment, poverty, large family size, and unsettled housing. However,
some researchers are of the opinion that unemployment causes parents to
abuse their children either physically, sexually, emotionally or economically.
Carter (1974 : 27) states that: "many (abused) children come from socially
neglected families where there is uprooting, lack of education, loneliness,
unemployment, financial difficulties and inadequate housing".
Physical abuse by a parent/caretaker may include inappropriate corporal
punishment, bites, burns and fractures (Kibel and Wag staff, 1995 : 370). All
these things may be due to the fact that parents are frustrated and they tend
to threaten everything they come across. Halperin (1979 : 311) further argues
38
that "parents physically abuse their children when they are extremely agitated
or angry". To identify whether a child is physically or mentally abused there
are certain signs to look for in that particular child. According to the
"Servamus" (1998 : 31) the factors to look for in physically abused children
are indicated in table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Factors that physically abused children possess
BEHAVIOURAL INDICATORS PHYSICAL INDICATORS
• The child cannot recall how • Injuries (bruises, cuts, burns,
observed injuries occurred or fractures, etc) that are not
offers a consistent explanation. consistent with the explanation
offered, e.g. extensive bruising in
one area.
• Wary of adults. • The presence of several injuries
that are in various stages of
healing.
• Extremely agg ressive/withd rawn. • Presence of various injuries over a
period of time.
• Displays extremely indiscriminate • Facial injuries in infants and pre-
affection - seeking behaviour. school children e.g. cuts, sores,
etc.
• Extremely complaint or eager to • Unexplained injuries e.g. burns,
please. etc.
• Inconsistent injuries with the child's
age.
(Source: Servamus, 1998 : 30)
According to Gillham (1991 : 26) the age of physically abused children is
lower than that of sexually abused children. Some researchers are also of
39
the opinion that the age of physically abused children range from six months
to six years. These victims according to Ngeambu (s.a) in "First national
workshop on child abuse" (1977 : 163) held in Johannesburg are "children
who cry, suck their thumbs, live in a world of fantasy, are hostile to others,
have poor self-concept and develop poor peer-relationship".
Normally the people who physically abuse children in most cases have been
found to be parents/caretakers. Halperin (1979 : 21) further strengthens the
above issue by arguing that there are signs in physical abuse that strongly
suggest that the injuries are parent inflicted. These include:
• the identifiable imprint of an object on the skin (clothes, hanger, teeth
marks, etc);
• an injury that curves around the body because it was made by a flexible
object (belt, rope, etc);
• injuries centralised on the face and head;
• perculiarly shaped and sized injuries;
• bruises of different colours, indicating injuries occurring over a period of
time;
• abrasions that are in various stages of healing, pointing towards
continuing injury;
• injuries on different areas of the body suggesting the child has been
struck from several directions;
• burns of the following descriptions:
- glove-like burns inflicted by immersion in hot liquid
- circle shaped burns on buttocks, caused by immersion in hot liquid
40
- burns more severe in the middle, indicating that hot liquid has been
poured on.
- object-shaped burns from such things as cigarettes, pokers and cooking
utensils.
The following portraits illustrate the extent of physical aubse (Servamus,
1998 : 30).
PORTRAITS OF PHYSICALLY ABUSED CHILDREN
i:., ..il
01.1' ~ t -il
,~
'''''? I.i
'., '1l" " I
, .....'''''''-1 ,i
li
i r
,1.1'( .: ", ~ .
'. ·"o-i ... _-__
41
To conclude one may say that physical abuse of children is the most
recognisable form of abuse since the marks of abuse are noticeable.
2.5.2 Sexual abuse
Sexual abuse is cited as another type of child abuse. According to some
researchers this is the most difficult type of abuse to identify because the
victims do not always bear physical symptoms which are easily identifiable.
Secondly, many victims are hesitant to report the abuse. Halperin (1979 : 23)
42
argues that: "unlike victims of physical abuse, the sexually abused (children)
usually bear no external marks of the maltreatment they receive".
Weber (1977) in Vander Mey (1986 : 46) reports that "many (children)
hesitate to report sexual abuse incidents due to shame, embarrassment or
fear of repercussions".
There are many definitions for the concept sexual abuse. These definitions
are related. According to Kempe and Kempe (1978 : 8) sexual abuse refers
to: "the involvement of dependent developmentally immature children and
adolescents in sexual activities they do not truly comprehend and to which
they are unable to give informed consent and that violate the sexual taboos
of family roles".
Halperin (1979 : 20) views sexual abuse along the same line as Kempe. He
describes it as "any sexually stimulating act initiated by an adult and involving
a child". Baker and Duncan (1985) in Gillham (1991 : 4) do not deviate from
these two definitions. They view child abuse as the involvement of an adult
in sexual activities with a child. He argues that: "a child (anyone under the
age of eighteen years) is sexually abused when another person, who is
sexually mature involves the child in any activity which the other person
expects to lead to sexual arousal".
In the past, it was believed that children could only be abused by strangers.
That is why many children were warned about not taking anything from
strangers or not agreeing to go anywhere with them. However, it has been
found that sexual abuse is mostly common among the family members.
Robertson (1989 : 4) argues that: "...today we receive via television, radio
and press, an increasing number of reports on children who are sexually
abused by their parents".
43
Finkelhor (1979) in Vander Mey & Neff (1986 : 2) further strengthens the
above point by arguing that: "Contrary to traditional stereotypes, sexual
victimisation of children is usually a family matter rather than something
perpetrated by a stranger".
Vander Mey & Neff (1986 : vii) states that: "the child's home has today
become a cell of abuse rather than a place of love and care. According to
Robertson (1989 : 3) child abuse falls under the following two categories:
• Abuse within family
The abuse in this case happens among family members. The abuser in
this case will be a father, mother, grandfather, or any close relative of the
victim. Baker and Duncan (1985) in Gillham (1991 : 46) refer to this type
of abuse as "infra-familial abuse".
• Abuse outside family
The abuser in this incident is outside the family. He/she may be the next-
door neighbour; the after school care centre worker, the sports coach or
"the man in the car".
Sexual abuse can also take many forms either intra-familial or outside the
family. These forms according to Parton (1985 : 177) are "rape, sodomy
and incest assault". According to Parton rape is committed when "a
male person has sexual intercourse with a woman/child against her will,
sodomy is intercourse between two males and indecent assault is any
sexual contact with a person against the person's will. This include any
form of sexual fondling, masturbation, or other sexual acts that are not
sodomy or rape".
44
Sexual abuse is an act, which is punishable by law. Halperin (1979 : 23)
argues that "sexual abuse not only violates child maltreatment laws, but it
also stands as a separate criminal charge". Vander Mey & Neff (1986 :
8) adds that sexual abuse of children has come under attack by women's
and children's rights.
There are many factors, which lead to adults sexually abusing children.
According to Wagstaff and Kibel (1995 : 374) circumstances, which
promote sexual abuse and some of the common factors, which put a
child at risk of being abused, are listed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Circumstances which promote sexual abuse
CHARACTERISTICS OF ABUSER
Molester:
• Sexually immature
• No normal adult sexual relationship
• Exclusive preference for children
• Lack of self-control
• Normal sexual orientation which break down at times of stress,
marital conflict, substance abuse, loss of job
Rapist
• Power rapist - uses force to dominate
• Sadist - urge to inflict pain
CHARACTERISTICS OF NON-ABUSING FAMILY MEMBERS
Little cohesion
Mother
• Passive, dependent, sexually inhibited
• Promotes/permits daughter taking over her role
• Sexually abused during childhood
45
• Pregnant during early adolescence
CHARACTERISTICS OF VICTIMS
• Sexually precocious
• Timid, withdrawn, non-assertive
• Intellectually impaired
• Oldest girl in the family
SOCIAL CONTEXT
• Crowded sleeping facilities
• Children exposed to adult sex act early
• Presence of step-father
• Poor family cohesion
SITUATIONAL CONTEXT
• Mother absent (incapacitated)
(Source: Wagstaff and Kibel, 1995 : 374)
Some researchers argue that stress is a causative factor for child's sexual
abuse. For example Gilmartin (1994 : 81) argues that "(child abusers) under
stress regress and use children to meet their needs". Gebhard (1965) in
Gilmartin (1994 : 81) further argues that in most cases "a person who has
been sexually abused as a child will most likely sexually abuse his or her off-
springs". However, not all victims of abuse tend to abuse their children in
return. Calam and Franchi (1987 : 5) further illustrate the above point by
saying that" not all abused children become abusing parents".
Some parents misuse their power as heads of the families and tend to abuse
their children sexually. RusseIl (1984 : 248) in Gilmartin (1994 : 83) argues
that "just as females are viewed as the property of males, children are almost
universally seen as the property of their parents and some fathers assume
that this includes the right of sexual access, particularly to their daughters".
46
Kaufman (1954) in Vander Mey & Neff (1986 : 52) states that: "parents who
abuse their children are individuals from poverty-stricken backgrounds and
alcohol abusers with little education who had been inadequately housed and
received little support form their parents".
From many causative factors of child abuse, it has become evident that
children from families characterised by low socio-economic factors are more
exposed to child abuse than children from well off families. This point is
further emphasised by Cartwell (1981) in Vander Mey & Neff (1986 : 47)
when he says: "thus while child abuse including incest may be a potential in
any family, it is clear that children especially those from lower class families
are more at risk for virtually all types of abuse".
Table 2.4 shows the behavioural and physical indicators of a sexually abused
child as a result of causative factors of child abuse mentioned above.
Table 2.4: Sexual abuse
BEHAVIOURAL INDICATORS IN PHYSICAL INDICATORS IN CHILD
CHILD
• The child displays age-. Unusual or excessive itching in
inappropriate sexual play with toys, the genital or anal area.
self, others, e.g. replication of
explicit sexual acts.
• Age inappropriate, sexually explicit • Torn, stained or bloody
drawings and descriptions underwear may be observed if
the child requires bathroom
assistance.
• Bizarre, sophisticated or unusual • Injuries to the vaginal or anal
sexual knowledge areas, for example bruising,
swelling or infection.
• Venereal disease.
• Pregnancy.
(Source: Servamus, 1998: 31)
47
Halperin (1979 : 23) furthermore argues that the behaviour of a sexually
abused child totally deviates from the behaviour of a normal child. He says
although a sexually abused child bears no external marks of abuse, she or he
may:
• become withdrawn and fail to engage in acting out behaviour;
• he/she may cry often for no apparent reason or without offering an
explanation;
• he/she may turn suddenly hostile and present behaviour problems;
• she may become extremely anxious when asked to undress for a school
physical examination or a physical education class.
Apart from the above types of behaviour shown by sexually abused children
some researchers believe that sexually abused children show other
symptoms. For example, Robertson (1989 : 40) argues that "sexually abused
children have nightmares and they wet or soil their beds".
Some researchers tend to disagree when it comes to the exact age at which
children start being sexually abused. Kempe (1977) in Cook and Bowles
(1980 : 103) argues that: "rape cases can start as early as a child is 2 years
or during early adolescence while incest can start from toddler age and
continue into adulthood".
Gilmartin (1994 : 87) on the other hand argues that: "female children,
between the ages of eight and twelve, isolated form their peers, residing in
homes where there is great deal of conflict, residing with a stepfather, and/or
experiencing poor relationships with her parents are significantly more likely
to be sexually abused".
48
It can therefore be concluded that age is not the only contributing factor to
child's sexual abuse, it is also accompanied by the environment in which a
child lives. Wagstaff and Kibel (1995 : 374) argue that "the social context of
the child is one of the circumstanceswhich promote sexual abuse".
When talking of the race which is more likely to sexually abuse its children,
some researchers are of the opinion that each race sexually abuse its
children. Gilmartin (1994 : 47) argues that there are no difference by race
and class in child's sexual abuse. Vander Mey & Neff (1986 : 43) also
argues that each race sexually abuse its children, however, in most cases
incest victims are female.
In conclusion, it can be stated that sexual abuse of children is a worldwide
problem which happens in every society and affects children of different
ages.
2.5.3 Emotional abuse
Emotional abuse is another type of child abuse. People are unique
individuals with need to be approached/treated differently (Gottfredson &
Gottfredson, 1985 : 353). A good parent is not excessively demanding on his
or her child. They know their children very well and they set reasonable
goals for their children. On the contrary, many parents are found to be very
demanding on their children and as a result, tend to abuse their children if
they do not achieve the set standards. Halperin (1979 : 26) argues that:
"many emotionally abusive parents hold unrealistic expectations for their
children and communicate their standards in critical and demanding
language".
Many authors do not really define what emotional abuse is. Instead, they
tend to discuss the circumstances surrounding emotional abuse. However,
Halperin (1979 : 26) defines it as: "emotional abuse involves the actions of a
49
parent that interfere with the healthy personal and social development of a
child".
Emotional abuse normally occurs at home or at places where children are
cared for. According to "Servamus" (1998 : 3D), emotional abuse is found to
be less evident to outside observers. As mentioned earlier on the
contributing factors to emotional abuse may be ridicule. According to
"Servamus" (1998 : 30) emotional abuse includes "verbal insults, threats,
belittling, comments and isolation from friends and family".
Some parents like or enjoy seeing their children unhappy. As a result, they
might threaten them time and again and threaten them to severe beatings.
Automatically children from such families live in fear and they are
psychologically tortured, as they do not know what behaviour might appear
appealing to their parents. Some researchers, however, argue that some
parents emotionally abuse their children for the sake of pleasure. Calam &
Franchi (1987 : 185) argue that: "... emotional maltreatment of children
appear to give parents pleasure, in addition to enhancing their ability to
control them. They enjoy seeing their unhappiness and fear ..."
According to Halperin (1979 : 26) the other contributing factor to emotional
abuse is "that other parents see in their children elements they dislike. Due
to this factor, they emotionally punish their children". This can be illustrated
with the mother who is afraid of her own sexuality and who views her
innocent daughter's actions as seductive and as a result, emotionally abuse
her child.
As compared with other types of abuse, an "emotionally abused child is less
evident to outsiders" ("Servamus" 1998 : 30). According to some
researchers there are many factors that can be exhibited by an emotionally
abused child. According to Halperin (1979 : 27) these include the following:
50
• they believe that they are worthless or bad and so act out behaviour that
confirms these judgements;
• some withdraw from contact with others through excessive daydreaming
in the hope of insulating themselves;
• they anticipate all interpersonal relationships to be painful, such as those
with their parents, therefore they opt for isolation rather than risk further
injury;
• others become hyper aggressive and thus imitate their parents' attitude
towards them.
"Servamus" (1998 : 31) agrees with Halperin who states that emotionally
abused children are aggressive and depressed. Moreover, they provide a list,
which shows the behavioural and physical indicators of emotional abuse.
These are indicated in table 2.5
Table 2.5 Behavioural and physical indicators of an
emotionally abused child
BEHAVIOURAL INDICATORS IN PHYSICAL INDICATORS
CHILD
• Severe depression • Enuresis (bed-wetting) and/or
• Extreme withdrawal or encropesis (soiling of pants) that
agg ressiveness is non-medical in origin
• Overly complaint; too well- • Frequent psychosomatic,
mannered; too neat and clean complaints of headaches,
nausea, abdominal pains
• Extremely attention • Child fails to thrive
seeking/pleasing behaviour
• Displays extreme inhibition in play
(Source: "Servamus" 1998 : 32)
51
Researchers do not mention the age at which children are mostly emotionally
abused. Wagstaff and Kibel (1995 : 369) argue that: "emotional abuse,
however, is prevalent in all communities and levels of society because of the
ignorance of the elementary needs of the developing child, particularly when
the caregivers themselves are victims of inadequate parenting".
2.5.4 Neglect
Neglect is another form of child abuse. Children should be cared for by their
parents. Wagstaff and Kibel (1995 : 372) argue that: "leaving children alone
without adequate care is a serious and frequent act of abuse which can have
disastrous consequences".
Neglect of children entails failure of the parent/caretaker to provide the child
with the necessary conditions for living. Green (19S0 : 109) defines it as:
"failure of the parent/guardian to supply the child with adequate food, clothing,
shelter, education, medical care and supervision".
According to Salter and Findlay (1992 : 6) neglect cover problems such as
poor hygiene, lack of attention to medical needs, insufficient food and
inadequate supervision of children.
Halperin (1979 : 24) on the other hand, defines it as: "parental omissions that
endanger the healthy development of youngsters". Wagstaff and Kibel (1995
: 372) also define it as: "persistent failure to provide adequate physical and
emotional care of the child where the means are available".
Green (19S0 : 110) states that: "failure to provide the child with adequate
parenting to ensure the realisation of his potential for normal physical and
psychological growth and development is neglect".
52
When compared with other types of abuse, one can come to the conclusion
that neglect frequently entails sins of omission while abuse involves sins of
commission (Green 1980 : 110).
Normally the occurrences of neglect takes place in the environment or a place
in which a child grows up. It is obvious that the home of a child is the place
where neglective acts can happen. Again, the parents or caretaker are the
ones who can neglect the child, as they are the one' responsible for his or her
upbringing. Halperin (1979 : 25) argues that: "parents are expected to
provide supervision for their immature offspring, failure to do so constitute
neglect".
Children can be neglected in different ways. According to Halperin (1979 :
21) these include physical neglect, medical neglect, emotional neglect,
educational neglect and abandonment.
• Physical neglect
This entails failure to supply the necessities of life to the child. These
include food, clothing, shelter, general care and reasonable protection
from harm and supervision.
• Medical neglect
This is defined as "the failure of a parent to provide medical treatment for
suspected or diagnosed physical conditions of a child except in those
cases in which religious beliefs prescribe a doctor's care".
• Emotional neglect
Failure to provide prerequisites for healthy child development through
omission rather than through action.
53
• Educational neglect
Failure of a parent to ensure that a child learns at home and at school.
• Abandonment
A total rejection of the parent-child relationship.
There are many factors, which cause neglect, but in some cases, one
may find that a parent or a caretaker neglects a child due to
circumstances prevailing at that time. Green (1980 : 110) argues that: "in
many cases, neglect appears unintentionally and closely associated with
substandard living conditions and inner-city slum areas".
Drug abuse has been found by many researchers to be one of the
causative factors of neglect. Alcohol makes a person ignorant and
carefree, as a result, an alcoholic parent will totally neglect his or her
child. Green (1980 : 110) argues that: "(neglecting) parents are
psychotics or alcoholics and they engage in anti-social activities".
Poor adult-child relationship has also been found to be a causative factor
of neglect. A parent, who does not talk to his or her child or guides him or
her, is totally neglecting that child.
Neglected children can be identified in a number of ways. Youngsters
who are hungry, thin and stealing from others to satisfy their appetites are
true examples of neglected children. These children according to
Halperin (1979 : 24) "may be thin because they do not get enough to eat,
or they may be overweight because their diets rely heavily on starchy
food".
Since these children do not or are not given enough to eat, one may find
that they encounter developmental problems. According to Malone
(1967) in Green (1980 : 42) neglected children are characterised by:
54
• learning difficulties at school;
• diminished initiative and enjoyment in play;
• limited spoken language;
• concrete thinking;
• literalness and inflexibility;
• non-specific friendliness;
• use of imitative identifications;
• lack of body care and accident proneness;
• poor object permanence.
Halperin (1979 : 27) further adds that neglected children, especially the
emotionally neglected children appear unhealthy because of lack of emotional
support in their upbringing. He argues that: "emotionally neglected children
frequently seem frail and unhealthy. They seem to lack the emotional
requirements for healthy growth".
Every child requires a sense of emotional involvement with anybody in loco-
parentis and, if there is nobody to provide that, that child will experience
problems in life. To conclude one may say that neglect does not only affect
the child physically, it also hampers his or her growth into a fully responsible
adult.
2.5.5 Economic abuse
The last form of abuse for discussion is economic abuse Economic abuse is
often ignored. This type of abuse is mostly common in women. "Servamus"
.(1998 : 3D), however indicates that it has also been found to exist in children.
The parent may economically abuse the child either by refusing to give the
child the money needed for school activities or secondly, he or she may
expect the child to work and support the family, that is, taking his/her role as
the father/mother of the house. According to "Servamus" (1998 : 31)
economically abused children appear depressed and they lack motivation in
almost everything they do.
55
2.6 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, one may say that child abuse has become a source of concern
today. Browne, Davies & Stratton, (1988 : 15) say that "child (abuse)
regularly makes its way into news broadcasts and the front pages of our daily
newspapers". Abuse of children can take many forms as has been shown in
this chapter. The different types of abuse should not be confused especially
emotional abuse and neglect. Neglect encompasses failure of a
parent/caretaker to provide/supply the child with adequate care (Green, 1980
: 109) while emotional abuse may encompass total rejection from a parent or
caregiver combined with ridiculing, criticising, or threatening a child. (Salter
& Findlay, 1992 : 6).
56
CHAPTERS
THE RELATIONSHIP B£TWEEN CHILD ABUSE AND
ACADEMICPERFORMANC£
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The saying goes that today's children are tomorrow's leaders. It is essential
for parents to care for their children adequately from the time they are born so
that those children develop into fully responsible adults. It has also been
proved beyond doubt that a child's basic character is moulded in the first
seven years of its life (Durban and Coastal Society for early childhood
education - the SA Association for early childhood education, 1985 : 4). The
above statement further emphasises the point that early childhood care is
essential for the growth of a child. Normally a child lives in two different
environments during the first seven years of its life. That is the home-/family
environment and the school environment. Generally speaking, the home and
the school can be held responsible for either building or distorting a child's
life.
The family, however, has been found to be the primary environment in which
a child grows up. Louwet. al (1991 : 348) argue that "the child's home is the
place that offers the most security and his or her family is still the pivot on
which his or her life hinges". In the family a child is taught cultural-societal
values and principles of life. He or she is also taught how to love and to
relate successfully with other people. Olthuis (1975 : 79) states that a child
learns about love in the family. The family is his or her nursery, the child's
first school; it is his or her initial world; and his or her launching pad into the
big outdoors.
The school on the other hand is regarded as the secondary environment in
which a child grows up in. This is so because children from six years of age
57
spend most of their time at school (Louwet. al, 1991 : 348). The education a
child receives at home continues at school. However, one may find that the
type of education a child receives at home is different from the one he or she
receives at school. The school is more structured and learning that occurs in
the classroom is highly ordered. At school, a child also learns certain
acceptable and unacceptable norms of society. Gibson (1976 : 409) argues
that at school "the child is exposed to a new environment. He or she meets a
new authority figure: his or her teacher .... He or she confronts new social
pressures ... Through interactions, he or she learns about what to say and
what not to say ... how to obtain friendship, respect and affection from other
children and from the teacher ... he or she is presented with an array of
subject matter and skills to master".
On the contrary, the type of education which a child receives at home is
unstructured to a certain extent. There is no formal teacher and learning
occurs haphazardly. Charles (1964) in Van der Mey & Neff (1986 : 1) states
that the family and the school are responsible for developing a child's
personality and helping him or her to relate successfully with other people.
The school and the family can however become the institutes of abuse rather
than symbols characterised by love, guidance and warmth. Little (1989 : 217)
argues that "the word(s) family and school for most people conjure up strong
images of warmth, caring, security and love. However, the facts about
families and schools reveal a striking paradox: The family [and the school]
are also the societies' most violent institutions".
These changes in the functions and roles of both the family and the school
according to many researchers are due to factors such as globalisation in
large cities or towns. People crowd in large cities or towns to seek for jobs
and this leads to unemployment resulting in the abuse of children. Dubanoski
(1984) in Vander Mey & Neff (1986 : 16) states "urbanisation, crowding and
poverty are amongst the most underlying factors of abuse". Divorces, marital
separation, stepfamilies lead to circumstances where children are more at
58
risk. Procidano and Fischer (1992 : 72) argue that "stepchildren ... are more
likely to be abused by a step-parent than by a biological parent.... Abuse of
children is more likely to occur by step relatives e.g. uncles, step-
grandparents and through relations with stepsiblings".
Some children prefer being in the streets rather than face the abuse in their
families and school ("Next magazine, 1996 : 9). Surprisingly, one may find
that street children are normal kids with qualities such as love and kindness.
Those qualities, however, are not given chance to develop. Maslow (1954)
in Mwamwenda (1995 : 344) argues that "(street children) have an inherent
capacity for constructive growth as well as the capacity to exercise qualities
such as love, kindness, generosity and honesty. However, such qualities
cannot flourish because of inappropriate environment".
It may be concluded that the home and the school are two important
environments for the child. These two environments can either mould a child
into a responsible adult or contribute towards bad behaviour in a child.
1.2 THE CHILD'S EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT
The child's educational environments include both the family environment and
the school environment, that is, the child learns both at home and at school
(Olthuis, 1975 : 79 and Louwet. al, 1991 : 348). It is in these two
environments that a child is moulded into a responsible, mature adult with the
following characteristics (Gerdes, 1988 : 99).
59
• Realistic perception.
A mature person is able to set himself or herself reasonable goals and
laughs at himself or herself when he or she has done something stupid.
• Efficiency and task centredness
This implies being fully committed in whatever one does and being in a
position to do work efficiently.
• Decision making and a focus of control.
Being in a position to make reasonable decisions concerning life.
• Acceptance of responsibility.
A person can be responsible for any task. That is, make sure a certain
task is carried out and completed successfully.
• The capacity for intimacy, love and concern.
A person is able to accept other people around him or her and wants to
be associated with them. He or she is also concerned about them.
• Self-acceptance.
A mature person accepts himself or herself. That is, he or she knows all
his or her weak and strong points.
• The need for solitude.
A mature person likes to be alone sometimes and fantasize about certain
things in life. However, this does not mean that he or she is isolated and
lonely.
60
• Zest for life.
A mature person is eager to live. If he or she is under stress, he or she is
able to look for alternatives that can relieve him or her from stress instead
of seeing stress as a threat.
• A unifying philosophy of life.
A mature person knows his or her past and present. As a result, he or
she has goals for the future.
Despite the underlying factor that both the home and the school can
mould a child into a responsible mature adult, one may find that those two
institutions have different functions and roles to perform in the upbringing
of a child. As such, the researcher would like to discuss those two
institutions separately.
1.2.1 Family environment
What immediately comes into mind when the concept "family" is mentioned is
the composition of parents, sisters, brothers and relatives. Little et. al (1992 :
321) defines family as "a group consisting of one or two parents, their children
and close relatives ... all people descended from a common ancestor.
Different cultures, however, perceive the concept "family" differently. For
example the African culture views it as the composition of a mother, father,
children and relatives. On the contrary, Western culture will view a family as
the composition of two biological parents and their offspring (Gibson, 1976 :
13). Whatever the case may be, a family is held responsible for the growth of
a child. Olthuis (1975 : 80) states """ parents must guide, lead, educate,
steer and nurture their children so that they come to see the norms that hold
for life and so that they will be able to bear the responsibility of living
according to these norms".
61
Herman (1992 : 184) further supports Olthuis by stating that by nature of birth,
parents are the caretakers of their children. They (parents) should do
everything for their children to ensure their smooth growth. He argues
"parents are natural caretakers, protectors and educators of their children.
When one or both parents fail in one of these areas, their children are
immediately placed in a situation in which they are at risk and in which they
may more easily become the victims of another maladjusted adult or fall prey
to other adverse circumstance.
Munves, Fernandez and Fleck (1965 : 15) emphasise that "doing things
together in a family promotes understanding and unity among the family
members and other people".
It is also in the family, where certain things are taught to the child. For
instance, parents are expected to teach their children moral values that are
acceptable in their individual cultures. Gibson (1976 : 13) states "the family is
the primary transmitter and interpreter of culture". It is also at home where a
child is taught how to relate well with other people. Munves et al (1965 : 7)
point out that "at home we discover how to enjoy living in constant
relationships with others. It is in the home environment that children are
taught the essentiality of making allowances and adjustments for other
people".
Giamatti (1989 : 254) expands on this aspect: "home is an English word
virtually impossible to translate ... It is a concept, not a place. It is a state of
mind where self-definition starts. It is origins - the mixture of time and place
and smell and weather wherein one first realises one is an original, perhaps
like others especially those one loves .... Home ... remains in mind as a place
where reunion, if it were ever to occur, would happen ... it is about restoration
of the right relations among things ...".
62
The family has also been found to provide a sense of security for a child. A
child who grows up in a good family is able to identify his or her origin without
difficulties. Olthuis (1975 : 79) supports the above point by arguing that in
the family a child learns to express his or her feelings, know himself or herself
and to find his or her identity. Hence without the family, a young child is
unprotected against the world.
It is in the family that primary basic skills like respect and love are taught to
the child and these skills are further emphasised at school by the teachers.
To strengthen the case for the family Kadushin (1974) in Westman (1979 :
107) summarises the functions of the family as follows:
• To provide an income that will meet the needs of the child for food,
clothing, shelter, education, health care and social recreational activities.
• To provide love, security, affection and the emotional support necessary
for the healthy emotional development of the child.
• To provide the necessary stimulation for intellectual social and moral
development.
• To help socialise the child through teaching behaviour that is customary
and acceptable to the social group and through disciplining the child.
• To protect the child from physical, emotional and social harm.
• To maintain family interaction on a stable satisfying basis so that an effort
is made to meet the significant needs of all members of the family and to
resolve discomforts, frictions and dissatisfaction and to meet emotional
needs through accepting affectionate responses.
• To provide a fixed place of abode, so as to legitimise the child's
membership in the larger social group.
Having outlined the functions and roles of a family as related to the child, the
school as another environment where a child grows up will be discussed.
63
1.2.2 School environment
According to the Little et. al (1992 : 808), school is defined as "an institution
for educating people especially children".
Fowler and Fowler (1969: 476) defines school as the "institution for educating
boys or girls or both or for giving instructions in a special subject. ..
circumstances or occupation serving to discipline or instruct".
From these two definitions, it can be deduced that school refers to an
institution for educating people.
Many researchers, however, regard the school as the secondary environment
in which a child grows up in. This may be due to the fact that the basic skills
that are taught to the child at home are further emphasised at school. Gibson
(1976 : 25) argues that "the primary transmitter and interpreter of culture to
the young child is the family (so obviously the school will stand secondary)".
Normally, the school is composed of teachers (as authority figures) and
learners. The teachers at school are responsible for transmitting knowledge
and insights to the pupils (Child, 1981 : 99). At school, a teacher is regarded
as a leader - somebody who should guide and lead the students (Gibson,
1976 : 448). Gibson further argues that for a teacher to be fit to transfer
certain skills to the learners, he or she must have the following
characteristics:
• Appreciation for diversity.
A teacher should or always be willing to hear new ideas from either other
people or books and should encourage full and open debate in class.
64
• Willingness to be energetically accountable.
Conflicts are necessary in any educational system, but they can be
resolved beneficially if the teacher is willing to negotiate.
• Recognition that some conflicts are irreconcilable.
A teacher should be able to handle conflicts intelligently and know how to
prevent violence.
At school a child lives with students from different cultures and through
socialisation, he or she learns more about different cultures. It is also in the
school environment that children are taught to acknowledge different cultures.
Caudil (1969) in Gibson (1976 : 19) argues that "through socialisation, certain
patterns of behaviour characteristics of (different) cultures are transmitted
from one child to the other through school as a media".
The self-concept of the child is one aspect which is developed at school.
According to Coopersmith as cited by Howcroft (1993) in Mwamwenda (1995
: 363), self concept refers to "the evaluation which the individual makes and
customarily maintains with regard to himself or herself; it expresses an
attitude of approval or disapproval and indicates the extent to which the
individual believes himself or herself to be capable, significant and worthy. By
interacting at school with teachers, peers and the various tasks and
responsibilities, a child's self concept is developed. Louwet al (1992 : 340)
further support the above point by stating that "schools help children to
develop emotionally, morally and in all aspects of reality".
Avenant (1990 : 385) summarises the functions of school as follows:
• Education regarding religious development.
The school must give its teaching a Christian character. For example, in a
history class, a teacher must demonstrate the hand of God in our national
65
life. Biology and science must teem with opportunities to illustrate the
wonders of God.
• Promotion of healthy life and worldviews.
It is apparent for every school to assist pupils in constructing a positive
philosophy of life through normal subject tuition. The influence of negative
ideologies should be counteracted, but no teacher has the right to impose
his or her own viewpoint on pupils, especially if this viewpoint is
reactionary or extreme.
• Promote patriotism
Almost every school subject lends itself to a certain degree to the
cultivation of patriotism in its pupils. The history period teems with
opportunities to examine aspects such as the national festivals, tradition
and the like. The science syllabus lends itself to bringing our beautiful
scenery, nature reserves and protected plants and animals to the pupils'
attention. Language teachers can talk about language pollution and
gymnastics teachers about nature pollution. Furthermore it is every
teacher's duty to discuss aspects such as discipline, obedience to school
rules, and national laws, respect for the property of others, vandalism with
his or her pupils.
• Promote healthy human relationships
A truly educated person must be able to live together with his or her fellow
men in peace and harmony. Therefore, each teacher should through his
or her teaching of any particular subject attempt to impress the importance
of human relationships.
66
• Promote economic independence
Every school should make a contribution to encouraging thrift and
carefulness in its pupils.
• Promote physical welfare
Schools should make students aware of dangers they might be exposed
to and how to avoid those dangers.
• Promote healthy school relationships
School is responsible for helping students build healthy school relations.
Schools must educate pupils to build a healthy pride in their school and
eliminate negative dispositions such as truancy.
• Promote healthy cultural interest
All schools contribute to the cultural and aesthetic education of their
pupils.
• Promote healthy self-concept
Children are taught to construct healthy self-images. By treating pupils
with respect and regard, a teacher can prevent feelings of inferiority and
frustration. In addition teachers can help to build self-respect and healthy
self-concept. Further by pointing out to the pupils that each of them is
unique and distinctive and has talents in some direction.
Given the above information, one can conclude that children's educational
environments are very influence on their behaviour either negatively or
positively. Wiseman (1969 : 3) argues that "the child's home, his or her
parents and immediate family, his or her neighbourhood and the school
most intimately and busily interact with his or her personality, his or her life
and behaviour".
67
Therefore, it follows that an environment which is very poor and abusive
will stunt the intellectual growth of a child beyond the point of remedy
(Wiseman, 1969 : 4). Child (1981 : 201) underlines the fact that an
environment, which is very poor, is not conducive to the development of a
child. He argues that "an adverse environment is relatively more
devastating for the intellectual development of a child". On the contrary, a
rich environment will contribute towards improving the intellectual growth
of a child (Wiseman, 1969 : 4). The conducive school and home
environment can enable a child to develop the hierarchy of needs
essential for a mature person. Such needs are illustrated by Maslow as in
Mwamwenda (1995 : 345) figure 3.1.
68
Figure 3.1 Personality development based on Maslow's hierarchy
of needs.
Spiritual and high
level of human
experience
Self actualisation needs:
Realising one's fulfilment. ...
Aesthetic needs: Appreciation for
symmetry, order, beauty, nature ...
Cognitive needs: To explore, know, need,
understand ...
Self esteem needs: To achieve, be competent,
be approved, be valued ...
Belonging and love needs: to belong, be accepted, love
and be loved ....
Safety needs: feeling secure, safe, being sure of tomorrow, regular
events, comfort, freedom from fear ...
Physiological needs: food, water, sleep, sex, oxygen, life, rest, release from
pain, free from tension ....
(Source: Mwamwenda 1995 : 346).
However, the school and the family can perform completely different roles.
Apart form being responsible for the upbringing of the child, they can be
institutes of abuse. This will be shown in the following section.
69
3.3 FAMILY AND SCHOOL AS INSTITUTIONS OF ABUSE
The home and the school environment can be found to be very harmful to the
child's development especially if they are not conducive to his or her
development. This has been confirmed by Doyle (1994 : 28) indicating ways
in which children can be abused both at their homes and in the school
environment.
3.3.1 Family
Ideally a family is an institution charged with the responsibility of child rearing
(De La Rey, et. ai, 1997 : 159). However, throughout history, families have
been found to abuse their children. (De Nause (1974) in Calam and Franchi,
1987 : 1). Theatre quotes Spiro (in Franchi and Calam 1978 : 10) on the
rights of a parent over a child during Roman times: The parent had the right
to
• kill the child;
• sell the child;
• have the child adopted;
• marry the child;
• divorce the child;
• control his/her child's possessions.
It is not surprising that today some families have become the institutes of
abuse rather than the places of "joy, rest and authenticity" (Olthuis, 1975 :
82). Parents today still harm their children and as a result, it is difficult for
abused children to find peace anywhere since they are abused in their own
homes. Herman (1992 : 84) argues that "parents can cause their children
great harm and assisting abused children may be difficult because the
children are damaged in the privacy of their own homes. The very home
which would normally have been a safe haven".
70
Consequently, children leave their homes in search for peace and love.
Le Roux (1993 : 59) argues that street children have left their homes because
they have been severely abused by their parents. Surprisingly, when
interviewed street children prefer being in the streets rather than face the
abuse in their families (SABC2 "Inside info", April 1998). This again shows
how some families are dangerous for the children's growth. Bagley (s.a.) in
Schlesinger (1986 : 30) argues that "child abuse is very much a family
problem rather than an act performed by strangers". Bagley (s.a) as in
Schlesinger (1986 : 30) further argues that most children suffer from abuse at
the hands of their parents. Bentovim (1992 : 2) further supports Bagley as in
Schlesinger (1986 : 30) by stating that "the family (of a child) is an institution
prone to violence rather than care".
Breiner (1990 : 239) on the other hand, shows how some families simply
abandon their children as a form of abuse instead of caring for them. He
states that as a form of abuse "some parents do not consider the child to
have personal value and pay no attention to him or her. The child is (then)
left to his or her own devices, with a variety of other (who might even abuse
him or her more) raising him or her and functioning as surrogate parents".
Abuse in the family can, however, take many forms. These include physical
abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, emotional and economic abuse. These forms
of abuse will be discussed below.
3.3.1.1 Physical abuse in the family
It has been mentioned earlier on that physical abuse refers to the use of
physical force intended to hurt the child (Gil, 1970 : 6). David (1993 : 18),
however, gives another definition of physical abuse of the child. He defines it
as the "physical injury to the child including deliberate poisoning where there
71
is definite knowledge or a reasonable suspicion that the injury was inflicted or
knowingly not prevented".
Most families have been found to physically abuse their children (Breiner,
(1990 : 240). A parent who punishes a child by severely beating that child is
physically abusing that child. This however does not mean that parents
should not punish their children. It means that parents must be considerate
when they punish their children. They should not injure them in any way
(Department of Health (GB), 1988 : 30).
Some parents when hurt or angry with the child, may decide to lower the
children in boiling water. Parents who smoke cigarettes may also burn their
children with cigarettes when they are angry with the child (Verschoor, Fick,
Oosthuizen & Jonck, 1989: 61 and Lee, 1978: 15).
Obviously, the children tortured in these way (physically) experience serious
problems in life since some of them may even become wary of adults for life
(The Servamus, 1998: 31).
Physical abuse of children according to some researchers is inflicted on a
child by a parent/caretaker. Halperin (1979 :21) argues that "the physical
indications of physically abused children are a clear indication that the abuser
is the parent of the child or a caretaker". This is so, because the marks
possessed by physically abused children may be on different areas of the
body suggesting the child has been struck from several directions by
somebody who lives with that child permanently.
There are many reasons behind parents abusing their children physically.
These may include stress among other things. Cruz and Essen (1994 : 8)
state: "parents who physically abuse their children have been found to
manifest higher levels of stress from multiple sources like unemployment and
financial difficulties and are deficient in coping skills to deal effectively with
72
such stress". Cruz and Essen further argue that things like social isolation
and low self-esteem can result in frustrating other parents and urging them to
abuse their children physically.
Due to frustrations, parents can expect their children to perform certain
parental tasks and failure to do so result in physical abuse. Cruz and Essen
(1994 : 8) argue that "physically abusive parents have been observed as
having frustrated dependency needs. This dynamic underlies the concept of
the role reversal in which the parents unrealistically expect their child(ren) to
satisfy their needs like nurturing and housekeeping".
In conclusion, it can be stated that the children who are physically abused
appear depressed and they sometimes or more often cry when approached
by adults (The Servamus 1998 : 31 & Lee, 1978: 18).
3.3.1.2 Sexual abuse in the family
Apart from physically abusing a child, the family can also abuse the child
sexually. Elliot (1980) in Doyle (1994 : 10) defines sexual abuse as "any
sexual exploitation of a child under the age of 16 for the sexual pleasure or
gratification of an adult or significantly older person (or of the same age or
slightly younger than the victim". Issues such as incest, which implies the
acts of sexual intercourse between relatives (Porter 1984 : 3) are a clear
indication that sexual abuse within the family exists. Gillham (1991 : 16) even
refers to this type of abuse as "intrafamilial abuse" to show that it is something
which occurs among people of the same blood.
Sexual abuse within the family according to the Department of Health (G.B.)
(1988 : 30) may range from penetration, oral/genital contact with a child, anal
or vaginal intercourse, exploitation for pornography and exposure to
pornography. Elliot in Doyle (1994 : 10) further adds to the above list by
arguing that sexual abuse may include "obscene telephone calls, indecent
exposure and voyeurism such as spying on a child, undressing in front of a
73
child, attempted rape or child prostitution". Elliot further argues that sexual
abuse of a child may be a single incident or events which occur over a
number of times.
The intra-familiar abuse may be attributed to a number of factors. A failure of
one partner to meet the sexual needs of his or her partner may lead to the
latter abusing the child sexually (Boon (s.a. as in Schlesinger, (1986 : 186) to
satisfy himself or herself. Q'Hagan (1989 : 113) further supports the above
view by arguing that "the person who has no satisfactory sexual relationship
with his or her partner may resort to the child". Schetky and Green (1988 :
34) argue that parents who have problems with their relationship deviate to
the child for satisfaction. They state that "such parents become sexually
attracted to their children when their adult relationships become conflictual".
The other cause of sexual abuse in the family is severe communication
problems within the family. A parent whose family is characterised by severe
communication problems stands a better chance of sexually abusing his or
her child since the child will have no one to reveal his or her problems to and
as a result, nobody will ever know of the abuse (Dale, Davies, Morrison &
Waters, 1986 : 117)
Alcohol abuse has also been cited by many researchers as a causative factor
of sexual abuse amongst children. Parents who abuse alcohol tend to see
their children as people they can have sexual relationships with instead of
caring and nurturing them. Schetky and Green (1988 : 33) and Doyle (1994 :
51) have even concluded that there is a link between child sexual abuse and
alcohol abuse. De Young (1982) as in Doyle (1994 : 51) also finds that
perpetrators of child sexual abuse committed their offences while under the
influence of alcohol.
74
Parents who are socially and physically isolated are found in most cases to
abuse their children (Schetky and Green, 1988 : 34). A person who is
isolated has nobody to discuss his or her problems with and as a result, when
frustrated, he or she may abuse the child sexually. Q'Hagan (1989 : 113)
argues that parent(s) who sexually abuse their children, are "... pathetic,
weak, and socially isolated individuals who had never had any real bond with
the child". Doyle (1994 : 53) also argues that parents who abuse their
children have in common "Iow self esteem, difficulty in forming relationships
and a sense of emotional isolation".
The last causative factor of child's sexual abuse of children is domineering
and tyrannical parents (Schetky and Green, 1988 : 33). The sexually abusing
perpetrator maintains his or her dominant position in the family or over the
victim (whom he or she abuses) through violence or threats. Perpetrators of
sexual abuse of children within the family (especially fathers) who lack
adequate knowledge concerning adolescents' growth may be sexually
aroused by their behaviours and as a result, find themselves sexually abusing
their children (Porter, 1984 : 9). Hundreds of men who are accused in high
courts today for abusing the children sexually are found to be the children's
(victims) closest relatives if not their biological parents or caretakers. Dale et.
al (1986 : 31) argue that "it is an unpleasant reality that the vast proportion of
children who are seriously physically assaulted and sexually abused are
victims within their family environment".
Normally sexually abused children are characterised by having inappropriate
sex knowledge (Servamus, 1998 : 29). This implies that they might have
more knowledge about sexual matters inappropriate to their age.
Therefore, it can be concluded that sexual abuse can be harmful to the well
being of a child as has been shown above.
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3.3.1.3 Neglect in the family
Apart from both physical and sexual abuse, children can also be neglected in
their homes. David (1993 : 17) defines neglect as "the persistent or severe
neglect of a child", such as, starvation, exposure to danger, which results in
serious impairment of the child's health or development including non-organic
failure to thrive. Neglect of children in a family may include many forms.
These are lack of education, neglect, medical neglect, social neglect and
economic neglect (Halperin, 1979 : 20).
According to Halperin, (1979 : 20) an educationally neglected child is one
whose parents are less concerned about his or her schoolwork. The child
goes to and comes back from school without the parents' concern. According
to the "Department of Health (G.B.) (1998 : 30) educationally neglected
children are characterised by a "persistent failure to attend school" since there
is nobody at home who motivates the child to go to school.
Medical neglect may involve a parent or a caretaker's failure to take a child to
a doctor or a clinic when sick (Halperin, 1979 : 21). This on its own is a form
of abuse because parents or caretakers are not supposed to neglect their
children. The law forces them (parents or anybody in loco parentis to protect
their children from any dangers they may be exposed to. The International
Declaration of Children's rights which was adopted in the United Nations in
1979 states that: "children have a right to be given enough to eat, to have a
decent place to live as well as to play, and to receive good medical care when
they are ill".
Abuse in the family may even go to the extent that children are left without
food by their parents. These may be due to unemployment, which result in
poverty in most families. Zigler (1993 : 15) argues that the ramifications of
living in poverty are numerous, including assaults on children's physical and
mental health, (neglect) and the other forms of abuse by their caretakers.
76
The other contributing factors to neglect may include physical illness (Doyle,
1994 : 52) and lower socio-economic status of parents (Schetky and Green,
1988 : 33). Parents who are physically ill may neglect their children in that
they cannot always be there for children when they are needed.
Parents/caretakers characterised by lower socio-economic status may even
not be in a position to provide enough for the children and as a result, abuse
in the form of neglect occurs since parents will tend to omit some of the
child's necessities.
Generally speaking, the children who are neglected portray the following
characteristics:
• Constant hunger
• Poor personal hygiene
• Constant tiredness
• Poor state of clothing
• Emaciation
• Frequent lateness or non-attendance at school
• Untreated medical problems
• Destructive tendencies
• Low self-esteem
• Neurotic behaviour
• No social relationships
• Pining away from either home, school or both
• Compulsive stealing/scavenging (David, 1993 : 95)
It can be concluded that neglect has a serious impact on rearing a child.
3.3.1.4 Emotional abuse in the family
Children can also be abused emotionally in the home setting. David (1993 :
18) refers to emotional abuse as "the severe adverse effect on the behaviour
and emotional development of a child caused by persistent or severe
77
emotional ill treatment or rejection". Emotional abuse in the family may
include preferring other children in the family to others (David, 1993 : 8). A
parent who does not love his or her children equally, that is if he or she
prefers child A over child B will obviously do more things for child A and
neglect child B to a certain extent. The parent might even scold child B if he
or she does something wrong. Such a child who is disliked will ultimately be
isolated from other children especially the ones loved by the parents and he
or she will not see himself of herself as part of that family. This type of abuse
is referred to as emotional abuse. (Verschoor et. ai, 1989 : 61).
Verschoor further argues that parents of a family, who dress a boy in female
clothes is emotionally abusing that child because that particular child is not
comfortable in those clothes. However, because of fear of his parents, he will
not voice out feelings. In addition parents of a family who expects their
children to do work not appropriate to the child's age are emotionally abusing
that child since the child is denied the experiences of childhood. Dale et. al
(1986 : 186) argue that "a child who is expected to become a little mother to
younger siblings or to look after a parent is emotionally abused because he or
she is denied the childhood developmental experiences".
Emotional abuse in the family may be due to maladaptive communication
patterns (Cruz and Essen, 1994 :10). This refers to ineffective
communications in which the family members have difficulty expressing their
real feelings and thoughts openly, directly and respectfully. So, if it happens
that in a family, children are not permitted to voice their feelings openly, they
(children) may end up isolating themselves from their parents and emotional
abuse thus occur. Such children are characterised by what is termed
"children-should-be-seen-and-not-heard" according to Cruz and Essen (1994
: 10).
78
Children who are emotionally abused lack motivation and they tend to isolate
themselves and are isolated from other people.
To conclude the researcher may say that abusing children emotionally is
dangerous for the well being of a child.
3.3.1.5 Economic abuse in the family
The last form of abuse which can occur in the family is economic abuse. This
type of abuse is mostly ignored by many researchers. However, according to
the "Servamus" (1998 : 30)", a family can economically abuse the child by
refusing to give a child money for educational purposes., "The Servamus"
further states that economic abuse in the family may be caused by
unemployment of parents or due to the fact those parents are over protective.
Doyle (1994 : 47) also argues that unemployment is a causative factor for
various forms of abuse.
In conclusion it has been indicated that in certain instances the child's family
can be very dangerous to the child's life. Davies (1986 : 32) even argues
that families can be systematically and sadistically cruel to their children
instead of referring to strong images of warmth, caring and security (Little,
1989 : 217). To emphasise the cruelty of some parents to their children
(Dale, Davies, Morrison & Waters 1986 : 32) refers to the story of Heidi
Koseda in Britain who was locked up in a dismal dark room by her parents
and literally starved to death. The little child however, tried to keep alive by
eating wallpaper, which was of no use. This again shows how cruel some
parents can be.
Little (1989 : 218) summarises the factors, which can contribute to violence in
the home, that is, those factors that may urge some parents to stop abusing
their children:
79
• Time at risk
The proportion of time spent interacting with family members are high,
thus, there are many opportunities for disagreements or confrontations
that escalate into violence.
• Range of activities and interests
There are many occasions from child rearing to leisure - over, which
there are, disputes, which might lead to abuse of children.
• Intensity of involvement
What happens in families is important to people. How family members
should act and how things should be done can be a source of intense
disagreement which can lead to abuse of children.
• Impinging activities
Conflicts are apt to arise because many actions in families result in one
person losing while another gains. Which 1V programme to watch, which
car to buy, where to go on vacations, and the like can become sources of
dispute.
• Right to influence
Family members usually imply the right to influence values, attitudes and
behaviour of others. Parents expect to be able to control their children.
Failure to have these expectations met can initiate or intensify violence on
children.
80
• Age and sex discrepancies
The family is made up of very different individuals, especially during the
child rearing years. The family often becomes the arena of conflict rooted
in the cultural differences between the young and the adults. For
example, the adults might expect their child(ren) to do certain things in a
way which is not convenient for the child and if a child refuses, violence
occurs.
• Family privacy
The belief that whatever happens in families is private and not the
concern of outsiders isolates families from outside control and promote
abuse.
• High level of stress
The changes in the structure of the families like the birth of kids,
maturation of kids, ageing, retirement and death and similar events that
affect individuals such as unemployment, illness, can increase the
susceptibility of conflict and violence.
• Socialisation into violence and it's generalisation
The family is often the place where most people first see and experience
violence particularly in the form of physical punishment. Love can
become associated with violence. Children can learn that those who
love them are also those who hit and have the right to hit. Therefore,
that early experience with physical punishment lays the groundwork for
the normative legitimacy of all types of violence but especially intra-family
violence.
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• Normative approval
Cultural norms, both legal and informal are sometimes quite accepting of
family violence. For example, historically in western culture, it has been
legally acceptable for parents to use violence against their children.
• Ascribed roles
Family relationships, usually reflect and reproduce social inequalities.
Roles and responsibilities are often assigned according to age and sex
rather than according to interest or competence. In addition, there are
widespread sexist beliefs about the "proper" role of family members in
decision making and even the appropriateness of violence directed at
others to enforce domination.
• Involuntary membership
Families are relatively hard to leave even when the situation is violent.
This is obviously true for young children, but it is often the case also for
spouses, especially women who may become "trapped" by social,
emotional, economic or legal contingencies.
3.3.2 School
Apart from educating a child into a mature responsible adult (Goldstein, Apter
& Harootunian, 1984 : 203) the school can perform a different role completely.
It can be an institute of child abuse. Gil (1970 : viii) further supports this point
by arguing that "children are being abused physically, emotionally, (sexually,
economically and neglected) not only in their own homes, but also in the
public domain, in schools and in other child care settings ... " Most children
today even prefer to be in the streets rather than face the abuse at schools.
The school can therefore also provoke delinquent behaviour. Eliot and Voss
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(1974) as in Goldstein et. al (1984 : 202) argue that "(Due to abuse) the
school has become a critical generating milieu for delinquency ... it creates ...
all the necessary conditions for aggressive or disruptive behaviours".
Eliot and Voss (1974) as in Goldstein et al (1984 : 202) further argue that "a
youngster commitment to violent behaviour is largely a consequence of
negative school experience". It can therefore be deduced from the above
arguments that a child who is abused at school will definitely resort to bad
behaviour. Abuse in the home environment, as well as abuse at school can
take various forms namely physical, sexual, emotional and neglect. School
children can either be abused by their teachers in the school environment or
by other students (David, 1993 : 57). These forms will be shown in 3.3.2.1.
3.3.2.1 Physical abuse at school
Children can also experience physical abuse at school. This may range from
severe beating of the pupil by teachers to giving students assignments, which
are above their age. However, punishment in schools should not be equated
with abuse. A teacher can punish a pupil without abusing him or her. But
once the teacher physically injures a child, not by accident but in anger or
deliberately it is termed physical abuse (Gil, 1970 : 50).
Apart from beating students, a teacher can also physically abuse students at
school by instructing them to do work which is degrading or above their age.
This may for example include instructing a twelve-year-old girl to dig a toilet
pit. This work is on its own hard or difficult and a twelve year old child can in
no way be expected to do it.
Surprisingly enough, teachers are not the only people who can abuse the
children physically at schools. Some students, however, are potential
abusers of other children at school. David (1993 : 57) argues that "physical
abuse sometimes happens in schools in the form of bullying (of some
83
students over other students). One may find that at school, there are some
students who may like to bully other students and beat them if they do not act
according to their liking. David (1993 : 58) further states that "boys are likely
to employ physical and verbal bullying while girls employ verbal bullying".
There are various reasons that might cause teachers to abuse students at
school. For example, students who are always late for school might urge
their teachers to physically punish them severely. A teacher can do this with
the intention of decreasing the likelihood of future occurrences. However,
many researchers have observed that physical punishment does not
obliterate abnormal behaviour, instead, it promotes it. Hyman (1978) and
Maures (1974) in (Goldstein et ai, 1984 : 67) also argue that "corporal
punishment fails to yield sustained suppression of inappropriate behaviour. It
increases the likelihood that the youngster will behave more aggressive in
other settings". Maccoby and Levin (1957) in Child (1981 : 93) agree with
this argument. They state that "physical punishment fail to eliminate
unwanted behaviour rather it promotes it".
Children who are physically abused at school may even develop a negative
attitude towards school as a whole since they view it as a place of threat or
discomfort. Halperin (1979 : 101) states "fear of physical (abuse) causes
many children to withdraw from school. It stifles their creativity and robs them
if the opportunity to learn self-control and self "discipline".
Apart from being truant, physically abused children also appear aggressive
and wary of adults (Servamus, 1998 : 31).
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3.3.2.2 Sexual abuse at school
Students can also experience sexual abuse at school. Nowadays the media
often reports instances of teachers who abuse students sexually at school.
Doyle (1994 : 28) even state that sexual abuse of children is a worldwide
problem, which can occur in any setting. Sgroi (1982 : 13) argues that the
perpetrators of child sexual abuse is likely to be someone in the child's own
family or someone within the child's daily sphere of activities. Sgroi's
argument therefore emphasises the fact that a school teacher can also be a
perpetrator of child sexual abuse as he or she is the person the child spend
most of his or her time with at school.
There are many factors, which can be attributed to teachers abusing students
at school. It has been argued that perpetrators of child sexual abuse can
include people who have inadequate knowledge concerning adolescent
behaviour and become sexually aroused by their behaviour (Porter, 1984 : 9).
The employment of unqualified teachers who have little knowledge
concerning teenage growth may also give rise to incidents of abuse.
On the other hand, some researchers argue that people who were sexually
abused as children stand a better chance of sexually abusing other people.
Zigler (1980) in Calam and Franchi (1987 : 5) argue that although not all
(sexually) abused children become abusing parents/adults or abusing
teachers appear to have been victims of deprivation and abuse themselves.
Schetky and Green (1988 : 35) also state that perpetrators of sexual abuse
are characterised by a background of sexual victimisation. The other type of
abuse which can be practised at school is emotional abuse.
85
3.3.2.3 Emotional abuse at school
Children are afraid of people who yell in anger or scowl constantly (Gibson,
1976 : 16). Therefore, if a teacher likes to insult students or call them by
names (for example, "stupid fool" in class), one may find that such students
do not enjoy school since they see it as a place of frustrations and loneliness.
According to Krugman (1993 : 587) such students' academic performance
even drop. Those students will be found in most cases to dislike answering
questio, ns in class since they know how their teachers would react to their
responses. Gibson (1976 : 118) argues that emotional abuse creates high
levels of anxiety in students - occasionally, a child will become so inhibited
that he or she is too frightened to answer or to ask any question - even to ask
for permission to use the toilet.
The factors that may urge a teacher to emotionally abuse students may
include, among other things, inability of students to perform in a way that the
teacher expects. Gil (1970 : 32) states "a child who fails to perform in a way
to make the teacher feel good ... becomes an evil environment so to speak.
Anger, resentment and fury are aroused in the teacher and emotional abuse
thus occurs".
3.3.2.4 Neglect at school
Children can also be neglected at school. Normally, the teacher stands a
better chance of neglecting the children since he or she is the one with whom
students identify. The parents of students also see the teacher as the person
who should guide and lead their children. Avenant (1990 : 377) states "every
teacher is responsible ... for the welfare of a child placed in his or her care. If
he looks on silently while a child needing assistance is led to destruction, as
an adult he is co-responsible and will have to answer for his actions before
God".
86
If a teacher turns his or her back on students, it is regarded as neglect since
his or her work evolves around helping those students to realise their
capabilities and develop into responsible adults.. Louwet. al(1991 : 341)
argues that "if inadequate encouragement and support are absent and if
children are unable to cope with their feelings of inferiority, they develop
feelings of inferiority and develop a negative attitude towards school".
Steyn (1984 : 29) further supports the above point by arguing that "the
teacher's task is to guide children to overcome an egocentric and egoistic
attitude and to accept responsibilities". If a teacher decides not to do this,
one may find that students develop into adults who are not responsible at all.
If again a teacher does not approach each student differently in the classroom
as students are unique individuals who need to be approached differently,
(Avenant, 1990 : 200) it can be regarded as an abusive act since the student
as a personal being would not be enhanced (Steyn, 1984 : 153).
3.3.3 Interpretation
In conclusion, the researcher emphasises that the child's educational
environments (home and school) can in certain instances be very dangerous.
Children need love, security and warmth and if those things are not provided
either at their homes or at schools they can end up running away from their
homes to the streets and become street children.
3.4 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHILD ABUSE AND
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
Due to the arguments raised in 3.3 one can argue that there is a relationship
between child abuse and academic performance. This will be further
discussed.
87
Throughout history, child abuse has been found to have a negative impact on
the child whether the abuse is being physical, sexual, emotional, economical
or neglect. Children exposed to abuse have been found to have little hope of
growing into happy, healthy, competent adults (Browne, Davies and Stratton,
1988 : 203). In the school situation, abused children have been found to
portray certain characteristics, which cause them to underachieve. Leiter and
Johnson (1997 : 564) argue that child (abuse) is widely believed to be closely
related to poor school performance. Several studies report high rates of
school problems among maltreated children for example (Eckenrode, Rowe,
Laird and Brathwarte, (1995 : 1128). The behavioural abused children will be
discussed in 3.4.1.
3.4.1 Characteristics related to underachievement
Underachievement in schools is attributed to a number of factors (Du Toit in
Kapp, 1991 : 24). These may include among others, low self
concept/esteem, misbehaviour, inadequate language development, mental
retardation, depression, negativism, lack of motivation and being fearful. The
impact of each characteristic will be discussed below.
3.4.1.1 Low self concept
Self concept refers to "the totality of the perceptions that we have about
ourselves - our attitudes towards ourselves and the language we use to
describe ourselves" (Child, 1981 : 187). A person with a low self-concept is
not confident with himself or herself at all. He or she tends to doubt
everything he or she does. His or her dignity is low and he or she sometimes
debates whether living is worthwhile or not. Children who are abused or who
have been abused have been found to have a low self-concept (Parton, 1985
: 66). If such people are placed in a classroom situation, one may find that he
or she is not competent at all. He or she does not want to respond in the
classroom if a certain question is asked because of fear that if he or she
responds incorrectly, the other students will ridicule him or her. As a result,
88
schoolwork suffers and underachievement thus occurs. Browne et. al (1988 :
209) argue that "a lack of self-concept (poor self-concept) and fear of failure
may be well another reason that these children underachieve in schools".
Parton (1985 : 166) further argues that "abused children score lower than the
non-abused across a range of variables including height, weight .... and
school achievement".
Children with a low self-concept have also been found to be less ambitious
and they tend not to care about their future. They do not exert themselves in
their schoolwork. Whitmore (1980) as quoted by Booyse in Kapp (1991 : 151)
argues that a poor self-concept (portrayed by abused children) is associated
with school under-achievement. On the other hand Leiter and Johnson (1997
: 564) argue that "the combination of trauma of maltreatment and the resulting
experiences of betrayal and powerlessness can lead to diminished self
concept ... problems in managing anger and mistrust of adults and authority
figures. All these share a clear potential to weaken the child's ties to school
(and as a result, underachieve).
Based on these arguments on self-concept and academic performance, many
people may conclude that child abuse and poor self-concept are cause and
effect. This according to many researchers is not true. The two concepts are
just found to be associated with one another. Whitmore (1980) as quoted by
Booyse in Kapp (1991 : 151) further illustrates that "the association between
underachievement and unrealistic self-concept should not be seen as cause-
and-effect but rather an associated event". This implies that
underachievement is not a necessarily result of a poor self-concept but it is
related to it.
Mwamwenda (1995 : 311) also advocates the point that a low self-concept
affects a child's performance at school. In his study, he shows how a positive
self-concept is associated with achievement. He states that "a pupil with a
positive self concept stands a better chance of performing than a pupil with a
negative self concept" Child (1981 : 53) further argues that "the better the self
89
concept ... the higher the achievement" illustrating how a person with a low
self concept stands a higher risk of underachieving.
Since many teachers and researchers are aware that a poor self concept is
associated with low academic performance, many teachers or rather
educators today have become increasingly interested in the ability of schools
to enhance students' self concepts as a means to end academic frustration
(Reck, 1980) in Mwamwenda (1995 : 31).
3.4.1.2 Misbehaviour
Abused children have been found to be characterised by misbehaviour. This
may include to a larger extent destructive behaviour (Breiner, 1990 : 232).
Leiter & Johnson (1997 :564) further emphasise the point that abused
children exhibit destructive behaviour which cause them to academically
underachieve at school: "Abused children may apply what they have learned
about violence at home to their school lives developing disruptive behaviours
that may interfere with their learning".
A concise example in this case can be drawn from a physically abused child.
Such a child may portray aggressive behaviour. If then placed in a classroom
situation, he or she might be very aggressive towards other pupils in the
classroom and among his or her peers. (Leiter and Johnson, 1997 : 565).
Leiter and Johnson (1997 : 566) further illustrate that such a behaviour might
cause a child not to accommodate other people and at the same time be very
bullying. Automatically the academic performance of such a child will fall
below normal since she or he will not be willing to share his or her ideas with
other students (group work) and to get different ideas from different students.
Apart from being aggressive an abused child can also portray some
behavioural patterns which are not associated with school academic
achievement at all. Truancy, has been cited as one example of behaviour
that can be shown by abused children. The concept "truancy" in itself is
90
associated with under-achievement at school. An abused child, especially a
child abused by his or her teachers might resort to truancy as a way of getting
rid of frustrations and abuse at school. Kapp (1991 : 149) argues that:
"truancy has its origin in the child's need to learn, but because of boredom,
frustrations and (abuse), he prefers to seek refuge in truancy (which causes
low academic performance/failure)".
Another behaviour which has been found to be common in abused children is
delinquency. Delinquency refers to any behaviour on the part of a juvenile
(under 18 years of age) to which the more senior members of a society object
(Child, 1981 : 277). This behaviour according to Sabation (1978) in Kapp
(1991 : 100) may be a result of truancy. A delinquent child as a result of
abuse might find himself or herself engaging in bad behaviour like drug
abuse, rape and other serious crimes. All these factors will impact negatively
on the child. His or her academic work will suffer since he or she will be
occupied with other things rather than schoolwork. In fact, he or she can
develop what is called school phobia (fear of school).
3.4.1.3 Inadequate language development
To be able to communicate adequately with other people, a person requires a
fully developed language. Abused children have been found to be
characterised by poor language development. This on its own is a clear
indication that they lack one of the skills necessary for life. Calam and
Franchi (1987 : 8) argue that the language expression of abused children is
very poor. This may be due to the fact that communication between them
and their environment is very poor due to abuse and as a result they fail to
develop language skills. In the classroom situation, such children are also
found to score lower marks. Eckenrode, et al (1995 : 1130) report that: "in a
study of abused and non-abused children, the abused children were found to
have scored lower on standardised test scores in reading and maths and they
showed discipline problems".
91
Breiner (1990 " 232) further argues that since inadequate language
development is associated with school learning problems, it is not surprising
that abused children are in most cases found to under-achieve. This
discrepancy in language development has been found by many researchers
to continue into adult life and causes a person to have communication
problems (Browne et. ai, 1988 : 206) while at the same time they do not
perform well academically.
3.4.1.4 Mental retardation
This is another factor, which has been found to be present in abused children.
Some physically abusive parents have been found by many researchers to hit
children on their heads and affect the children's brain functioning. Halperin
(1979 : 21) further supports the above argument by saying that: "physically
abused children show injuries centralised on the face and head" (showing that
they were hit on those particular parts).
Such problems can however cause a child to experience certain problems
when it comes to learning since mental disfunctioning has nothing to do with
school achievement. Some researchers have, however, found that children
with mental problems encounter serious problems when it comes to learning.
Brown, Davies & Stratton (1988 : 206) argues that: " ... abused children show
mental retardation ... have a history of trauma and they are likely to show
developmental delay or intellectual retardation".
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3.4.1.5 Depression
Depression has been cited as another effect of abuse on a child (Calam and
Franchi, 1987 : 20). Depression refers to the inability of a person to
experience any pleasure whatsoever from events happening around him or
her including interactions with family and friends, accomplishments at work or
at school (Barlowand Durand, 1995 : 241). Symptoms of depression include
motor retardation, appearance of sadness, despair, and suicidal ideas or
threats (Friedman and Doyal, 1974 in Gibson, 1976 : 422). Children who in
most cases do not report their abuse appear depressed. This may be so
because of the fear that their stories would not be believed and as a result,
the child's inner feelings are affected. When placed in a classroom situation,
such children are found to be less interested in activities. They do not fully
involve themselves in school activities and as a result, their school
performance is affected. Elmer (1976) in Calam and Franchi (1987 : 20)
argues that abused children cannot even adjust themselves at school and as
a result "they do not cope with their academic work".
3.4.1.6 Negativism
Abused children have been found to exhibit a negative attitude towards their
abusers. According to "Servamus", (1998 : 3) these children may cringe if
touched unexpectedly. This being the case, a child abused by his or her
teachers at school will develop a negative attitude towards the teachers. He
or she will have nothing to do with the teacher. As a result, his or her
academic performance will drop since he or she will associate the teacher
and the content with abuse. Du Toit in Kapp, (1991 : 264) argues that: "the
teachers' attitude towards the child determines to a great extent the child's
attitudes towards his academic performance thus the teacher can stimulate or
inhibit the child's learning initiative".
93
From these arguments it is obvious that a child who is abused at school will
exhibit a negative attitude towards the school and in turn his or her
schoolwork will suffer. That is, he or she will not perform well academically.
3.4.1.7 lack of motivation
For every task to be completed successfully, motivation is required. An
unmotivated person in life does not seem eager to take part of complete or do
an activity. Child abuse causes children to lack motivation. According to
Martin Breezly (1977) in Calam and Franchi (1987 : 6) abused children are
characterised by impaired capacity to enjoy life or lack of motivation and
hyper vigilance. Generally speaking, the children who are neglected by their
parents tend to be those who lack motivation. Green (1980 : 109) argues
that: "neglective parents fail to provide their children with adequate care in
relation to good health and education. As a result such children lack
motivation to do any activity".
In the school environment, such children will be unmotivated to do their
school work and at the same time, school work will drop. Krugman (1993 :
587) argues that "the school performance and behaviour of abused children
have been found to deteriorate sharply from bad to worse due to lack of
motivation". He furthermore argues that "such children tend to lack self
control and it is very difficult for them to learn regardless of how good the
education program is".
Child (1981 : 54) also confirms the relationship between motivation and
performance. He argues that lack of motivation leads to low performance, in
the same way high motivation also leads to low academic performance
because highly motivated students tend to ignore their work and perform low
academically. So, neutrality in motivating students is the key to adequate
academic performance. This is demonstrated in figure 3.2 by Yerkes-Dodson,
in Child (1981 : 58).
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Figure 3.2
Idealised representation of Yerker-Dodson Law
High
Low Low Medium High
lEVEL OF AROUSAL
Van der Merwe (1964) as quoted in the HSRC Report of (1988) in Kapp
(1991 : 157) further argues that lack of motivation shown by abused children
is associated with poor academic performance. He argues that abused
children with lack of motivation experience difficulty in co-operation. They
create the impression that they do not want to be involved and just want "to
get it over". They quickly lose interest, they cannot make decisions and it
appears that under-achievers have poor intrinsic work motivation.
Abused children due to lack of motivation thus are incapable of enjoying
themselves in anyway or being caught up in the excitement of play or fun
(Parton, 1985 : 167). In the classroom, such children do not enjoy anything.
95
They have what is termed "impaired capacity for pleasure" (Green, 1980 : 55)
which greatly influences them to under-achieve.
To emphasise the relationship between lack of motivation shown by abused
children and academic performance one reporter (SABC 2 on April the 8th
1998 "Inside Info") reported that: "child abuse causes children to lack
motivation to do their school work and in such cases, school work suffers and
ultimately academic performance drops".
3.4.1.8 Fearfulness
Fearful implies being afraid to do something. This characteristic has been
proved by many researchers to be present in many abused children
(Johnson-Morse, 1968 in Green 1980 : 55). According to these authors
abused children are "stubborn, unresponsive, negativistic, depressed, fearful,
apathetic and unappealing". An abused child therefore would not be free at
all at school. He or she will create a gap between himself or herself and other
people and at the same time his or her schoolwork will be affected negatively.
Fearlfulness is often associated with under-achievement.
3.4.1.9 Anti-social
Abused children have also been found to be anti-social (Stratton et ai, 1988 :
208). Abused children do not know how to relate successfully with other
people. They tend to isolate themselves from other people. If such students
are placed in the classroom situation, one may find that they under-achieve
academically since they are not willing to share their ideas with their peers or
ask the teacher for any clarifications where they encounter problems (Green,
1980 : 55).
Taylor, Peplau and Sears (1994 : 338) also argue that the presence of others
facilitate performance in all its forms (academic, social, etc). An isolated
person underachieves academically although not all under-achievers are
96
isolated. Taylor et. al (1994 : 339) illustrate the relationship between the
presence of others and performance schematically as follows:
Figure 3.3 How the presence of others affects performance: social
facilitation versus inhibition.
If dominant response is
correct, then per-
formance is improved.
The Increases Strengthens tendency to
presence _. drivel 4 perform dominant or well I
of others arousal learned response -.
If dominant response is
wrong, then
performance is
impaired
3.4.2 Other effects
Apart from the above characteristics shown by abused children which cause
them to perform inadequately academically there are other general effects of
abuse on the academic performance of a child. These include grade
repeating and early school leaving.
3.4.2.1 Grade repeating
Abused children encounter serious problems when it comes to school
adjustment (Sgroi, 1982 : 44). Due to their poor language development,
aggressive behaviour, lack of motivation, depression and mental retardation,
they do not perform well academically and they find themselves repeating the
same grade in school. Krugman (1993 : 586) reports that "both the abused
97
children and neglected children (due to academic failure) had experienced
grade repeats at school (at least more than once)".
3.4.2.2 Early school leaving
As a result of abuse which children suffer at home and at school, one may
find that most of them perform poor academically. As a result the majority
end up dropping out of school at an early age (Du Toit, s.a. in Kapp 1991 :
28). Leiter and Johnson (1997 : 581) also state that children subject to abuse
at home or school may drop out of school as part of their flight from poor
school performance and abuse.
3.4.2.3 Discrepancy between the attained and the attainable levels of
achievement
Abused children achieve below their capabilities academically. David (1993 :
87) states that: "children who are abused are unable to achieve their
academic learning potentials owing to the psychological and physical effects
of abuse".
3.4.3 Conclusion
In conclusion, it can be stated that a child's poor academic performance in
schools can be attributed to a number of factors including child abuse
(Wiseman, 1969 : 3). Leiter and Johnson (1997 : 564) also state that: "child
abuse is widely believed to be closely related to poor school performance.
Students, whether abused at home or at school, will automatically develop
behavioural characteristics such as depression, lack of motivation, negativism
and being fearful which are all related to poor academic performance.
98
CHAPT£R4
RESEARCH DESIGN
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is concerned with the academic performance of abused students.
A qualitative research attempts to describe, interpret and reconstruct the
subjective world of respondents (Schusink, 1989 in Lourens, 1996 : 18). In
this study the respondents are abused adolescents from Lesotho.
Furthermore, the chapter includes the aims of the empirical investigation, the
preparation for the empirical study, the area of concentration, the sampling of
the respondents, research method, ethical measures, validity and reliability of
the study, the role of the researcher in data collection and a conclusion.
4.2 AIMS OF THE EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
The aims of the empirical investigation are to determine the abused students'
attitude on:
o Different types of abuse;
o Behavioural implications of the abuse they underwent;
o The relationship that exists between their abuse and their academic
performance.
In order to achieve the aims of the empirical investigation, certain procedures
are discussed in the following sections.
4.3 PREPARATION OF THE STUDY
Permission was obtained from the principals of the SOS school and Hleoheng
primary school in Lesotho to undertake an investigation at the schools. The
school (SOS) is mainly concerned with the education of abused and neglected
children in the Kingdom of Lesotho although 25% of the students in that school
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are not abused. Hleoheng primary school on the other hand is just an ordinary
public school.
4.4 AREA OF CONCENTRATION
The SOS school is the only registered school for abused and neglected
children in Lesotho. The researcher regards the school appropriate for this
research since these children have been taken away from their abusers or
from the streets with the sole aim of educating them despite their problems.
The researcher was also interested in interviewing certain students ranging
from 10 to 18 years of age because the focus of the research is on
adolescents. The researcher interviewed more girls than boys because at
SOS school, more girls are victims of various forms of abuse as opposed to
boys. In fact, the majority of the boys there are the victims of neglect.
The other two students were taken from one primary school in the Leribe
district in Lesotho because they provided the researcher with the information
the researcher failed to obtain at SOS school and their cases of abuse were
reported to the police. The researcher was also able to obtain the academic
performance or school achievement of these two students before and after the
abuse.
4.5 SAMPLING
The SOS school is the only registered school of its type in Lesotho according
to the information the researcher obtained from the Ministry of Education in
Lesotho. This school provides education for abused children from pre-primary
up to standard 7, that is during pre-primary and primary education. When
students complete standard 7 at that school, they are sent to secondary
schools of their choices to continue with their studies. However, SOS
children's village remains their permanent home.
100
The principal of SOS school also told the researcher that the overall population
of children in that school is roughly one thousand two hundred. She could not
give the exact figures because the student number grow at an alarming rate.
The above figure constitutes both the abused and the non-abused group. The
researcher was, however, told that 75% of the students there were abused
and their cases were reported to the police.
Two sexually abused children were taken from Hleoheng primary school in the
Leribe district in Lesotho. The other seven children were from SOS school.
From this number, only nine abused children were selected to be interviewed.
They were selected because of the type of abuse, their availability and their
ability to verbalise. In summing up, two sexually abused children, two
emotionally abused children, two neglected children and three physically
abused children were selected to represent the victims of various types of
abuse. Brink (1991 : 15) states that "the qualitative researcher does however,
identify potential types of persons or events to be sampled depending on the
needs of the study and according to specific qualities". Brink (1991 : 15)
further argues that the number of subjects in qualitative research is very small
since in qualitative research one is interested in the context obtained from the
respondents. That is, whether it relates to what the researcher wants and not
the number of respondents. This is further supported by Cates (1985 : 62)
who argues that in qualitative research, one is not interested in large sampling,
but the type of responses obtained from the selected respondents.
The interviews were conducted in an informal and confidential manner. They
were conducted in one of the classrooms at the schools, with only the
researcher and the interviewed student present. The researcher also gave the
students the assurance that their names would not appear anywhere. One
student was interviewed at a time.
101
4.6 RESEARCH METHOD
In order to understand the phenomenon studied, the researcher decided to
conduct the research qualitatively because the quantitative approach limits the
discovery of essential meanings and components of the study and does not
appropriately answer all the questions (Brink, 1991 : 14). In order to avoid
restricting the information from the students, the researcher had to opt for a
qualitative research which comprised open-ended questions.
Apart from the above argument, the major aim for choosing to conduct a
qualitative study is because of its explorative nature on somewhat unknown
territory (Sliep, 1995 : 35). In this study, the researcher endeavours to
explore the academic and behavioural problems experienced by abused
children. A qualitative research is also descriptive in that it describes that
which exists as accurately as possible (Mouton & Marais, 1988 : 44). The
purpose of this research is therefore to obtain a description of abused children
in the classroom situation, that is, their behaviour, how they relate with other
people and their academic performance in general.
Lastly, a qualitative method was chosen for the purpose of this research
because it is contextual (Strauss & Corbin, 1990 : 101). This implies that it
confines itself to the context of exploring and describing the experiences of an
abused child as vividly as possible.
4.7 ETHICAL MEASURES
Qualitative research has ethical considerations pertaining to the safety and
rights of humans (Brink, 1991 : 16). The research respondents thererfore
were assured of anonymity during the interviewing session. Brink (1991 : 16)
further states that qualitative researchers are probably more vulnerable to
violations of ethical principles. Being a Mosotho, it was easy for the
102
researcher to undertake a survey study in Lesotho since she knows what is
socially acceptable and unacceptable in Lesotho.
4.8 THE ROLE OF THE RESEARCHER
In qualitative research, the researcher is directly involved in data collection as
he or she asks the respondents the questions. On the contrary a quantitative
researcher is not directly involved in data collection as he or she only presents
the questionnaire to the respondents to complete on their own (Brink, 1991 :
15). According to Brink, a qualitative researcher has to do the interviews
personally in a natural field situation which may be a school.
4.9 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Both qualitative and quantitative researchers agree that research findings
need to be reliable and valid (Woods & Cantanzaro, 1998 in Brink, 1991 : 16).
However, it must be noted that researchers label, define and evaluate the two
characteristics differently. Brink, (1991 : 16) distinguishes between these two
concepts in the following manner:
Qualitative research Quantitative research
Validity: Concerned with confirming the Validity: Refers to the degree an
truth value or believability of the findings instrument measures what it is supposed
that have been established by the to be measuring.
researcher, that is, the extent to which
the data provides insight.
Measurement is not the goal but rather Measurement is the goal.
knowing and understanding.
Reliability: Focuses on identifying and Reliability: Looks for the degree of
documenting recurrent accurate and consistency or accuracy with which an
consistent or inconsistent features as instrument measures an attribute.
103
patterns, themes, world views, life ways
and any other phenomena under study in
similar or different human context.
The strategies which will be used to ensure trustworthiness in this research will
be:
Credibility:
Adequate time will be spent with the interviewees in order to establish whether
recurrent themes and patterns appear. This will enable the researcher to
check perspectives and allow the interviewees to be well known by the
researcher. Open-ended questions will therefore be chosen as the response
modes (Lourens, 1996 :23).
Dependability:
This strategy will relate to the consistency of the findings. Summary of every
case and interpretation will be provided (Lourens, 1996 : 23).
4.10 CONCLUSION
In conclusion an outline of the planning of the empirical study was presented.
The following chapter will therefore concentrate on the analysis and synthesis
of the collected data.
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CHAPT£R5
DATA ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In chapter four the planning and lay-out of the empirical investigation were
discussed. This chapter aims at discussing the different types of abuse that
are practised on children and their causes. An account of how the family and
the school can function as institutions of abuse will be presented and lastly the
relationship between child abuse and academic performance will be
investigated based on the analysis of individual interviews held with the
students of SOS school in the Maseru district in Lesotho.
5.2 OPERATIONALlSATION OF FIELD WORK
The fieldwork pertaining to this study was undertaken with the assistance of
the SOS school principal, the social worker and the village father of the SOS
school who supplied the researcher with the names of pupils suitable for
interviews. Selection of students was done on the basis of the ability of the
students to verbalise their type of abuse.
After arranging with students to engage in interviews, the researcher was
given an office in which she was to conduct her interviewing sessions. The
researcher conducted interviews with students ranging from 10-18 years of
age. The interviewed children are inmates at SOS Children's Village and
attending school at the SOS school in the Maseru district in Lesotho and the
other ones are pupils from Hleoheng primary in the Leribe district in Lesotho.
Before each interview started, the specific student was set at ease and
assured of his or her anonymity in order to establish trust with the interviewer.
105
5.3 ANALYSIS OF DATA
The analysis of data obtained is based on the interviews held with the students
at the SOS school. The researcher wrote down everything that the students
said, that is, the students' responses to the questions were noted word for
word. These responses were thus and this contributes to the validity of this
study (Lourens, 1996 : 24).
Through data analysis, seven main themes have been identified, namely:
o family background of the abused child;
Dabuse;
o emotions of the abused child;
o social relationship with other people;
o academic performance of the abused child;
o concentration in class;
o punishment at school.
In the following section, the above themes will be discussed as experienced by
individual students, namely child 1,2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
5.3.1 Child 1
5.3.1.1 Family
Child 1 is a girl aged 12who comes from a two-parent family. Her father works
at a factory and he is 36 years old. He passed standard 7. Her mother is a
domestic worker aged 34 and the child does not know her school
achievement. Child 1 has 3 siblings aged 10, 9 and 7 respectively. At that
stage her aunt was staying with them and the respondent did not like her at all.
106
5.3.1.2 Abuse
Child 1 has been physically abused by her own father. It seems that the father
expected much from the child and failure to do so ended in abuse. The child
reported that she was eight years old when the abuse started and it occurred
regularly, that is, whenever she failed to do what she was expected to do, for
example, milking the cows and cooking for the whole family.
When asked if she reported the abuse to anyone, child 1 agreed and said that
she told her mother but her mother was powerless. Child 1 has scars on her
back, on her head and her left arm does not function properly due to abuse.
5.3.1.3 Emotions
Child 1 assured the researcher that she loved herself, but she hated her father
very much. She also reported that she could not even face her own father due
to what he had done to her and she had no intentions of returning home but
would rather stay at SOS village.
5.1.3.4 Social relationship with other people
Child 1 reported that she had friends before the abuse and agreed that she still
had friends at SOS. However, she insisted that she did not relate well with
other pupils because older children like beating others therefore she did not
like them that much. When asked if she had ever been punished because of
beating other students at school, child 1 agreed and added that she had done
it regularly because there were other students who teased her. As a result,
she hit them when they teased her.
107
5.3.1.5 Academic performance
Child 1 agreed that she attended school before the abuse but she reported
that her parents were not concerned with her academic performance. As a
result, she performed badly in her studies as nobody motivated her at home.
Child 1 showed that her school work improved since she arrived at SOS
school. However, she said she did not feel free to ask questions in class
because of her bad English. The medium of instruction at SOS school is
English. This being the case, child 1 repeated standard 3. This child also
indicated that she loved school and she had no intentions of going home.
5.3.1.6 Concentration in class
Child 1 showed many problems when it came to the issue of concentrating in
class. She reported that she wanted to concentrate in class but she could not
do it because she kept thinking of her father and how he beat them.
5.3.1.7 Punishment at school
When asked if they were punished at school, child 1 agreed but added that
she loved all her teachers at school because they were fair towards students.
If they made a mistake in class, they were punished fairly.
5.3.2 Child 2
Child 2 also stays at SOS children's village and she attends school at SOS
school.
108
5.3.2.1 Family
Child 2 is a girl aged 12. She also comes from a two-parent family. Her father
aged 36 does not work. He is an alcoholic. Her mother aged 30 sells apples
and she has only passed standard 5. Child 2 comes from a family of four
children aged 12, 6, 4 and 2 respectively. She is the first born in the family.
Her grandmother stays with their family and she loves her very much.
5.3.2.2 Abuse
Child 2 is a victim of physical abuse. Her father always beat them when he
came home at night, drunk. Unfortunately her mother was also a victim of the
father's abuse. Child 2 reported that she was 11 years old when that
happened and it happened every time the father came home drunk. The child
reported that her father used to beat them with a stick and a belt. However,
she reported that the night she escaped from home to the streets was worse.
She said, she was beaten with a belt until she could not cry anymore.
Child 2 did not report the abuse to anyone, and only explained that she
escaped from home. Child 2 has abuse marks on her back, on her face, on
her head and her right eye was still blue due to the severe beatings.
5.3.2.3 Emotions
Child 2 reported to the researcher that she never felt happy at home because
even before the abuse, her parents used to fight on a daily basis. She also
reported that she still loves her mother and her siblings but she could not go
home because she hates her father. She said she loves SOS school because
they are not severely beaten there.
109
5.3.2.4 Social relationship with other people
Child 2 reported that she had friends before the abuse, that is, while she was
still at home and she also has friends at SOS Children's Village. However,
child 2 agreed that she had been punished because of beating other students
at school because she said certain children like pushing them when they are
playing. As a result she hit them and showed aggression.
5.3.2.5 Academic performance
Child 2 reported that she attended school before the abuse, but did not
perform well because she had to do cleaning chores when she arrived at home
as the mother was away selling apples. As a result, she did not have enough
time to do her school work.
Child 2 also said that her parents did not motivate her and her father did not
want her to attend school. He said she should go to her grandfather's place
and look after the animals. Growing up in such an environment resulted in
poor academic performance.
However, child 2 showed that since she attended SOS, her academic
performance had changed. She was progressing well though she
encountered problems in mathematics. She said she always obtained lower
marks than she expected because the maths teacher hates her since she
(child 2) was always fighting with other students.
Lastly, child 2 reported that she was repeating standard 4 because she had
not completed it the previous year. When asked if she would like to go home,
child 2 answered that she would love to go home just to see her mother and
come back.
110
5.3.2.6 Concentration in class
Child 2 indicated that she had no problems with concentrating in class, but she
was bored during mathematics lessons.
5.3.2.7 Punishment at school
When asked if they were punished at SOS school, child 2 said that their
teachers beat them if they made mistakes in class and she hated that since
she felt that she was beaten enough at home. She also said that some of their
teachers liked calling them names like "scarface" or "rubbish" and she hated
that especially because she has a scar on her face.
Child 2 seemed to love school despite the fact that she was always punished
because of beating other children.
5.3.3 Child 3
Child 3 is also staying at SOS Children's Village and attends school at SOS
school.
5.3.31 Family
Child 3 is a girl aged 1o. She comes from a two-parent family. Her father
aged 35, is an unqualified primary teacher who has passed form E (former
matric or Grade 12). Her mother is a housewife aged 30 who has only passed
standard 7 (Grade 7). Child 3 comes from a family of four kids aged 10, 8, 7
and 5. She is the first born in the family. Her uncle stays with her family and
she hates him.
111
5.3.3.2 Abuse
Child 3 is a victim of physical abuse. Her father used to beat her severely.
Child 3 reported that her father always beat them when they asked for money
to buy anything. However, he sometimes gave his brother money and told
them to ask their mother money who was a housewife. This child also
reported that her father would sometimes not come or sleep at home. He beat
her mother when she asked him where he spent the night.
Child 3 indicated that she was 8 years old when the abuse first occurred and
she reported the abuse to her mother who unfortunately was also a victim.
Child 3 has scars on her face and neck as a result of physical abuse. She also
reported that on certain days their father would banish them from home without
food to eat.
5.3.3.3 Emotions
Child 3 reported that she loved herself but she hated her uncle very much
because the minute he moved into their home, everything went wrong. Child 3
also protested that she could not live with her father again, because she was
afraid of him and she feared that he might beat her again. She also reported
that she was afraid of men because her friend at SOS school told her that her
father used to sleep with her.
5.3.3.4 Social relationship with other people
Child 3 reported that she had friends while she was still at home and she also
had many friends at SOS school. This child also reported that she still related
well with other students except that there were certain older girls who liked
beating others at school and she hated them.
112
Child 3 stated that she had never been punished because of beating other
students at school, and said that she hated to see other children unhappy.
5.3.3.5 Academic performance
Child 3 reported that she attended school before the abuse but she did not
know how she performed academically since her father did not tell her
anything as he was the one whom her school reports were addressed to.
Child 3 encountered problems in class at SOS. She said she did not
understand English as she was taught in Sesotho at the school she previously
attended. She also said that she did not feel free to ask questions in class
since she could not express herself clearly in English and they were not
allowed to speak Sesotho at SOS school.
When asked about her academic performance, she said that she was not
performing well due to language problems and she protested that she was not
happy when her scripts were returned by the teacher because of marks which
were always low.
Child 3, however, reported that she had not repeated any standard and she
liked school very much. She also reported that she would not like to go home.
5.3.3.6 Concentration in class
Child 3 said that she had concentration problems because she sometimes
found it difficult to concentrate because she did not understand the language.
113
5.3.3.7 Punishment at school
Child 3 reported that she did not like all the teachers at SOS school because
they ridiculed them in class. Sometimes she was called by names such as
"monkey" resulting in other students laughing at her. She also reported that
they were beaten at school although it was not severe.
When asked if she sometimes felt like running away from school, child 3
agreed because she said that she hated to be beaten although she liked
beating other children at school.
5.3.4 Child 4
Child 4 also stays at SOS Children's Village permanently since he has been
removed from his abusers.
5.3.4.1 Family
Child 4 is a boy aged 19. He comes from a two-parent family. Both his
parents do not work and he does not know their ages. He comes from a family
of 10 children and he is the first born in his family. Apart from his family, there
is an aunt and a grandmother who stay with them. Child 4 showed that he had
no ill feeling towards those people.
5.3.4.2 Abuse
Child 4 is a victim of neglect. His parents did not care for him mainly because
they did not have money. The child also reported that despite lack of food in
the house, their father was always drunk at night.
When asked if he reported the abuse to anyone, child 4 said that their
neighbours were aware of the situation in their family and they used to give
them food sometimes. The child also reported that the situation had been like
114
that at his home since he was old enough to realise what was happening.
Child 4 does not have any marks of abuse.
5.3.4.3 Emotions
Child 4 reported to the researcher that he had always been abused at home.
He was happy at SOS Children's Village because there is food to eat and
there are people who care for them.
Child 4 also made it clear to the researcher that he could not go home despite
the fact that he missed his family. He reported that depending on the
neighbours for food was not a good experience, therefore he could not go
back home and starve again.
5.3.4.4 Social relationship with other people
Child 4 reported that he had friends at home and at SOS though he preferred
to be alone most of the times. However, he made an effort to be friendly and
relate well with other students. This child also reported that he had never been
punished at school for beating other students because he was alone most of
the times.
5.3.4.5 Academic performance
Child 4 did not attend school while he was at home because there was no
money even for food and clothing.
Child 4 was currently attending school and said that their village father (SOS
School Village father) was paying his fees. He said that he performed well
academically although he repeated Standard 2 due to inadequate
understanding of English. He further reported that he always obtained the
marks he expected, especially in mathematics.
115
This child seemed to love school and he said that he had no intention of going
home, as he would not be able to attend school.
5.3.5.6 Concentration in class
When asked if he had any problems with concentrating in class, child 4
reported that he had no problems and he was always attentive in class.
5.3.5.7 Punishment at school
Child 4 said that he liked all his teachers at school, but stated their teachers
sometimes punished them without explanation. He disliked that because they
were not always punished fairly. Child 4 never considered running away from
school and said that he liked school very much.
Child 4 also told the researcher that girls were the favourites of male teachers
in their class and that there were some students who liked bullying others at
school. He stated that he was not one of them.
5.3.5 Child 5
Child 5 also lives at SOS Children's Village permanently and attends school at
SOS school.
5.3.5.1 Family
Child 5 is a girl aged 18. She comes from a two-parent family. Her father
aged 38 is a mine-worker and her mother aged 40 is a salesperson who
passed standard 4. Child 5 comes from a family of four children. A
grandmother and a distant brother live with her family. Child 5 indicated that
she did not love her family much.
116
5.3.5.2 Abuse
When asked how she was abused at home, child 5 reported that her parents
did not care for her like other children. She even doubted if she was their
biological daughter because her parents catered for her siblings not her. She
furthermore said that she was not given money to attend educational trips.
Her siblings were given money for trips and her parents did not pay for her
school fees.
She furthermore reported that her parents had always neglected her while she
was at home. When asked if she ever reported the abuse to anyone, child 5
disagreed and said she used to cry by herself because there was nobody to
talk to. She didn't even quite remember how old she was when the abuse
started but she said it had always been there.
5.3.5.3 Emotions
Child 5 had a negative attitude towards her parents. She said that she never
felt the warmth of parental love at home but she found peace at SOS because
the village mothers cared for them and they were loved. Child 5 also made it
clear to the researcher that she could never live with her parents again.
5.3.5.4 Social relationship with other children
Child 5 reported that she had one friend while she was at home but said that
she did not have any friends at SOS. She told the researcher that she did not
relate well with other students and she saw others as being selfish. When
asked if she had ever been punished because of beating other students at
school, child 5 agreed and said that she hit them if they did not do what she
asked she them to do. She said that this happened regularly.
117
5.3.5.5 Academic performance
Child 5 reported that she attended school while she was at home but her
academic performance was poor because nobody was concerned about her.
As a result, she also ended up hating school despite the fact that they were
obliged to attend school. Child 5 reported that she still did not perform well
academically because she had completely lost interest in school. She said
she did not feel free to ask questions in class because other students laughed
at her when she made mistakes or did not speak English correctly. She was
the eldest in class.
When asked about the marks she obtained, child 5 said she always scored
lower marks than she expected due to inadequate knowledge of English and
lack of concentration in class.
This child also admitted that she had repeated Grade 3 twice and she said she
did not think that she was going to pass at the end of that year. She
concluded by saying that if she had a chance, she would leave school the
following day because she did not see any progress in her work. However,
she made it clear to the researcher that she would not like going home again.
She said she would rather go to the streets. She said she would hate to see
her parents.
5.3.5.6 Concentration in class
Child 5 said that she had problems with concentrating in class because school
itself was boring and she did not understand English very well.
5.3.5.7 Punishment at school
When asked about the school environment, child 5 said that she did not like all
her teachers at school because they beat her when she beat other students.
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She also reported that the schoolteachers were unfair because they beat her
even if she did not make any mistake because they said she was a
troublemaker.
This child also reported that the teachers at school had a tendency of calling
her "stupid girl" and "silly baboon" and she disliked that. Child 5 further told
the researcher that she liked bullying others at school and their teachers only
liked the students who pass.
5.3.6 Child 6
Child 6 is a girl aged 11 who stays at SOS Children's Village permanently and
attends school at SOS school.
5.3.6.1 Family
Her mother died while she was still a child and her father who is a mineworker
aged 39 married again. Unfortunately, her father died and she was left with
her stepmother who is a salesperson. She has three biological siblings aged
18, 16 and 10. Her stepmother has a child aged 6. After the death of her
biological father, her stepmother married again and they had to stay with their
stepmother and their stepfather. Child 6 mentioned that the relationship
between herself and her stepparents was bad because they were always
fighting with the children.
5.3.6.2 Abuse
Child 6 is a victim of emotional abuse. Her stepmother insulted and beat them.
Sometimes her stepmother came home drunk and started beating and
insulting them especially if she found her own child crying. The child reported
that her stepmother also told them that they killed their own mother.
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The child stated that she had always been abused. Child 6 reported that she
told her grandmother about the abuse but the grandmother did not do anything
because she was also afraid of their stepmother. Since the grandmother was
powerless, child 6 and her biological siblings then moved out to their uncle's
house. This happened when she was nine years old.
5.3.6.3 Emotions
Child 6 said that she loved herself and her biological parents but when her
mother died, the whole situation changed. She also told the researcher that she
could not stay with her stepparents because she hated them. She disliked her
stepmother because she took their father away from them and stayed with
another man at their father's place.
5.3.6.4 Social relationship with other people
When child 6 was asked if she had friends while at home, she admitted that she
had a few friends but said that she preferred being alone most of the times.
She also reported that she had been punished several times at school for
beating other students because she thought that beating other students was the
solution to force them to respect her.
5.3.6.5 Academic performance
When asked about her academic performance before the abuse, child 6
reported that she attended school while her mother was still alive and she was
performing well. She also told the researcher that her biological parents used
to praise her for her academic performance.
However, child 6 had encountered many problems since her arrival at SOS
school. Her performance deteriorated as a result of the memories of her
stepmother. She did not feel free to ask questions in class because she did
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not speak English properly and the other students laughed at her when she
made mistakes. She also revealed to the researcher that she always scored
lower marks than expected though she did not explain why she could not
obtain such marks.
Child 6 further reported that she repeated Grade 2. However, child 6 indicated
that she loved school and had no plans of leaving. She had dreams of
studying medicine. Lastly the child reported that she could not go home
because she hated her stepparents.
5.3.6.6 Concentration in class
Child 6 reported that she had problems with concentrating in class because
she missed her parents very much and she kept thinking of them all the time.
5.3.6.7 Punishment at school
Child 6 reported that their teachers gave them moderate beatings. She did
not like the punishment because it reminded her of her stepmother. Child 6
also reported that some of their teachers had a tendency to call them names
such as "stupid fool" which she disliked.
When asked about her feelings towards school, child 6 said that she loved
school and had no plans of running away. However, she admitted that her
teachers were not fair. They favoured clever students at the expense of dull
ones. Child 6 also admitted that there were certain students who liked bullying
others at school although she was not one of them. She, however, told the
researcher that she would fight if she was forced to.
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5.3.7 Child 7
Child 7 is a 'girl aged 10. She also stays at SOS Children Village and attends
school at SOS school.
5.3.7.1 Family
Child 7's father is a mineworker and her biological mother died long ago. After
her mother's death, her father married another woman. Her stepmother is a
housewife. Child 7 comes from a family of four children and she does not
know her siblings' ages. Her grandmother lives with her family and she likes
her.
5.3.7.2 Abuse
Her stepmother abused child 7 emotionally. The child reported that her
stepmother insulted them regularly. She accused them of waking up very late
and not cleaning the house. However, she did not expect her biological child
to work. Child 7 also reported that her stepmother would always tell them that
their mother was a prostitute and she died of aids and they would also become
prostitutes and die of aids.
She never reported the abuse to anyone because there was nobody to talk to.
As this abuse continued, child 7 decided to run away from home and live in the
streets because nobody insulted her in the streets. This child could not quite
remember her age at the time of the abuse.
5.3.7.3 Emotions
This child reported that she was happy when her biological mother was still
alive but her emotions changed when her stepmother arrived. She told the
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researcher that she could never stay with her stepmother again because she
wanted to kill her for what she did. She reported that the day she ran away
from her home, her stepmother was away and she was left to look after her
stepsister. She then ran away and left the child alone. The child (child 7) also
reported that the relationship between herself and her stepmother had always
been bad since the stepmother only loved her own daughter and their father
(her husband).
5.3.7.4 Social relationship with other people
Child 7 admitted that she had friends before the abuse but after the abuse she
developed a negative attitude towards other children. She furthermore
reported that their village mother at SOS forced them to play with other
children.
The researcher found child 7 very aggressive because she said that she was
often punished because of beating other students at school.
5.3.7.5 Academic performance
Child 7 reported that she attended school before the abuse though she did not
mention how she performed academically at that stage.
At SOS school, the child reported that she was not performing well because
she did not feel free to ask questions in class. As a result, she failed most of
the time.
When asked if she sometimes scored lower marks than she expected, child 7
said that this was always the case. She explained that whenever she
expected a B grade, she obtained a 0 grade. The child felt that this problem
was due to the fact that she did not always understand the questions properly.
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Child 7 also revealed that she once failed and had to repeat that grade
although she did not mention the grade she repeated. The child also
disclosed to the researcher that she loved school although her academic
performance was not satisfying.
Child 7 did not want to go back to her home and said that she hated her
stepmother and she founds peace at SOS Children's Village.
5.3.7.6 Concentration in class
Child 7 stated that she had problems with concentrating in class and said that
this was caused by her inadequate knowledge of English.
5.3.7.7 Punishment at school
Child 7 reported to the researcher that they were physically punished at school
when they made a mistake. However, the student hated certain teachers at
school because she said that they liked to embarrass other students by calling
them names such as "stupid fool" and "big fool".
The student indicated that if given a chance, she would leave school the
following day because she hated the teachers who shouted at them at school.
Child 7 admitted that there were students who liked bullying others at school
and she was one of them. She reported that she hated seeing other children
unhappy.
5.3.8 Child 8
Child 8 is a boy aged 16 who lives with his uncle and aunt permanently. He
attends school at Hleoheng Primary in Lesotho. He is a standard 5 student.
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5.3.8.1 Family
Child 8 comes from a two-parent family. His father, aged 40, is a soldier by
profession and his mother is a domestic worker aged 39. His mother has only
passed standard 7. Child 8 comes from a family of two children. His sister
aged 10 stays with their grandmother at their grandmother's place. There is
no one living in the house except child 8 and his mother.
5.3.8.2 Abuse
Child 8 is a victim of child sexual abuse. His mother has sexually abused him.
Since his father stayed at the barracks and his sister with his grandmother,
child 8's mother forced him to sleep with her.
The child also reported that it occurred the previous year while he was 15
years old and since then it has occurred regularly. When asked if he ever
reported the abuse to anyone, child 8 said that he told his father about the
abuse. His father seemed not to believe his stories and as a result, he ran
away from home to his uncle's place since he could no longer stay with his
mother. The child claimed to have no marks of abuse though the memories of
what used to happen between himself and his mother still haunted him.
5.3.8.3 Emotions
Child 8 reported that he loved himself and his mother before the abuse.
However, he recently developed a negative attitude towards women and girls
after what had happened to him. The child also swore that he could not ever
stay with his mother because he was afraid that she might abuse him again.
He was also afraid that his mother would beat him if he should go home
because he had revealed the secret to his father.
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5.3.8.4 Social relationship with other people.
Child 8 reported that he had friends (both male and female) before the abuse
but after the abuse he became afraid of female friends. When asked if he still
related well with other students, child 8 said that he had problems with relating
with girls because he hated them. However, this child told the researcher that
he had never been punished because of beating other students at school.
5.3.8.5 Academic performance
Child 8 reported that he attended school before the abuse and his academic
performance was average. The child also reported that his parents used to
praise him for his academic performance.
However, after the abuse, the child's performance deteriorated although the
child could not give reasons for his performance, which changed from average
to poor. The child also reported that he sometimes scored lower marks than
he expected. When asked if he had ever repeated the same grade more than
once, child 8 reported that he was repeating standard 5, the reason being that
he did not complete it the previous year and he had to repeat it that year.
Child 8 also reported that he had no intentions of going home again because
he was afraid of his mother and he was afraid that his father would kill him
because he did not believe his stories.
5.3.8.6 Concentration in class
This child indicated that he had problems with concentrating in class because
his mind was filled with the memories of what his mother used to do to him.
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5.3.8.7 Punishment at school
Child 8 reported that they were punished physically at school if they made
mistakes although they were sometimes punished unfairly. When asked if he
liked all his teachers at school, child 8 reported that he liked male teachers
more than female teachers. This child also reported that he sometimes felt like
running away from school because he wanted to attend a school for males
only. He also reported that he hated some of the teachers at school because
they knew what had happened to him and they reminded him of that,
especially the female teachers.
When asked if the teachers were fair in class, child 8 reported that certain
teachers favoured certain children and he argued that teachers liked students
who did not have problems. The child also admitted that there were some
students who liked bullying others at school although he was not one of them.
5.3.9 Child 9
Child 9 is a girl aged 11 years. She stays with her relatives and attends
school at Hleoheng.
5.3.9.1 Family
Child 9 comes from a two-parent family. Her father aged 32 sometimes work
as a gardener. He has only passed standard 7. Her mother is a housewife
aged 36. Child 9 comes from a family of two children and she is the second
born in that family. Her grandmother stays with her family and her uncle visits
her home regularly. The child does not like the uncle.
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5.3.9.2 Abuse
Child 9 is a victim of sexual abuse. Her uncle had repeatedly raped the child.
This started when the child was nine years old. The uncle always raped the
child when the child's parents were away. The child reported that her uncle
made her touch him and that he also touched her. The child also disclosed
that her uncle said she should act like a big girl and should not make a noise
before he raped her.
Child 9 did not report this to anyone because she said that her uncle said he
would kill her if she told anyone. However, this case came into the open
because the child couldn't walk properly at school and her teachers called her
and asked her questions. The child did not say anything and she was taken to
a nearby clinic where the rape was revealed.
5.3.9.3 Emotions
Child 9 reported that she loved herself before the abuse and her mother used
to tell her that she was a pretty little girl. When asked about her feelings after
the abuse, the child reported that she felt dirty and she did not like herself
anymore. She also reported that she hated her uncle and could never stay
with him again. She furthermore reported that she would kill herself if she was
forced to stay with him because she was afraid that he would do it again.
5.3.9.4 Social relationship with other people
The child reported that she still related well with other children but she did not
trust men. The child also told the researcher that she had never been
punished because of beating other children at school because she hated to
see other children hurt.
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5.3.9.5 Academic performance
Despite the rape, child 9 still performed well academically because she said
that her parents supported her very much. She also reported that she still
lived at home and attended school and had no plans of leaving school. This
child, however, seemed to encounter problems in class. She reported that
she did not feel to ask questions in class because she became very irritated
when other students laughed at her when she did something wrong. She
furthermore added that she sometimes felt as if they were ridiculing her.
Child 9 reported that she sometimes scored lower marks than she expected
although she did not know why this happened. Child 9 concluded by saying
that she loved school and had no intentions of leaving.
5.3.9.6 Concentration in class
Child 9 seemed to encounter problems to concentrate in class. She reported
that she could not concentrate in class because she kept remembering
sleeping with her uncle. Those memories recurred very often especially when
she was in class.
5.3.9.7 Punishment at school
When asked if the students were punished at school, child 9 reported that they
were beaten if they made a mistake in class and sometimes their teachers
punished them without explanations and she hated that. When asked if their
teachers sometimes said things which she did not like in class, child 9 agreed
and reported that their teachers had a tendency of saying "nxa!" in class and
she disliked that a lot.
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5.4 SYNTHESIS OF DATA
This section aims at presenting certain conclusions after analysing the data.
The section will therefore be divided into the following categories:
o family,
oabuse;
o emotions of the abused child;
o social relationship with other people;
o academic performance;
o concentration in class; and
o punishment at school.
5.4.1 Family
The conclusion that the researcher can draw from the interviews with the
students, is that the family is a potential institution of abuse as compared to a
school (refer to paragraph 3.3.1). This may be so because children spend
most of their time at home with their parents who are responsible for their
upbringing. However, due to frustrations caused by unemployment, excessive
demands from parents, and unwanted children, parents find themselves
abusing their children (refer to paragraph 2.4). This is shown in Table 5.1
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Table 5.1 Family as a potential institution of abuse
Abuse victim Abuser
Case 1 - Girl Biological father
Case 2 - Girl Biological father
Case 3 - Girl Biological father
Case 4 - Boy Father and mother
Case 5 - Girl Father and mother
Case 6 - Girl Stepmother
Case 7 - Girl Stepmother
Case 8 - Boy Mother
Case 9 - Girl Uncle
All nine abused children are victims of family abuse (refer to paragraph 3.3.1).
The conclusion that can therefore be drawn from the above information is that
at SOS school in Lesotho, more girls are victims of the different types of abuse
as opposed to boys. One of the reasons for the occurrence of abuse in
Lesotho may be the fact that many people are unemployed and uneducated in
Lesotho and as a result, they resort to their children to get rid of their
frustrations.
The other reason may be that the law is not strict towards perpetrators of child
abuse and children are still regarded as properties of their parents. Gender,
on the other hand, seems to be a contributing factor to abuse as far as the
respondents were concerned in Lesotho. This is likely to be so because a boy
can be hired as a shepherd in Lesotho as early as six years old while girls stay
at home and this urges some parents to abuse them. As a result more girls at
SOS school are exposed to abuse.
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In summary the researcher can conclude that child abuse seems to be a family
affair as illustrated by the respondents in Lesotho.
5.4.2 Abuse
All the children that were interviewed for this research were the victims of child
abuse. Of the nine children that were interviewed, three were victims of
physical abuse, two of neglect, two of emotional abuse and the other two are
victims of sexual abuse (refer to section 2.5). This is shown in table 5.2.
Table 5.2 Types of abuse
Victim Type of abuse
Case 1 Physical
Case 2 Physical
Case 3 Physical
Case 4 Neglect
Case 5 Neglect & economic
Case 6 Emotional & physical
Case 7 Emotional
Case 8 Sexual
Case 9 Sexual
Since the researcher focused on a group of adolescents, it became evident
that some children at SOS school are exposed to various types of abuse.
One of these types of abuse is economic abuse.
Economic abuse seemed not to be common but this however, does not mean
that it is not present (refer to paragraph 2.5.5). There are still some parents
who fail to give their children money even if the child needs the money for
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necessary things, such as buying schoolbooks and even food. Child 5 was
neglected by her parents in more than one way. She also suffered from
economic abuse. She reported that she was not given money for school fees
and educational trips like her siblings. In her case neglect was coupled with
economic abuse because her parents did have money for her siblings and not
for her.
Child 6 is also an example of two kinds of abuse. Her stepmother emotionally
and physically abused this child.
5.4.3 Emotions
All the interviewed children were scared of their abusers (refer to table 2.1).
They had developed negative attitudes towards people who abused them.
Some of them revealed that they hated themselves and felt dirty. This is
summarised in table 5.4.
Table 5.3 Emotions of abused children
Victim Emotions
Child 1 Hates father
Child 2 Not happy
Child 3 Afraid of men
Child 4 Happy
Child 5 Hates parents
Child 6 Hates stepparents especially the stepmother
Child 7 Hates stepmother
Child 8 Hates women
Child 9 Hates herself (Iow self concept)
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It can therefore be concluded that abuse has a negative impact on the child.
Children tend to develop negative attitudes towards their abusers and some of
them also develop low self concepts (refer to paragraph 3.4.1.1)
5.4.4 Social relationships with other people
Almost all the children that were interviewed tend to have poor social
relationships with other people (refer to paragraph 3.4.1.9). This is due to the
fact that some of them were never loved and cared for by their parents and as
a result, they saw no need to care for other people. Some of them even
portrayed some behavioural characteristics such as aggression (refer to
paragraph 3.4.1.2) as is shown in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4 Behavioural indications of abused children
Victim Behaviour
Child 1 • Aggressive (refer to paragraph 3.4.1.2)
• Withdrawn
Child 2 • Aggressive (refer to paragraph 3.4.1.2)
Child 3 • Withdrawn from people who like hitting others (refer to
paragraph 3.4.1.2)
Child 4 • Withdrawn from other children
Child 5 • Highly aggressive
• Bully (refer to paragraph 3.4.1.2)
Child 6 • Highly withdrawn and anti-social (refer to paragraph
3.4.1.9)
Child 7 • Bully
• Aggressive (refer to paragraph 3.4.1.2)
Child 8 • Anti-social (refer to paragraph 3.4.1.9)
Child 9 • Withdrawn from males
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In conclusion, it can be stated that some abused children in SOS school
showed certain behavioural problems although some of them undergo
counselling especially those at the school.
5.4.5 Academic performance
Child abuse has a negative impact on the children at SOS school (refer to
paragraph 3.4.1). This is so because out of the nine children that were
interviewed, only 2 students indicated that they were still performing well.
Child 1 reported that she performed badly while she was at home due to the
abuse from her father. However, she said that there were changes in her
academic performance since her arrival at SOS school. Her average marks
were 58% (first quarter), 41% (second quarter) and 52% (third quarter).
Child 2 reported that she also performed badly before she came to SOS
school but that changed. Her average marks were 61% (first quarter), 59%
(second quarter) and 60% (third quarter).
Child 3 only knew that she passed, but she was never shown her school
report. She seemed to encounter problems at SOS school due to inadequate
knowledge of English which is the medium of instruction. As a result, she did
not perform well. This child also indicated that she was not always satisfied
when she received her scripts because the marks were always lower than she
expected. Her average marks were 52%, 54% 56% for the same period as in
the above cases.
Child 4 never attended school. He only started attending school after his
arrival at SOS children's Village and he indicated that he was progressing well.
His marks were 54%,60% 32% for the period indicated above.
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Child 5 reported that she did not perform well because she was not motivated
and she developed a negative attitude towards school. Because of her
personal problems she also experienced grade repeating. Her average marks
were 27%, 18%, 22% for the same period.
Child 6 reported that she did not perform well academically at the time of the
abuse, that is, before she went to SOS school. She also did not perform well
academically at SOS school. She experienced grade repeating and she
admitted that she did not feel free to ask questions in class. Her average
marks were 32%, 38%,44% for the above period.
Child 7 also showed that she was not performing well at the time of the abuse
and similarly she was still not performing well academically at SOS school
because she was feeling tense in class. Her marks were 42%, 50% and 46%
for the indicated period.
It was not possible for the researcher to get hold of the record of the
interviewed students' academic performance before the abuse because all of
them had arrived at SOS school after the abuse. Some of the children did not
attend school before their arrival at SOS school. The researcher therefore
only got hold of their academic record since their arrival at SOS school which
indicated that these students were not performing well. This record of marks is
presented in table 5.5.
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Table 5.5 Record of marks of students' performance
Case (child) t" Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter
1 58 41 52
2 61 59 60
3 52 54 56
4 54 60 32
5 27 18 22
6 32 38 44
7 42 50 46
Despite the fact that all these seven students have been at SOS school for the
past two to three years, they were still not performing well academically. This
is reflected in Table 5.5. Only two students out of seven had never failed.
The other five students each experienced failure at least once. Out of these
findings, one can therefore say that most children at the SOS school do not
perform well academically. Their performances can be linked with their
negative experiences in life.
The other two remaining children who were interviewed attended school at a
different school and they were not staying at SOS Children's Village. This was
done because the researcher was not allowed to interview the sexually abused
children at SOS school, the reason being that those children are very
sensitive. The researcher, therefore, decided to interview two additional
children whose cases were reported to the police (see addendum 3). These
two children are in a ordinary government school. Child 8 stays with his uncle
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and aunt because he ran away from his mother who sexually abused him.
Child 9 still lives with her biological parents. Her uncle abused her sexually.
These two children also reported that their academic performances
deteriorated after the abuse. Deterioration is reflected in their academic
record after the abuse. This is indicated in table 5.6 and 5.7.
Table 5.6 Marks before the abuse
Child Marks
1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter
Child 8 50 48 46 52
Child 9 70 69 68 70
Table 5.7 Marks after the abuse
Child Marks
1st Quarter 2nd Quarter 3rd Quarter 4th Quarter
Child 8 48 40 36 -
Child 9 68 60 61 -
The conclusion that can be drawn from the above results is that child abuse
impacts negatively on a child's academic performance as far as the
respondents were concerned. It can therefore be said that some of the
abused adolescents academic performance are affected negatively by abuse.
5.4.6 Concentration in class
Out of the 9 abused children that were interviewed 8 revealed problems with
concentrating in class due to their abuse. The other children indicated a lack
of concentration in class because they were haunted by the memories of what
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had happened to them (child 6, 8,9). Child 5 reported that she found school
boring and as a result, she could not even concentrate in class. Child 2
indicated that she was always concentrating in class though she sometimes
became bored.
From the above interviews it can be concluded that child abuse has a negative
impact on these children's performance. The children who have experienced
abuse scored low on many things including concentrating in the classroom as
the above information reflects.
5.4.7 Punishment at school
Based on the material obtained from the students it can be concluded that the
families of these children are potential institutions of abuse since all the
students were abused at their homes. However, six children (2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9)
reported that their teachers insulted and ridiculed them at school which can
also be regarded as a form of abuse (refer to paragraph 3.3.2). It can therefore
be stated that in this case children are more exposed to physical punishment
but not to abuse at school.
5.5 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it can be argued that child abuse has a negative impact on a
child's academic performance. Abuse can be physical, sexual, emotional,
economic and neglect. Abused children, however, do not only experience
problems with their academic performance but they also have problems with
themselves. They cannot adapt to society due to the abuse they experienced.
Some of them also engage in bad behaviour like truancy and delinquency due
to their early experiences in life. When such abused children are placed in a
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classroom situation, one may find that they encounter serious problems in their
schoolwork. Some of them have inadequate language development and as a
result, they fail to express themselves in class and consequently fail. Abused
children have also been found to be characterised by fear of adults or other
people, and subsequently have problems with adapting to the school
environment.
5.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The researcher encountered various problems during the course of the study.
Firstly, she was not allowed to interview the sexually abused children at SOS
school. Since the researcher needed such students, she had to opt for
another school in the Leribe district where she interviewed two sexually
abused children.
Secondly, it was not possible for the researcher to obtain any academic results
of the students at SOS school before attending SOS school. As not all the
students' cases were reported to the police, the researcher had to struggle to
get hold of students whose cases were reported to the police.
Lastly much can still be added to each type of abuse but for the purpose of
this investigation the limits of this investigation will be exceeded. In the
following chapter a final summary, recommendations and conclusion will be
presented.
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CHAPTERS
SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
6.1 SUMMARIES
6.1.1 Statement of the problem
This study investigated the effect of abuse on academic performance,
especially the general causes and types of child abuse and the relationship
between child abuse and academic performance.
6.1.2 Causes and types of child abuse
There are many factors which urge parents, caretakers and others to abuse
children. Perpetrators of child abuse are characterised by isolation, poverty,
alcohol or drug abuse and ill-health, inadequate social learning, divorce,
parenting styles, women who have been refused termination of pregnancies,
mentally or subnormal parents, unwanted or unplanned babies conceived out-
of-wedlock, stress and inheritance such as poor child up-bringing.
Abuse of children can take various forms, namely: physical, sexual, emotional,
economic abuse and neglect. Physical abuse entails inappropriate
punishment of a child by either a parent, caretaker or anybody in authority.
Sexual abuse refers to the involvement of dependent, developmentally
immature children and adolescents in sexual activities they do not truly
comprehend, to which they are unable to give informed consent, or that violate
the social taboos of family roles (Kempe & Kempe, 1978 : 60). Emotional
abuse is when a parent interferes with the personal and social development of
a child.
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Neglect entails leaving a child alone or unattended for excessive periods. It
also includes failure of a parent or a caretaker to provide things like housing,
food and medication for a child. Lastly, there is economic abuse which refers
to failure to provide the child with the money he or she needs.
6.1.3 The relationship between child abuse and academic
performance
Ideally both the family of a child and the school are two institutions which are
responsible for the upbringing of a child. It is in the home situation that a child
is taught basic skills like respect and how to live harmoniously with other
people. However, these skills which a child acquires at home are further
developed at school. Both the family of a child and the school supplement
each other in ensuring that a child develops into a responsible adult who can
make responsible decisions in life.
However, due to urbanisation and modernisation, the family and the school
have taken different dimensions altogether. Today, cases are reported of
children being abused in their families and in the school environment. The
cases used in this study revealed that some families and schools have
become institutions of abuse rather than the places of love and warmth.
Parents, teachers and strangers abuse children and as a result, children are
left with no one to trust. This results in large number of street children today.
Children today are more exposed to abuse than children in the past (refer to
paragraph 2.2). Abused children under-achieve due to problems they
experienced. Such children do not enjoy life at all especially if there is lack of
counselling. These abused children become afraid of other people and the
majority tend to isolate themselves from other children. As a result, their
academic performance drops due to changed behaviours. In short, an abused
child finds himself or herselfin a dysfunctional education situation.
142
A dysfunctional education situation, implies that an abused child's
performance is under-actualised: he or she scores low on a number of things
relating to academic performance like language development and behaviour.
There will also be a discrepancy between what a child is capable of achieving
and what he or she actually achieves.
In conclusion, it may be stated that an abused child is hampered to actualise
his or her potential. Such a child does not realise his or her potential and
abilities due to the abuse and it is therefore essential that a social worker and
a psychologist should intervene to help such a child to cope with the situation
in order to improve academic performance.
6.1.4 Objectives of this study
The objectives of this investigation were formulated as follows:
o To focus on how the academic performance of the abused child is affected,
that is, the relationship between child abuse and academic performance.
o To investigate the behavioural changes of the abused child which can be
attributed to the academic performance of a child.
o To investigate the family and the school as the child's educational
environments and how these institutions can be major sources of child
abuse;
o To investigate the causes and types of child abuse.
143
The above objectives have been achieved in this study in the following way:
o Paragraph 3.4 of the literature study showed the relationship between child
abuse and academic performance. The empirical study conducted in
paragraph 5.4.2 confirmed the relationship. Cases of child 8 and 9
showed how those children's academic performance deteriorated after the
abuse (Table 5.6).
o The literature study conducted in paragraph 3.4.1 investigated the
behavioural changes of the abused child which can be attributed to the
academic performance of a child and this aim is confirmed in paragraph
5.4.3, 5.4.4 of the empirical where behavioural characteristics such as
aggression, a low self concept, withdrawal and anti-social behaviour which
lead to a poor academic performance are discussed..
o Paragraph 3.2 of the literature study identified the typicality of the family
and the school as the child's educational environments and the way in
which these institutions can be major sources of abuse. This again is
reflected in paragraph 5.4.1 of the empirical study. The cases of all the
children illustrated the way in which some families can be dangerous to
their children.
o Paragraph 2.4 and 2.5 of the literature study indicated the causes and the
types of child abuse respectively. The empirical study synthesised in
paragraph 5.4.1 and 5.4.2 confirmrd this as follows; unemployment,
inadequate social learning about children, excessive demands from
parents and unwanted children are the causes behind some parents
abusing children at SOS school and Hleoheng primary in Lesotho.
Physical abuse, emotional, sexual, economic and neglect are the types of
abuse relating to the respondents in the qualitative study.
The following recommendations can be presented based on the way in which
certain objectives have been achieved.
144
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
In this section, the researcher aims at making certain recommendations based
on the collected data.
6.2.1 Protection of children's rights
o Rationale
At present, children's rights in Lesotho are not protected. Children are still
regarded as properties of their parents and as a result, parents exercise
power over their children in an unacceptable way.
Identification of child abuse is hampered by the fact that children's rights
are not protected because Basotho children are abused in the privacy of
their own homes. It is therefore vital for the Lesotho government to protect
children's rights. Laws should be strict towards perpetrators of child
abuse.
o Recommendations
Recommendations are:
• Children's rights must be protected in Lesotho similar to countries like
South Africa and America.
• The law must be very strict towards people who violate these rights.
6.2.2 Compulsory and free education for children
o Rationale
Some children in Lesotho become victims of abuse because their parents
cannot afford to pay their school fees. As a result, such children become
145
victims of neglect which is a form of abuse. Due to neglect at home some
of these children end up in the streets and they ultimately become
delinquents since they have to survive on their own in the streets.
Although the Lesotho government is not in a position to provide free
education for the Basotho children at present due to financial constraints, it
is vital that free education should be provided to reduce the rate of abuse
in that country.
o Recommendations
Recommendations are:
• Education should be free and compulsory for all Basotho children from
the age of 6 to the age of 12 years (primary education);
• The government should subsidise high school education since most
parents fail to pay for their children as school fees are is very expensive
at that level.
6.2.3 Parental involvement in children's education
o Rationale
Parents in Lesotho are not very actively involved in the education of their
children. Most of the decisions at school are done by the academic staff
with the help of the Ministry of Education where necessary. As a result,
parents end up being little concerned about the education of their children.
The parents do not see the need to send their children to school because
they do not take responsibility for the education of their children.
146
o Recommendation
Recommendation is:
• Parents must be involved in the education of their children through
institutions like governing bodies.
6.2.4 Education for all
o Rationale
Education is vital for the development of everyone in society. Similarly,
every human being has to be educated in order to earn a living. Educated
people are able to make reasonable decisions. The concept of child abuse
has come into existence partly because not everyone in society is
educated. As a result, many people are jobless and they end up abusing
children in order to get rid of their frustrations.
Education also results in being aware of other people, their abilities and
potentials. At present, many people in Lesotho are not educated and such
people often abuse their children as they are idle most of the times. Due
to these problems, it has therefore become very difficult to minimise the
rate of child abuse.
Although the Lesotho government stated that it cannot afford to educate
everyone, it is essential that everyone is given a fair chance to education.
o Recommendations
Recommendations are:
• The government must subsidise education so that at least every person
can afford it;
147
• Compensatory education should be provided for those people who
never had a chance to attend school. This can be done by the
introduction of adult education.
6.2.5 Orientation of parents into child care
Many parents in Lesotho have little or no knowledge concerning child rearing
(refer to paragraph 2.4.12). As a result, they lack insight as to how a child
should be cared for so that he or she develops into a responsible mature adult.
The majority of these parents stand a high risk of abusing their children
because they are not in a position to provide the love and warmth a child
needs to develop adequately.
Parents must thus be orientated and assisted with the concept of child rearing.
o Recommendation
The recommendation is:
• Parents must attend health clinics where guidance on child care is
provided
6.2.6 Establishment of SOS schools country-wide
Most of the abused children are cared for at SOS school in the Maseru district
in Lesotho. This school aims at educating these children into responsible and
mature adults despite their earlier experiences in life. The children that are
kept at that school have been removed permanently from their abusers and
are cared for in a responsible way at SOS school. Some of these children
have also been taken from the streets.
148
However, the major problem Lesotho is still facing despite this establishment
of a good school is that, the school is located in Maseru and the authorities
seem to be concentrating only on the urban children who have been abused,
whereas child abuse is prevalent in the rural areas of the country.
It is therefore essential that the government should do something about the
children in the rural areas who fall prey to abuse because those children also
need to be helped to realise their potential despite the damage that has been
done to them.
o Recommendations
Recommendations are:
• The government (Lesotho) should establish more special schools like
SOS school in the rural areas.
• Trained teachers should be employed to teach such children as they
are sensitive and have special educational needs as opposed to the
non-abused children;
• Apart form the trained teachers, provision must be made for
psychologists and social workers in such schools.
6.2.7 Appointment of school social workers
o Rationale
Once the schools for abused children are established, it is essential that
social workers are appointed in such schools.
As the majority of the abused children are characterised by a low self-
image, social workers will also be able to address issues like these.
149
o Recommendations
Recommendation is:
• School social workers must be adequately trained and made available
at every special school
6.2.8 Introduction of sex education in schools
o Rationale
We are living in a rapidly changing world and it is vital to equip students
with the skills, attitudes, knowledge and understanding that will enable
them to make responsible choices in future. Therefore, sex education
should be incorporated into the school curriculum so that students have
knowledge of the way in which physical, mental, emotional, social,
economic and psychological phases of human relations are affected by
male and female relationships (Van Staden 1997).
In Lesotho, sex education is not included in the school curriculum whereas
many children are abused due to lack of knowledge about sex. Therefore,
it is essential that sex education should be included in schools.
o Recommendations
Recommendations are:
• Sex education should be included in the school curriculum;
• The Ministries of Health and Education should work in collaboration to
ensure that this is realised;
150
• The family and the school must supplement each other in teaching sex
education life to students.
• Aids education should also form an integrated part of the school
curriculum.
6.2.9 In-service workshop for teachers
o Rationale
Some of the victims of child abuse are abused in the school environment
and not only within the family. It occurs at any place and under any
circumstances.
Abuse of children in schools is promoted by lack of in-service workshops
and basic qualifications of teachers. Some of the trained teachers still do
not know how to approach a child if such a child has made a mistake.
Instead, he or she abuses a child either emotionally or physically. In this
in-service workshops, teachers should be equipped with the knowledge of
how to control their tempers in the classroom situation and how to handle
and approach problematic children in spite of abusing them.
These workshops can be held at least twice annually or during the school
holidays.
o Recommendations
Recommendations are:
The Ministry of education should organize in-service workshops for
teachers.
151
These workshops should be aimed at helping teachers improve classroom
techniques and their overall approach towards the children.
6.2.10 Establishment of a child protection department in Lesotho
o Rationale
At present in Lesotho, there is no department which is strictly or mainly
concerned with children's affairs. Support structures that exist within the
present educational system have nothing to do with children's rights.
Consequently, many children are abused in the country as there is no
department which firmly takes responsibility for the rights of the children.
It is therefore vital to establish such a department which will effectively
deal with child's rights.
o Recommendations
Recommendations are:
• A children's protection department should be established to ensure the
safety of children;
• This department must cooperate with the police and social workers and
take necessary legal steps against perpetrators of child abuse.
• This department must arrange or organise gatherings for children where
they are educated concerning their rights.
• The government must open free life lines for children in need of help.
152
6.3 CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that there is a strong relationship between child abuse and
academic performance. Abused children are deprived in numerous ways
including academic performance and behaviour.
There are many factors that can be attributed to the occurrence of child abuse.
These include among other things unemployment, poverty, inheritance, stress,
large families, out-of-wedlock pregnancies, young and insecure parents,
aggressive parents, inadequate or mentally subnormal parents, alcohol or drug
abuse and ill-health, isolation, women who have been refused termination of
pregnancies, parenting styles and divorce (refer to paragraph 2.4).
However, in Lesotho, the focus of this study, it was found that child abuse is
mostly caused by unemployment, poverty, inadequate social knowledge about
children's growth, unwanted children and isolation.
Child abuse can also take various forms, namely: physical, sexual, emotional,
economic and neglect (refer to paragraph 2.5). All these forms of abuse can
occur at any place under any circumstances but the family has been found to be
the major source of abuse (refer to paragraph 3.3.1). Abused children have,
however, been shown to perform poorly on a number of things including
language development, academic performance and behaviour. Hence the
reason why there exists a relationship between child abuse and academic
performance.
6.4 FINAL REMARK
It is trusted that this study will be valuable to various governments with regard to
dealing with child abuse and meeting the needs of abused children. It is also
hoped that this study will brighten the future of abused children in both SOS
school and Hleoheng primary in Lesotho.
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ADDENDUM
ADDENDUM 1
Free State University
Box 339
BLOEMFONTEIN 9300
18 September 1998
The Principal,
SOS
Maseru 100
LESOTHO
Dear Madam,
REQUEST TO UNDERTAKE A SURVEY STUDY AT YOUR SCHOOL
I hereby apply to undertake a survey study at your school. I am currently doing a
research on "The relationship between child abuse and academic performance - a
qualitative study" as a requirement for my Masters degree in educational psychology
at the University of the Orange Free State.
It is therefore felt that the contribution of your school will be of great value. The
material that is going to be collected is for the purpose of the study and nothing else.
It will not be used against anybody.
Thanking you in advance for your co-operation.
Yours faithfully,
M. I\v'd~
MAKHOJANE MONYANE (9737111)
ADDENDUM 2
ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION
NAME: .....................................................................................................................
DATE OF BIRTH: '" '" SEX: AGE: .
SCHOOL: .
ADDRESS: .
...... .
FAMILY
FATHER: AGE: .
OCCUPATION: QUALIFICATION: .
MOTHER: AGE: .
OCCUPATION: QUALIFICATION: ..
STEPFATHER'S NAME: AGE: .
OCCUPATION: QUALIFICATION: .
STEPMOTHER'S NAME: AGE: .
OCCUPATION: QUALIFICATION: .
SIBLINGS: NAME(S):... AGE: .
NAME(S): '" '" AGE: '" .
NAME(S): AGE: '" .
TELEPHONE NUMBERS: '" '" .
ANYONE ELSE LIVING IN YOUR HOUSE? .
•••••• •••••• ••• '0' •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• '" ••••••••• , ..••.••••...
2
RELATIONSHIP WITH THAT PERSON: ..
ABUSE
DO YOU LOVE YOUR FAMILY AT LARGE? .
...... , .
HAS ANYONE EVER ABUSED YOU IN YOUR FAMILY? ..
••••••••••••••• '" •••••••••••••••• 0 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,., ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
HOW WERE YOU ABUSED? .
........................ .
............... .
WHEN DID THAT TAKE PLACE? .
HOW OFTEN DID THAT HAPPEN? .
DID YOU REPORT THAT TO ANYONE? .
WHO IS THAT? .
IF YES, WHY DID YOU DO IT? .
•••••• •••••••••••••••••• ••• '0' ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
WHAT DID YOU DO THEN? .
HOW OLD WERE YOU THEN? .
DO YOU HAVE ANY MARKS OF ABUSE? .
......... '" .
WHAT TYPE/KIND? .
........................ .
3
EMOTIONS
HOW DID YOU FEEL ABOUT YOUSELF BEFORE THE ABUSE:
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WHAT ABOUT NOW? .
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••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••••••• '0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••
CAN YOU FACE YOUR ABUSER? .
.................. .
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CAN YOU STAY WITH THAT PERSON AGAIN? .
............... .
... .
WHY? .
...... .
...... .
HOW CAN YOU DESCRIBE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOURSELF AND YOUR
ABUSER? .
... '" .
... '" .
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER PEOPLE
DID YOU HAVE FRIENDS BEFORE THE ABUSE? '" ..
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HOW ABOUT NOW? .
............... .. , .
DO YOU STILL RELATE WELL WITH OTHER PUPILS? .
... .
••• •••••••••••• ••••••••• ••••••••• ••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••• •••••••••••••••••• ••• ••• '0' •••••••••••••••••••.
HAVE YOU EVER BEEN PUNISHED BECAUSE OF BEATING OTHER STUDENTS AT
SCHOOL? .
............... .
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HOW OFTEN DID THAT HAPPEN? .
... .
WHY DID YOU DO IT? .
... .
...... '" .
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE
SCHOOL
DID YOU ATTEND SCHOOL BEFORE THE ABUSE? .
HOW DID YOU PERFORM ACADEMICALLY BY THEN? ..
...... .
... '" .
DID YOUR PARENTS EVER PRAISE YOU FOR YOUR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE?
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••••.•••••••••.•••.••.• , .0 ••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••..••••••••••••..•••••••••••••••••••••..•••••....•••••••.......
••••••••••••••• ••• •••••• ••• •••••• ••• •••••• •••••••••••••••••• •••••• •••••• ••• ••••••••••••••• •• , •••••••• , ••••••••• o ••••••••••••••••
DO YOU STILL ATTEND SCHOOL NOW? ..
...... .
...... .. , '" .
WHO PAYS FOR YOUR SCHOOL FEES? ..
............... .
......... .
HOW DO YOU PERFORM ACADEMICALLY NOW? .
... .
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ARE YOU FREE TO ASK QUESTIONS IN CLASS? ..
.................. '" .
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WHY? .
... .
... '" .
DO YOU SOMETIMES SCORE LOWER MARKS THAN YOU EXPECTED? ..
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... .
IF SO, WHAT DO YOU THINK IS THE CAUSE OF ALL THESE? .
... .
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HAVE YOU EVER REPEATED THE SAME CLASS MORE THAN ONCE? ..
IF YES, WHY? .
...... .
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IF YOU HAD THE CHANCE, WOULD YOU LEAVE SCHOOL TOMORROW? .
......... ,., .
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NOW THAT YOU STAY AWAY FROM YOUR ABUSER, HOW DO YOU PERFORM
ACADEMICALLY? .
... .
......... .
CAN YOU GO HOME NOW? .
...... .
WHY? .
............... .
CONCENTRATION
DO YOU HAVE ANY PROBLEMS WITH CONCENTRATING IN CLASS? .
............... '" '" .
CAN YOU GIVE REASONS FOR YOUR CONCENTRATION PROBLEMS? .
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DO YOU SOMETIMES JUST FEEL BORED IN CLASS? WHY? .
............... .
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PUNISHMENT AT SCHOOL
DO YOU LIKE ALL YOUR TEACHERS AT SCHOOL? .
...... '" .
............... .., .
IF YOU MAKE A MISTAKE IN CLASS, DO YOU RECEIVE EQUAL PUNISHMENT FROM
YOUR TEACHERS? .
DO YOUR TEACHERS SOMETIMES PUNISH YOU WITHOUT EXPLANATIONS? .
............... .
......... .
WHAT KIND OF PUNISHMENT DID YOU RECEIVE? .
......... .
...... .
DO YOU THINK THE PUNISHMENT WAS JUST/FAIR? .
... .
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WHAT DOES YOUR TEACHERS SOMETIMES SAY TO YOU WHICH YOU DISLIKE MOST?
...............................................................................................................................
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DO YOU SOMETIMES FEEL LIKE RUNNING AWAY FROM SCHOOL? WHY? .
DO YOU THINK THERE ARE SOME STUDENTS WHO ARE FAVOURED MOST BY YOUR
TEACHERS? WHY? .
ARE THERE OTHER STUDENTS WHO LIKE BULLYING OTHERS AT SCHOOL? .
ARE YOU ONE OF THEM? .
••• •••••••••••• •• , •••••• o •••••••• o •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
............... .
... '" , .
...... .
OK, IS THERE ANYTHING YOU WOULD LIKE ME TO KNOW ABOUT YOURSELF? .
...... .
............... '" .
...... .
(THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR CO-OPERATION. I REALLY APPRECIATE YOUR
HELP)
Eleoheng Primary 3ch~
?O. I',::.i.putsee 350
lesotn<3.
15/1 C/98
r:::tis is to certify t.ha t Fiss 1 r=8.kb.o j::.ne 1~or..y8.neintervievved t.v.e pu)ils
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