Phonological awareness in English second-language learners: language-specific differences between Southern Sotho and English affecting the acquisition of early reading skills in English

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Date
2004
Authors
Hattingh, Catherine
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University of the Free State
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English: Article 1: In order to examine the development of phonological awareness skills in a first and in a second language, it is important first to focus on the significance of early reading skills (such as phonological awareness skills) and how these support beginner reading. Early reading skills in alphabetic languages include the knowledge that printed words carry messages, that words have an internal sound structure (phonological awareness) and that symbols more or less represent sounds in words. The development of phonological awareness skills as well as direct instruction in letter-sound correspondences therefore help to acquire crucial early reading skills such as sight-word reading. Converging research findings indicate that phonological awareness is regarded as the single most important factor predicting reading ability as well as reading disability during the early literacy phase. Phonological awareness is part of larger construct known as phonological processing. Research results indicate that phonological processing represents two dimensions, namely coding and awareness. Phonological coding processes include phonetic and phonological re-coding in short- and long-term memory. Awareness refers to an oral phonological processing ability and indicates an awareness of all sizes of sound units in a language. Phonological awareness skills refer to the ability to perform a variety of graded tasks, such as segmenting, blending, identifying and manipulating sound units in words. Implicit awareness of sounds in a language develops spontaneously as part of normal language development. As a child acquires more words (vocabulary) explicit awareness of sound units develop at the level of the word, syllable and the onset-rime. The most sophisticated level of phonological awareness will be awareness of individual phonemes in words and the ability to manipulate them in words. Explicit phoneme awareness will only be present once reading instruction starts. The developmental sequence of phonological awareness skills in languages representing transparent orthographies (e.g. Southern Sotho) follow the language-universal pattern, i.e. development at word, syllable, onset-rime and phoneme levels, but may be easier due to the direct sound-symbol relationship that exists between phonemes and their corresponding symbols. The greatest challenge for African learners, however, will be the written representation of words due to the disjunctive (Nguni languages) or conjunctive way (Sotho languages) in which words are represented in these languages. The way that words are represented in African languages cause problems to identify word boundaries in African languages. Southern Sotho beginner readers therefore need to develop early reading skills that will support not only reading but also spelling and writing skills in their L1. Well-developed linguistic skills in the 11 transfer as metalinguistic skills to support the acquisition of similar skills in a L2. The development of phonological awareness skills in English as L1 may be more difficult due to the many irregular sound-symbol correspondences that exist in words in English. Segmentation and manipulation skills are the best predictors of early reading ability in English. The development of phonological awareness skills in English as a second language will show similarities but also significant differences to the development of phonological awareness skills in Southern Sotho as L1. Language-specific differences (phonological, morphological and orthographic) that exist between languages significantly influence the development of reading skills in a L2, in particular, if the two languages display no similarities. ESL learners may subsequently develop phonological awareness skills at a different rate, in a different order as well as achieving different levels of phonological awareness when transferring to English as L2. Additional factors such as oral proficiency, vocabulary and background knowledge also contribute to the problems that ESL learners experience to becoming literate in English as L2. It is therefore recommended that literacy instruction should initially focus on L1 reading skills because of its positive impact on the development of second language reading skills. Learners should develop a wide range of phonological awareness skills through oral language activities to reach the crucial stage of 'reading readiness' in order to start their reading instruction in English. Article 2: Research studies investigating the universal and language-specific characteristics of literacy development found that phonological awareness skills make a significant contribution to the acquisition of early literacy skills in languages with transparent, as well as in languages with opaque orthographies. However, there are fundamental differences between African languages and languages such as English which have European roots. Language-specific differences that exist between the L1 and the L2 impact on the acquisition of early reading skills such as phonological awareness. The following languagespecific differences between Southern Sotho and English affecting the acquisition of early reading skills were identified: o Origin Southern Sotho is part of the language subfamily Sotho, which originated from the Niger-Congo language group of Africa. English, part of the Germanic subgroup originated from the Indo-European language family. Southern Sotho and English, two of the eleven official languages of South Africa, display significant language-specific differences due to their genetic classification. These differences will impact on the development of literacy skills of Southern Sotho learners transferring to English as medium of instruction. o Structural differences Southern Sotho is classified as a synthetic language, and words display agglutinative characteristics in word formation. Structural analysis often precedes or accompanies the teaching of sight-word reading during the early literacy phase. The identification of word boundaries is also a problem area in African languages. Confusion with regard to word boundaries will impact on the development of phonological awareness skills in Southern Sotho. English, also classified as a synthetic language, represent a combination of the isolating, agglutinative and fusional morphological varieties in word formation. Words in English also display many language-specific word structures, e.g. initial consonant clusters, consonant blends and rhyme that are absent in Southern Sotho. Negative transfer from Southern Sotho to English will influence the development of phonological awareness skills in English as well as the ability to perform phonological awareness tasks in English. o Phonological differences The phonemic inventory of a language is language-specific as it contains the specific sounds of the language. The development of phonological awareness in a L2 may be more difficult if languages display few similarities in respect of their phonemic inventories. The different phonemic inventories of Southern Sotho and English may lead to many phonological transfer errors, such as allophonic, phonetic and distributional errors when Southern Sotho ESL learners transfer to English as L2. o Prosodic differences. Prosodic differences between Southern Sotho and English influence the ability to perform phonological awareness tasks in English, such as segmentation of words into syllables, onset-rimes and phonemes. For example, tone in Southern Sotho has a semantic function. By contrast, in English, stress has a semantic function and is used to distinguish between nouns and verbs. Pronunciation of the L1 influences phonological processing abilities such as phonological recoding in long-term memory. Errors in phonological re-coding lead to retrieval mismatches and will result in poor phonological awareness skills in English as L2. o Orthographic differences Southern Sotho represents a transparent orthography using the disjunctive way of writing words. English on the other hand, is represented by an opaque orthography employing the conjunctive way of writing words. These differences will impact on the development of phonological awareness skills as well as decoding skills in Southern Sotho and in English. It is therefore recommended that: • Language educators should obtain as much information as possible regarding the pronunciation system of their learners' first language, and compare it to the sound system of English. • Educators of ESL learners must acquire a broad repertoire of skills for teaching the grapheme-phoneme relationships in English to learners who may be unfamiliar with the English sound system. • Southern Sotho learners should develop phonological awareness by means of activities that support not only reading but also writing skills in order to improve all language skills in English. Article 3: Research studies indicate that phonological awareness in words in the primary language is the most important predictor of reading ability as well as reading disability during the early literacy phase. However, language-specific differences (e.g. phonological, morphological and orthographic differences at word level) between languages seem to influence the correlation between phonological awareness and reading ability. To determine the influence of language-specific differences between Southern Sotho and English on the above-mentioned correlation the following research questions were raised: • Will language-specific differences between Southern Sotho and English affect the level of phonological awareness skills of Southern Sotho learners in English as L2? • Will language-specific differences impact on the correlation between phonological awareness skills and sight-word reading in Southern Sotho and in English as L2? One hundred and twenty grade 3 Southern Sotho learners aged 9 to 10 years participated. Approximately sixty learners were assigned to two groups: mothertongue instruction and instruction through the medium of English during the Foundation Phase. To address the first research question, both groups were tested on phonological awareness tests in Southern Sotho and in English to determine their level of phonological awareness in their mother tongue and in English as L2. A sentence segmentation test was also introduced to test the ability of Southern Sotho learners to segment sentences into words as this a problem area in African languages. The result from this test revealed that only 14% of Southern Sotho learners could correctly identify words in sentences in their L1, and 44% of ESL Southern Sotho learners could correctly identify the number of words in English sentences. This basic linguistic concept must be addressed during the early literacy phase in Southern Sotho and in English as L2. The results from the phonological awareness tests in Southern Sotho and in English indicated that Southern Sotho learners in both groups perform at the phonemic level, i.e. at the intermediate level between syllable awareness and the most sophisticated level of phoneme manipulation. Both groups had the lowest scores on phonological awareness tasks that represent linguistic structures that are absent in Southern Sotho. This is a clear indication that language-specific differences between Southern Sotho and English significantly influence the level of phonological awareness skills in English as L2. The results from the sight-word reading tests revealed that although both groups of Southern Sotho learners achieved the same level of phonological awareness, Southern Sotho mothertongue learners performed better on the sight-word reading tests in their L1 than their counterparts in English as L2. This may be due to the fact that it is easier to achieve early reading success in phonetic languages. To address the second research question two correlations were drawn to test the relationship between phonological awareness and an aspect of reading ability, namely sight-word reading in both languages. o Correlation 1: Results from Southern Sotho learners in the SPAT and the SEPAT were correlated with results obtained from standardised reading and spelling tests in both languages. o Correlation 2: The results from Southern Sotho learners in the oral subtests of the SEPAT and the SPAT were correlated with their results in the non-word reading and spelling tests of the SEPAT and the SPAT. The results from Correlation 1 and 2 indicate that for both groups the correlation coefficient is between 0.4 - 0.6, indicating a moderate to a high correlation between the two variables. This is however, not an indication of a causal relationship. Additional factors, e.g. in this study, language-specific differences between the L1 and L2 also contribute to the relationship between the variables. It is therefore recommended that: • Direct and specific instruction is given regarding the sound-symbol relationship that exists in words in English (phonics instruction). • The mother tongue should be used as the medium of instruction for as long as possible in order to develop cognitive academic skills in all learners. • A standardised Southern Sotho phonological awareness test is developed as a diagnostic test to identify Southern Sotho learners who are risk for future reading problems.
Afrikaans: Artikel 1: Wanneer die ontwikkeling van fonologiese bewustheid in 'n eerste en in 'n tweede taal bestudeer word, moet daar allereers op die belangrikheid van verwerwing van leesgereedheidsvaardighede ( soos fonologiese bewustheid) gelet word en hoe dit aanvangslees ondersteun. Voorbereidende leesvaardighede in alfabetiese tale sluit kennis van 'n verskeidenheid van leesgereedheidsvaardighede in, soos byvoorbeeld dat geskrewe woorde betekenis oordra, dat woorde uit 'n reeks opeenvolgende klanke bestaan en dat klanke in woorde min of meer deur ooreenstemmende simbole verteenwoordig word. Die ontwikkeling van fonologiese bewustheid sowel as klank-simbool ontsluiting ondersteun dus die ontwikkeling van 'n sigwoordeskat. Internasionale navorsing beskou fonologiese bewustheid as een van die belangrikste voorspellers van leesvermoë asook moontlike leesprobleme tydens die aanvangsleesfase. Fonologiese bewustheid vorm deel van 'n groter konstruk, naamlik fonologiese prosessering. Navorsing toon aan dat fonologiese prosessering twee dimensies verteenwoordig, naamlik kodering en klankbewustheid (phonological awareness). Fonologiese koderingsprosesse sluit in fonetiese en fonologiese herkodering in die kort- en langtermyngeheue, wat weer 'n belangrike rol in woordherkenning speel. Fonologiese of klankbewustheid dui op die bewuswees van alle klankeenhede in 'n taal; van woorde in sinne tot indiwiduele foneme in woorde. Fonologiewe bewustheid verwys ook na die vermoë om 'n verskeidenheid fonemiese take uit te voer. Die maklikste take is om woorde in sinne te onderskei, woorde in lettergrepe te verdeel, rymherkenning en om klanke saam te voeg om woorde te vorm. Die moeilikste fonemiese take is om indiwiduele foneme in woorde te identifiseer en te manipuleer. Fonologiese bewustheid is deel van algemene taalontwikkeling van normale kinders tydens die voorskoolse jare. Woordeskatuitbreiding lei tot eksplisiete bewus wees van klanke in woorde. Die hoogste vlak van fonologiese bewustheid, naamlik bewustheid van indiwiduele foneme in woorde, ontwikkel slegs wanneer daar met formele leesonderrig begin word. Fonemiese bewustheid ontwikkel vinnig en maklik in fonetiese tale wat deur deursigtige (transparent) ortografieë verteenwoordig word (byvoorbeeld Suid- Sotho en Afrikaans). Dit is waarskynlik as gevolg van die direkte verteenwoordiging van klanke deur ooreenstemmende simbole. Die grootste uitdaging vir Suid-Sotho aanvangslesers is egter om woordgrense korrek te identifiseer en om woorde korrek te skryf. Woorde in Afrikatale word konjunktief (Nguni tale) of disjunktief (Sotho tale) geskryf. Die verskillende wyses waarop woorde in Afrikatale geskryf word, lei tot probleme om woordgrense te bepaal. Suid-Sotho aanvangslesers moet dus voorbereidende leesvaardighede ontwikkel om lees- sowel as skryfvaardighede te ondersteun. Die ontwikkeling van fonemiese bewustheid in Engels as eerste taal sal moeiliker wees omdat Engels deur 'n ondeursigtige (opaque) ortografie verteenwoordig word. In Engels is daar baie klanke in woorde wat nie direk met hul ooreenstemmende simbole verbind kan word nie. Die vermoë om woorde in lettergrepe te verdeel en om foneme in woorde te manipuleer is die beste voorspellers van leesvermoë in Engels. Die ontwikkeling van fonemiese bewustheid in Engels as tweede taal sal verskil ten opsigte van die ontwikkeling van fonemiese bewustheid in Suid-Sotho as moedertaal. Taalspesifieke verskille (fonologiese, morfologiese en ortografiese verskille) wat tussen tale bestaan sal die ontwikkeling van fonologiese bewustheid in 'n tweede taal beïnvloed, veral as daar min ooreenkomste tussen dié tale bestaan, (soos byoorbeeld tussen Suid- Sotho en Engels). Engels tweede taalleerders mag dus fonemiese bewustheid teen 'n stadiger tempo en op 'n later stadium in Engels ontwikkel. Engels tweede taal leerders mag ook 'n laer vlak van fonologiese bewustheid in Engels bereik indien hulle nie intensiewe onderrig in die klanke-simbool verbinding in Engels ontvang nie. Hierdie agterstand mag tot ernstige lees-, spel- en skryfprobleme in Engels lei. Bykomende faktore, soos gebrekkige kommunikasievaardighede, gebrekkige woordeskat en kulturele agtergrond mag die ontwikkeling van vroeë leesvaardighede verder nadelig beïnvloed. Dit word dus aanbeveel dat leesonderrig eerstens op die ontwikkeling van moedertaalvaardighede sal fokus omdat eerste taal vaardighede as metavaardighede na 'n tweede taaloorgedra wat die ontwikkeling van soortgelyke taalvaardighede in 'n tweede taal ondersteun. Ouditiewe vaardighedede, soos byvoorbeeld luister- en gespreksvaardighede moet ontwikkel word sodat Engels tweede taal leerders met die klanke en taal-spesifieke woordstrukture in Engels vertroud kan raak. Artikel 2: Navorsing wat die algemene and taalspesifieke eienskappe van leesontwikkeling ondersoek, toon aan dat fonologiese bewustheid aanvangslees ondersteun in tale wat deur 'n deursigtige (transparent) sowel as 'n ondeursigtige (opaque) ortografie verteenwoordig word. Daar is egter wesenlike taalspesifieke verskille tussen Afrikatale (byvoorbeeld Suid-Sotho) en Engels wat 'n Europese oorpsrong het. Suid-Sotho en Engels beskik ook oor spesifieke fonologiese, morfologiese en ortografiese taalstrukture wat beduidend van mekaar verskil. Taalspesifieke verskille tussen tale sal die ontwikkeling van aanvangsleesvaardighede, soos fonologiese bewustheid, in 'n tweede taal beïnvloed, veral as daar beduidende verskille tussen dié tale bestaan. Die volgende taalspesifieke verskille tussen Suid-Sotho en Engels wat aanvangsleesvaardighede in Engels beïnvloed, word kortliks bespreek. • Oorsprong Suid-Sotho vorm deel van die Sotho taalfamilie afkomstig van die Niger- Kongo taalgroep van Afrika. Engels is deel van die Germaanse taalfamilie afkomstig van die Indo-Europese taalgroep. Suid-Sotho en Engels, twee van die elf amptelike tale van Suid-Afrika, toon wesenlike verskille wat hul herkoms aanbetref. Hierdie verskille salleesgereedheidsvaardighede (soos fonologiese bewustheid) in Engels as tweede taal nadelig beïnvloed. • Strukturele (morfologiese) verskille Suid-Sotho is 'n sintetiese taal wat agglutinerende eienskappe in woordvorming vertoon. Suid-Sotho woorde bestaan uit 'n reeks morfeme wat in 'n spesifieke volgorde namekaar verskyn. Alle Suid-Sotho woorde begin met 'n enkele konsonant en eindig op 'n vokaal of /ng/. Kennis van morfeme asook die vermoë om woorde in morfeme te verdeel is net so belangrik as fonologiese bewustheid in woordherkenning. Tans is daar geen eenvormige manier om woordgrense in Afrikatale te bepaal nie. Daar is dikwels verwarring waar woorde begin en eindig. Hierdie verwarring sal probleme vir aanvangslesers in Afrikatale veroorsaak wanneer fonologiese bewustheid in die moedertaal en ook in Engels as tweede taalontwikkel moet word. Engels is ook 'n sintetiese taal, maar vertoon isolerende, agglutinerende en verbindingselemente in woordvorming. Woorde in Engels word meestal gevorm deur voor- en agtervoegsels aan stamme te voeg. In baie gevalle kan stamwoorde selfstandig funksioneer. Stamwoorde kom selde in Suid-Sotho voor. Woorde in Engels bevat ook taalspesifieke woordstrukture, soos byvoorbeeld konsonantgroeperings en rym wat onbekend in Suid-Sotho is. Fonologiese take wat woordherkenning in Engels ondersteun sal dus nie dieselfde funksie in Suid-Sotho verrig nie. • Fonologiese verskille Tale beskik oor hul eie unieke klanke. Dit sal dus moeiliker wees om klanke in 'n vreemde taal te herken wat beduidend van die moedertaal verskil, soos byvoorbeeld die taalklanke van Suid-Sotho en Engels. Die verskillende klanke wat in hierdie twee tale voorkom kan dus probleme vir Suid-Sotho leerders veroorsaak wanneer hulle aanvangsleesvaardighede in Engels as tweede taal moet ontwikkel. Oordrag vanaf die moedertaal mag tot allofoniese, fonetiese en distributiewe oordragsfoute lei. Fonologiese oordragsfoute lei gewoonlik tot gebrekkige fonemiese bewustheid wat weer lees-, spel- en skryffoute veroorsaak. • Prosodiese verskille Prosodiese verskille tussen Suid-Sotho en Engels beïnvloed ook die vermoë om fonologiese take korrek uit te voer. Suid-Sotho is 'n toontaal. Toon in Suid-Sotho het 'n semantiese funksie, terwyl aksent in Engels die semantiese funksie vervul. Foutiewe uitspraak beïnvloed fonologiese prosessering wat weer die foutiewe herroeping van klanke uit die lang-termyn geheue tot gevolg het. Dit mag probleme veroorsaak wanneer Engels tweede taal leerders fonologiese bewustheid in Engels moet ontwikkel. • Ortografiese verskille Suid-Sotho word deur Ondeursigtige (transparent) ortografie beskryf en maak gebruik van die disjunktiewe skryfwyse. Engels word op sy beurt deur On ondeursigtige (opaque) ortografie verteenwoordig en skryf woorde konjunktief. Hierdie verskille sal alle voorbereidende leesvaardighede beïnvloed. As gevolg van hierdie taalspesifieke verskille wat tussen Suid-Sotho en Engels bestaan ° word dit dus aanbeveel dat: • Opvoeders in die taalleerarea soveel as moontlik omtrent die eerste taal van hulle leerders sal uitvind en hoe dit van Engels verskil, sodat hierdie verskille aan die leerders uitgewys kan word. • Opvoeders oor vaardighede moet beskik om leerders bekend te stel aan die eiesoortige klanke wat in Engels voorkom en watter simbole hierdie klanke voorstel (phonics instruction). • Suid-Sotho leerders moet ondersteun word om nie net leestake te bemeester nie, maar ook om spel- en skryfvaardighede in Engels as tweede taal te ontwikkel. Artikel 3: Internasionale navorsing bewys dat fonologiese bewustheid in die moedertaal die belangrikste voorspeller van leesvermoë sowel as leesprobleme tydens die aanvangsleesfase is. Dit blyk egter dat taalspesifieke verskille wat tussen tale bestaan (fonologiese, morfologiese en ortografiese verskille) die korrelasie tussen fonologiese bewustheid en leesvermoë beïnvloed. Om die invloed van taalspesifieke verskille wat tussen Suid-Sotho en Engels bestaan, op bogenoemde korrelasie te bepaal, is die volgende navorsingsvrae gestel: • Sal taalspesifieke verskille tussen Suid-Sotho en Engels die vlak van fonologiese bewustheid van Suid-Sotho leerders in Engels as tweede taal beïnvloed? • Sal taalspesifieke verskille die korrelasie tussen fonologiese bewustheid en sigwoordherkenning in Suid-Sotho en in Engels as tweede taal beïnvloed? Een honderd en twintig graad 3 Suid-Sotho leerders, (ouderdom 9 tot 10 jaar) is by die ondersoek betrek. Ongeveer 60 leerders is aan twee eksperimentele groepe toegewys: Moedertaalleerders en leerders wat Engels-medium onderrig tydens die Grondslagfase ontvang het. Om die eerste navorsingsvraag aan te spreek is albei groepe se vlak van fonologiese bewustheid met fonologiese bewustheidstoetse in die moedertaal en in Engels gemeet. Die vermoë om die aantal woorde in 'n sin te identifiseer is vooraf getoets omdat dit 'n probleemarea in Afrikatale is. 'n Woordherkenningstoets, naamlik die Sentence Segmentation Test (SST) is hiervoor gebruik. Die resultate toon aan dat slegs 14% graad drie Suid-Sotho moedertaalsprekers die korrekte aantal woorde in Suid-Sotho sinne kon identifiseer, en 44% Suid-Sotho leerders wat in Egnels onderrig ontvang die korrekte aantal woorde in Engelse sinne. Dit is duidelik dat hierdie belangrike taalkonsep nie gedurende die Grondslagfase onderrig word nie. Die resultate afkomstig van die fonologiese bewustheidstoetse dui aan dat beide groepe Suid- Sotho leerders op die fonemiese vlak funksioneer; dus op die intermediêre vlak, tussen die sillabiese en die mees gevorderde vlak van foneemmanipulasie. Albei groepe het die swakste gevaar op fonologiese take wat woorde bevat het wat taalspesifieke strukture insluit wat nie in Suid-Sotho voorkom nie (byvoorbeeld rym en konsonantgroeperings in woorde). Dit dui aan dat taalspesifieke verskille tussen Suid-Sotho en Engels die vlak van fonologiese bewustheid in Engels as tweede taal nadelig beïnvloed. Alhoewel die twee groepe ongeveer dieselfde vlak van fonemiese bewustheid het, toon die resultate van die sigwoordherkenningstoetse dat Suid-sotho moedertaalleerders baie beter kan lees as dié leerders wat deur middel van Engels tydens die Grondslag onderrig word. Dit is waarskynlik te wyte aan die feit dat dit makliker is om in fonetiese tale te lees, as in tale soos Engels, wat deur 'n ondeursigtige (opaque) ortografie beskryf word. Om die korrelasie tussen fonologiese bewustheid en 'n belangrike komponent van leesvaardighede, naamlik sigwoordherkenning te bepaal, is twee korrelasies bereken: • Korrelasie 1: Die resultate van Suid-Sotho leerders op die fonologiese toetse is met die resultate op die gestandaardiseerde lees- en speltoetse in Suid-Sotho en Engels behaal is, gekorreleer. • Korrelasie 2: Die resultate wat Suid-Sotho leerders op die ouditiewe subtoetse en op die nie-woord lees- en speltoetse (deel van die fonologiese toetse) behaal het, is met mekaar gekorreleer. Vir beide korrelasies was die korrelasie koëffisiënt tussen 0.4 en 0.6. Dit dui op 'n matige tot sterk verband tussen die veranderlikes. Die resultate dui egter nie op 'n oorsaaklike verband tussen die veranderlikes nie. Bykomende faktore, (byvoorbeeld taalspesifieke verskille wat tussen Suid-Sotho en Engels bestaan) het die korrelasie tussen die veranderlikes beïnvloed. Om Engels tweede taalleerders dus tydens die aanvangsleesfase te ondersteun, word aanbeveel dat: • Fonologiese bewustheid ontwikkel word in die moedertaal, maar ook in Engels as tweede taal, omdat swart Suid-Afrikaanse leerders aan die begin van graad vier na Engels as taal van onderrig en leer oorskakel. • Deeglike onderrig verskaf word in simbool-klankverbinding in Engels (decoding skills). Dit sal lees, skryf en spelvaardighede in Engels verbeter. • 'n Gestandardiseerde fonologiese bewustheidstoets as diagnostiese toets in Suid-Sotho ontwikkel sal word om toekomstige leesprobieme by Suid- Sotho leerders tydens die aanvangsleesfase te identifiseer.
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Keywords
English, Early reading skills, Phonological awareness, Phoneme awareness, Phonological awareness tasks, Sight-word reading, Transparent orthography, Opaque orthography, Language-specific differences, Metalinguistic skills, Reading comprehension, English language -- Phonology, Sotho language -- Phonology, Language awareness in children, Bilingualism in children, Dissertation (M.Ed. (Education))--University of the Free State, 2004
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