Consumer Science

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Open Access
Anolyte as an alternative bleach for cotton fabrics
(University of the Free State, 2015-01) Seiphetlheng, Kgalalelo; Steyn, H. J. H.
English: Bleaches are used in the textile industry for brightening, whitening and cleaning fabrics. The two commonly used bleaches are hypochlorite and peroxide bleaches. Peroxide bleaches are used more often than chlorine bleaches in fabric finishing. Chlorine is a harsh chemical harmful to human health and may even destroy the cotton fibre if not monitored. It destroys the cellulose and that affects the quality of the bleached fabric. Large amounts of these bleaches are released into the environment through washing and they harm the environment and ozone layer. Hence, new and better ways of bleaching needs to be investigated. Electrochemically activated water (Anolyte) has been recently introduced to the food industries as a disinfecting agent. Disinfection with Anolyte has been successful and convenient because Anolyte is generated onsite by simple electrolysis of a dilute salt solution. The production of Anolyte requires lower production cost and hazards associated with handling, transportation and storage. Anolyte is stable and after 48 hours the solution become inactive water and can be discarded without causing harm to the environment. Although Anolyte has been successful in the food industry, extensive research has not been done to determine whether it can be used in the textile industry. The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of Anolyte as a bleaching agent compared to the commonly used sodium hypochlorite. Distilled water was used as control. The efficacy of Anolyte was determined at 24°C 30°C, 40°C, 60°C and 80°C. The effect of Anolyte and sodium hypochlorite on bleached cotton, unbleached cotton, dyed cotton and stained cotton respectively were evaluated in terms of tensile strength, stiffness and whiteness. Further investigations were done on the effect of bleaching temperatures mentioned above and duration of exposure ranged from 9 minutes, 18 minutes, 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 60 minutes, 90 minutes and 120 minutes. The study was an experimental research where bleaching of samples was done according to AATCC Test Method 61- 2009 carried out in the Launder-Ometer. Reactive red dyed cotton, vat blue dyed cotton, bleached cotton and unbleached cotton were laundered for 5, 10 or 20 cycles respectively for the evaluation of the influence on tensile strength, stiffness and colour change. The tensile strength tests were conducted with the Instron Tensile Tester and ISO/SANS 13934-1:1999 test method. The stiffness test ASTM D1388 – 08 the Cantilever principle was used. While AATCC test method 135-1985 for instructional colour measurement of textiles was used in determining colour change. 169 The results gathered from the study indicated that Anolyte was less effective than sodium hypochlorite as a stain remover for blood, tea, soot/mineral oil and blackcurrant juice. Anolyte caused more colour loss on coloured materials than sodium hypochlorite especially at high temperatures. Anolyte was less effective in bleaching unbleached cotton than sodium hypochlorite but without harming the tensile strength of the cotton. Although Anolyte caused dyed cotton to lose colour, the stiffness of the dyed cotton was less than that bleached with sodium hypochlorite, making the cotton fabric to be much softer and desirable. It was also gathered that sodium hypochlorite reduced the tensile strength of vat blue dyed cotton and bleached cotton more than Anolyte. However, Anolyte on the other hand reduced the tensile strength of reactive red dyed cotton more than sodium hypochlorite.
Open Access
Antioxidant content and potential of fresh and processed cladodes and fruit from different coloured cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica and Opuntia robusta) cultivars
(University of the Free State, 2013-02) Du Toit, Alba; De Wit, M.; Osthoff, G.
English: Different coloured cactus fruit, peel, seeds and cladodes were studied for antioxidant content and -capacity in fresh products. Fruit and cladodes from seven different cultivars from the O.ficus-indica spp. and one of O. robusta spp. were collected representing the four colours of fruit available namely, green, pink, orange and purple. It was found that fresh cactus pear fruit and cladodes contained exceptionally high levels of Ascorbic acid, Total Phenolics and Betalains and modest amounts of Carotene. Antioxidant potential remained at very high levels regardless of the specific antioxidant content. The highest antioxidant content and -capacity were found in purple (O.robusta Robusta) fruit and cladodes, attributed to the high levels of Betalains. Ascorbic acid, working synergistically with Phenolics, was found to provide almost as much antioxidant capacity to orange fruit coloured cultivars. It was thus found that cultivars with purple and orange fruit and cladodes were the best in regards to antioxidant content as well as -potential. Five cultivars, representing the four colours were further investigated by processing into different products in order to determine the influence that preservation techniques had on the antioxidant content and potential in the fruit, peel and cladodes. Juice, dried products, chutneys, whole preserves and pickles were prepared from the fruit (pulp), peel and cladodes of the five different coloured cultivars that attained the highest values in the fresh study. Betalains were retained in processed products; Ascorbic acid was mostly preserved in the processed products that involved minimal heat treatments, while Carotene and Phenolics increased after processing. Processed cladodes, more than fresh cladodes, from all the cultivars, were concluded to provide an excellent source of antioxidants and could be suggested for products such as cladode flour and pickles. The peel in general was found to contain very similar antioxidant content and potential as the fruit and should be included in products when possible. In fruit, the purple fruit is highly recommended for processing, as it displayed the highest antioxidant potential in its fresh form and maintained these levels in processed product. Dried fruit is the product with the highest source of antioxidants to the consumer. Juice and chutney from pink or orange fruit would also provide products that the South African consumer is accustomed to with exceptionally high antioxidant potential. The study brings to light the potential that cactus pear products have for the food industry. It could be developed into a profitable industry if the public could be made aware of the health benefits that they provide.
Open Access
An assessment of Seshoeshoe dress as a cultural identity for Basotho women of Lesotho
(University of the Free State, 2007-09) Pheto-Moeti, ‘Mabokang Baatshwana; Riekert, D. M.; Pelser, A. J.
English: The focus of this survey study was to investigate the perceptions of the people regarding the seshoeshoe dress as part of the cultural identity for Basotho women in Lesotho. The population for the study was derived from the Lesotho College of Education staff and students, representing consumers, and the seshoeshoe dressmakers within the Central Business District area of Maseru as producers of the seshoeshoe dress. A quantitative research design with both a questionnaire and a structured interview was used to obtain information from the staff and students; an interview schedule was used to gather information from the dressmakers. The study was carried out within the theoretical framework of the cultural, contextual and semiotic perspectives, in which the contextual perspective facilitated an understanding of the interface between the individuals’ appearance and cultural processes. The cultural perspective provided a shared symbolic order within which people interpreted and developed meanings, while the semiotic analysis allowed the investigator to document the functions of dress in terms of its use within communities as well as within the Basotho society. Findings emerging from the study indicate that seshoeshoe dress is a symbol of national identity for Basotho women. Seshoeshoe dress is expensive. Appropriate new styles are acceptable but there is a concern regarding over- modification of the traditional style. Despite the emergence of the modernised seshoeshoe dress styles, and while a certain amount of change is allowed, the traditional style should be maintained and safeguarded as a cultural heritage. Current styles were found to be attractive to both the youth and the elderly, although mostly to the youth. Current styles, in addition to being attractive, demand less fabric and labour. The modified seshoeshoe dress styles are more popular than the traditional styles. Dressmakers are more familiar with the names of motifs than are their customers. A way for classifying these motifs was developed during the study. Preferred colours of consumers are lebete (spleen), blue, brown, golden blue and golden brown. Style, taste, acceptance and fashionability all play an important role in the popularity of seshoeshoe dress. Improved economy and technology have resulted in the emergence of a variety of new styles offering a wider choice to consumers. Seshoeshoe fabric should be used for purposes that will continue to dignify it as part of the cultural identity of the Basotho people. The study recommends that in order for the contributions of the Morija Arts and Cultural Festival and, the Cultural Days held at schools to be sustainable in terms of the significance of seshoeshoe as a cultural identity for Basotho women, the government through the Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Environment should formalise these activities at national level.
Open Access
Changes in the food security status during the Covid-19 pandemic among the elderly within the Bethal District, Mpumalanga, South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2023) de Jager, Aninka; Cronjé, Natasha; Oldewage-Theron, Wilna
South African households were established to be food insecure prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, hunger in Africa has only increased since the COVID-19 pandemic, due to its effects on economies and job losses. Moreover, the food security status of the elderly in the Bethal district, Mpumalanga, remained unknown for the time period prior to and during COVID-19. Therefore, this study focused on determining the food security status of the elderly with the use of HFIAS (Household Food Insecurity Access Scale) and HDDS (Household Dietary Diversity Score), also including food access and availability, health effects of COVID-19 and consumer food behaviour amongst the elderly in the Bethal district in Mpumalanga prior to and during COVID-19. A mixed-method study with a total sample of 112 people, between the ages of 60 and 100 years, who live in the Bethal district (including: Amersfoort, Bethal, Ermelo, Kriel, Middelburg, Morgenzon, Secunda, Volksrust, Wakkerstroom, Witbank/eMalahleni, Devon, Brakpan, Lothair, and Perdekop). A structured questionnaire in the form of a survey was employed to obtain quantitative data. The qualitative component utilised semi-structured interviews that were conducted in person with the researcher in order to gain information of the participant’s experience on the COVID-19 lockdown and it’s effects on food security. Descriptive and inferential analysis to determine significance was done with SPSS version 26. Only 21.6% of elderly respondents reported various levels of food insecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, no significant differences were observed in the number of respondents that were severely food insecure prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, more than half (54.1%) respondents reported taking part in physical activity during lockdown; even though, the majority of the respondents did not meet the recommended physical activity guidelines of exercising at least 30 minutes per day. Very few (20.5%) of respondents reported weight gain during the COVID-19 lockdown period, as very few also reported being an emotional eater. A few participants (n=16) reported experiencing mental health difficulties due to social media content received during lockdown. More than half (69.9%) of respondents reported being diagnosed with a chronic illness during the COVID-19 pandemic. The HDDS indicated that the elderly consumed more healthy foods during the COVID-19 pandemic compared to prior the pandemic, as very few respondents reported consuming more snacks during the lockdown, and very few reported lockdown as stressful or affecting their sleep negatively. The findings suggest that food security prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic remained high amongst the sampled population. However, mild to severe food insecurity percentages increased during the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic was observed to increase health difficulties experienced, which include chronic illnesses and mental health. No significant differences were reported in the elderly’s physical activity during the COVID-19 pandemic. The majority of the elderly did not experience a change in income during the COVID-19 pandemic. For future research, more in-depth studies are necessary to explore the elderly’s consumer behaviour, how provinces within South Africa’s elderly food security differ after the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically focussing on the low-income elderly within South Africa and how food price increases since the COVID-19 pandemic has influenced the elderly’s food security.
Open Access
Degumming Gonometa postica cocoons using environmentally conscious methods
(University of the Free State, 2015-02) Van der Merwe, Ismari; Steyn, H. J. H.; Hugo, C.
English: The trend in the textile industry is at present towards eco-friendly processes and minimising the adverse ecological effects of production. Silk degumming is a high resource-consuming process, as far as water and energy are concerned. It further is ecologically questionable, because of the high environmental impact of effluents. The development of an effective degumming process would mean saving water and energy, recovery of valuable by-products such as sericin peptides, and lower environmental impact of effluents. The aim of this study was to develop and evaluate environmentally conscious degumming methods that could discriminate between sericin and fibroin, without harming the fibroin. The methods used and evaluated as environmentally conscious methods were tested against Orvus paste and all the samples were exposed to the method at a constant temperature of 32°C and a period of 10 days. Results indicated that an increased degumming time resulted in a decrease in the silk fibroin average molecular weight. A clear band at 25 kDa appeared with all the methods, indicating that the light chains were separated from the heavy chains during degumming. The degumming weight loss ranged from 27 to 41% over a time period of 10 days. Two of the methods namely the combination Orvus paste and Eucalyptus oil and catholyte were more efficient than Orvus paste. The SEM micrographs showed no fibrillations. This indicated further that the degumming methods were successful; the sericin was removed without damage done to the surfaces of the fibres. The maximum load and displacement means of the fibres differed with the different degumming methods applied. The strongest fibres were obtained from the control method. The weakest fibres came from the Vermicompost method. The results demonstrated that the environmentally conscious methods allow efficient, low cost degumming of sericin.
Open Access
The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids with specific reference to Echium seed oil on pork quality
(University of the Free State, 2019-01) Van Wyngaard, Barbara Elizabeth; Hugo, A.; Strydom, P. E.; Pohl-Albertyn, C. H.; De Witt, F. H.; Kanengoni, A.
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of Echium seed oil, together with other n-3 containing oils, on the levels of long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), eicosapentanoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) deposited in the animal tissue. Further, to determine the effect of these experimental diets on animal production and meat quality under commercial production conditions. The study also included the manufacturing of processed meat products from experimental animals and determining the chemical and sensory stability of such products. Sixty Landrace x Large White crossbred pigs, with an average weight of ± 30 kg, were randomly divided into five treatment groups. These treatments comprised of a control diet, supplemented with 1% palm oil (BergaFat HPL-160) and four experimental diets supplemented with one of 1% soya oil, 1% linseed oil, 1% fish oil and 1% Echium oil. Pigs were fed until the average live weight was ± 110 kg. Growth performance (weight increase, ADG and FCR) showed no significant differences between treatments. The only differences in carcass characteristics were the linseed treatment which demonstrated a smaller shoulder circumference and thinner backfat thickness compared to the other treatments. Backfat from the control had the best technological properties as it had lower levels of PUFA and a lower double bond index (DBI) compared to the other treatments. The Echium treatment had the highest levels of stearidonic acid (SDA) (mg/100g tissue) in the back-, belly fat and muscle. In all three these tissues the Echium treatment also had higher levels of EPA and DPA, however it was still significantly lower than the levels in the tissue of the fish oil treatment. In both the back- and belly fat, the Echium had no effect on the levels of DHA, however in the muscle it did increase the levels of DHA. The levels of EPA, DPA and DHA was the highest in the fish oil treatment, however the Echium treatment had significantly higher levels than the other treatments. There were no problems with lipid stability in either the fresh or frozen pork and values were far below the threshold value. A trained panel was unable to detect any sensory differences between the Echium treatment and the control. Processed meat products are more susceptible to lipid oxidation and increasing the levels of PUFA normally causes accelerated rancidity problems. In general pork bangers had very high TBARS and the Echium treatment had the highest values. The high TBARS values had a clear influence on the sensory properties as the bangers from the Echium treatment scored the lowest for taste, aftertaste and overall acceptability. Bacon did not have any problems with either the lipid stability or sensory properties, due to the anti-oxidative action of nitrite and the preservative effect of smoking. TBARS values for all treatments from the salami were all below the threshold value were rancidity could be detected. Under the US Food and Drug Administration guidelines the meat from Echium oil treatment in this study can be labelled as a source of EPA, DPA and DHA as it contributed more than 10% to the daily recommendation. Pork products (bangers, bacon and salami) manufactured from meat of the Echium treatment can be labelled an excellent source of total n-3 PUFA as they contribute 91.5, 34.08 and 41.1% respectively. Therefore, pork and pork products from animals fed Echium oil can be considered functional foods as it will have a positive effect on human health. South African pig producers may therefore consider using Echium oil to improve the healthiness of their pork and marketing it as a health food.
Open Access
Empowerment model for people with disabilities participating in income generating activities: a case of a protective workshop in Bloemfontein
(University of the Free State, 2018) Tinta, Nokuthula; Steyn, H. J. H.; Vermaas, J. F.
𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 South Africa has 7,5% of people living with a disability. As a result, they experience difficulty in accessing education and employment opportunities. This high level of unemployment consequently results in people with disabilities working in sheltered employment which are offered by the State or by private welfare organisations and self- help programmes that are not sustainable in themselves. The aim of the study was to design an empowerment model that can enhance the participation of people with disabilities in income-generating activities. To achieve this aim, the study explored the experiences and perceptions of people with disabilities working in a protective workshop towards income-generating activities. The researcher used a qualitative approach to explore the experiences of people with disabilities participating in income-generating activities in one of the protective workshops in Bloemfontein. A total of 18 participants were recruited, using a purposive sampling approach. Both observations and semi- structured interview guides were used to generate more in‐depth interpretations from the participants. The content analysis which is based on turning the observations and data from the interviews into themes that can be used to gain insight into participants were applied. Findings indicated that the participants were involved in most popular informal income- generating activities such as beading, knitting, tapestry and sewing and that the majority had not attained adequate education and training to enable them to participate effectively in income-generating activities. Findings also indicated that the participants were mainly faced with attitudinal and institutional barriers, which have had an adverse influence on their performance. Despite the challenges that the participants were experiencing, the findings suggest that the participants also benefited in various ways from their involvement in the workshop. It is concluded that despite government schemes and programmes people with disabilities participating in still experience institutional, attitudinal and physical barriers as viewed by the social model. The main recommendations are that education and training to empower people with disabilities should start from pre-school to adulthood as it will raise perfection which will enhance effective task performance in the future as well as provision of more training programs and workshops that will empower people with various disabilities with vocational and life skills. People with disabilities participating in income-generating activities empowerment model could enhance the skills of people with disabilities. ___________________________________________________________________
Open Access
The evaluation of catholyte treatment on the colour and tensile properties of dyed cotton, polyester and polyamide 6,6 fabrics
(University of the Free State, 2015-01) Cronjé, Natasha; Steyn, H. J. H.
English: Colour is one of the most significant factors in the appeal and marketability of textile products. Cotton, polyester and polyamide 6,6 are the most prominent groups of fibres used in the world. A Life Cycle Assessment done on textile products revealed that the area of greatest environmental impact is the consumer use phase, due to the laundering habits for the care of these products over its life span. With the development of electrochemically activated water (Catholyte) and some research done to suggest it might be an environmentally friendly alternative detergent for laundering; the environmental impact during the consumer phase can therefore be considerably scaled down. The influence of Catholyte on the colourfastness of textiles is, however, unknown. Thus it was the aim of this study to determine the influence of Catholyte on certain colourfastness properties of dyed cotton, polyester and polyamide 6,6 textile fabrics. The sulphur, direct, reactive and azoic dyed cotton, disperse dyed polyester and acid dyed polyamide 6,6 textile fabrics were laundered (AATCC 61) with Catholyte, detergent and filtered water at 40C and 60C for five, ten, twenty or fifty cycles respectively. Wash fastness and staining (AATCC Evaluation Procedure 6) were measured instrumentally with a Konika Minolta Spectrophotometer 2300d using illuminant 10 standard observer. Colourfastness to rubbing, dry and wet (AATCC 8), as well as tensile strength (SANS 1092) was also evaluated. The colorimetric data obtained was converted to Gray scale ratings (AATCC Evaluation Procedure 12). The results indicate that laundering with Catholyte caused slightly less Gray scale values as opposed to laundering with detergent, with regards to sulphur and direct black dyed cotton. Higher wash fastness was observed when reactive black and direct red dyed cotton samples were laundered with Catholyte, as opposed to laundering with detergent. When laundering disperse red dyed polyester, acid red dyed polyamide, azoic orange, reactive red, blue, violet and green dyed cotton, with both Catholyte and detergent indicated similar wash fastness results. Staining results indicate that laundering sulphur black, reactive black, red, blue and violet, azoic orange dyed cotton and acid red dyed polyamide with detergent resulted in less staining than laundering with Catholyte. Laundering direct black dyed cotton resulted in less staining when laundered with Catholyte, compared to laundering with detergent. Regardless of laundering the disperse red dyed polyester, direct red and reactive green dyed cotton with either Catholyte or detergent, similar staining results were observed. The influence of both Catholyte and detergent on the colourfastness to dry rubbing of sulphur black, direct black and reactive black and red, azoic orange dyed cotton and acid red dyed polyamide were similar. Laundering the disperse red dyed polyester and the direct red, reactive green and blue dyed cotton, resulted in slightly higher colourfastness to dry rubbing when laundered with detergent. Laundering the reactive violet dyed cotton with Catholyte resulted in better colourfastness to dry rubbing when compared to laundering with detergent. Laundering the direct black, reactive black, red, blue, violet and green, azoic orange dyed cotton, disperse red dyed polyester and acid red dyed polyamide with Catholyte and detergent resulted in similar colourfastness to wet rubbing. Laundering the sulphur black and direct red dyed cotton with detergent resulted in slightly less colourfastness to wet rubbing when compared to laundering with Catholyte. Laundering sulphur black, reactive black and violet, direct red and azoic orange dyed cotton with detergent, caused greater loss in tensile strength as opposed to laundering with Catholyte. Laundering the direct black and reactive red, blue and green dyed cotton, disperse red dyed polyester, acid red dyed polyamide with Catholyte, caused greater loss in tensile strength.
Open Access
The evaluation of conventional retting versus solar baking of Agave americana fibres in terms of textile properties
(University of the Free State, 2006-11) Mafaesa, 'Manonyane Albertina 'Mamthimk'ulo; Steyn, H. J. H
The overall goal of the study was to evaluate solar baking against conventional retting as decortication methods of Agave americana fibre in terms of textile properties. The study focused mainly on: • Identification of the most cost-effective, efficient and eco-friendly methods of partial degradation of Agave americana leaves to release the textile fibre. • Evaluating the physical structure of Agave americana fibre decorticated by solar baking and conventional retting. • Evaluating the essential textile properties and some secondary textile properties of Agave americana fibre fabric to predict its possible end uses in textiles. Preliminary comparison of ten different leaf partial degradation methods, suggested the feasibility of investigation of solar baking as a partial degradative method for fibre extraction. Conventional retting was chosen to be the control method. The solar baking process was found successful, energy saving, more eco-friendly and faster than conventional retting of the Agave americana leaves. Fibre decortication was entirely done by hand after the leaves were partially degraded. After hand decortication the fibres were then knotted, twined and woven into fabric. Long beautiful fibre with natural look was obtained from Agave americana leaves. Agave americana fibre in its natural condition is coarse, harsh and stiff when dry. Fibre identification tests confirmed that Agave americana react like all other natural cellulosic fibres in burning behaviour, solubility and Shirlastain C identification tests. Microscopic evaluation indicated that the fibre consisted of a number of irregularly sized and shaped individual cells, each with a lumen. The Shirlastain C colour reaction and the crosssectional view of the Agave americana fibre are unique and would be useful to distinguish Agave americana from other natural cellulosic fibres. The physical structure and the length of Agave americana fibre were evaluated while the fibre was in a fibre form. The retted and solar baked Agave americana fibre yarn was evaluated for tensile strength and elongation at break. The thickness, stiffness, dimensional stability, crease recovery, dye ability, moisture regain and water absorption of the Agave americana fabric of the solar baked and retted fibres were evaluated. Agave americana fibre showed adequate tensile strength and elongation at break to be a useful textile fibre. No significant differences were found between the tensile strength of the retted and the solar baked fibre. Agave americana exhibited excellent dimensional stability; it showed relaxation shrinkage with no residual shrinkage. Agave americana showed good water absorption and moisture regain properties. Agave americana accepted the direct dye easily even without bleaching. The Agave americana fibre fabric was found to be relatively stiff. Agave americana exhibited poor crease recovery no significant difference in crease recovery were found between retted and solar baked fibre fabrics, but the warp yarns recovered significantly better from creases than the weft yarns. Agave americana fibre is a promising speciality cellulosic fibre which has a potential of being valuable for current as well as future applications. The research proved that solar baking is an efficient, fast and environment friendly alternative to conventional retting as a partial degradation method for Agave americana fibre decortication.
Open Access
The evaluation of electro-chemically activated water as an alternative detergent for polyamide and machine washable wool
(University of the Free State, 2010-05) Van Heerden, Natasha; Steyn, H. J. H.
English: The electro-chemical activation of aqueous media is relatively new technology. The alkaline part of the activated media (catholyte) is used in a wide variety of applications due to outstanding detergency properties. The standard phosphate based detergents currently used by consumers cause a negative impact on the environment. Catholyte provides an environmental friendlier alternative as it returns to be neutral water within 48 hours after activation. Although catholyte may be an environmentally friendly medium for washing, the influence that it has on the properties of textile materials, for example wool and polyamide is still only based upon speculation. Little is also known about the soil removal efficiency of this medium on wool and polyamide. The aim of this study was to evaluate electro-chemically activated water (catholyte) as an alternative detergent for machine washable wool and polyamide 6,6. This was done by determining the influence of catholyte on certain important properties of these textile fabrics as well as the soil removal efficiency. The machine washable wool and polyamide 6,6 textile fabrics were laundered at 30°C and 40°C with catholyte, phosphate detergent or distilled water for five, ten, twenty or fifty laundering cycles respectively. The standard test methods for laundering (AATCC 61) and measuring the tearing strength (ASTM D1424), tensile strength (ISO/SANS 13934-1), wrinkle recovery (AATCC 66), bending length (BS 3356), soil removal (AATCC 135) and dimensional change were used. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for the statistical interpretation of the results obtained. Catholyte, detergent and distilled water caused a significant decrease in the tearing strength of both the polyamide 6,6 and wool fabrics. The temperature had no significant influence on the tearing strength of polyamide 6,6 fabric although it caused a significant decrease in the tearing strength of wool. The number of laundering cycles caused a significant decrease in the tearing strength of the warp yarns of polyamide 6,6 as well as the weft and warp yarns of wool, however it did not have a significant influence on the weft yarns of polyamide 6,6. Catholyte, detergent and distilled water as well as the temperature and number of laundering cycles did not have a significant influence on the tensile strength on the weft yarns of the polyamide 6,6. It did however cause a significant decrease in tensile strength of the warp yarns of polyamide 6,6 and the weft and warp yarns of wool. Catholyte, detergent and distilled water as well as the temperature and number of laundering cycles had a significant influence on the bending length (stiffness) of polyamide 6,6 and wool, causing the fabric to become stiffer. Catholyte, detergent and distilled water caused a significant increase in the wrinkle recovery in the weft of polyamide 6,6 and decrease in wrinkle recovery in the weft of wool. It did not have a significant influence in the warp of wool and polyamide 6,6. The temperature had no significant influence on the wrinkle recovery of the wool and weft of polyamide, although it caused a significant fluctuation in the warp of polyamide 6,6. The number of laundering cycles caused a significant fluctuation in the wrinkle recovery of the polyamide 6,6 and wool fabrics. Catholyte, detergent and distilled water, as well as the temperature and number of laundering cycles did not have a significant influence on the dimensional stability of polyamide 6,6. It did however cause the wool fabric to shrink significantly. Catholyte and detergent proved to be significantly effective in removing soil from polyamide 6,6 and wool. The temperature only had a significant influence on soil removal from the wool.
Open Access
Evaluation of the antimicrobial effect and strength properties of polyester, polyester/cotton and cotton treated with Anolyte
(University of the Free State, 2011) Vermaas, Jana F.; Steyn, H. J. H.; Hugo, C.
English: Textile materials are usually treated with chemicals like sodium hypochlorite and high temperatures to ensure sterility. This poses two potential problems: (1) it has a negative effect on strength properties of the textile fabric; (2) the harmful chemicals are discarded into the environment. Therefore, better and safer methods need to be investigated. A process has been developed where electro-chemically activated water (Anolyte) is produced by an anode-cathode system and the process is described as a change of the molecular state of the water. After production, the Anolyte exists in a metastable state while containing many free radicals and a variety of molecules and a very high oxidation-reduction potential. It returns to a stable state after 48 hours and become inactive again and, therefore, it is not a threat to the environment when discarded after use. Anolyte has been shown to be an effective disinfection agent in other areas such as the food industry. The aim of this study was to determine if Anolyte could reduce E. coli and Staph. aureus on textiles to the same extent as sodium hypochlorite and be effective without implementing such high temperatures. The influence of the Anolyte on textile material should also be evaluated to ensure that it could be used without damaging textile materials more than the currently used disinfection agents. The antimicrobial effect of the Anolyte was determined by contaminating cotton, polyester and polyester/cotton fabric swatches with E. coli and Staph. aureus, respectively. Survival was determined after laundering with the respective wash liquors. AATCC Test Method 61- 2009 was used with the LaunderOmeter. Wash liquors included filtered water, phosphate reference detergent B, sodium hypochlorite and Anolyte. Temperatures were maintained at 24, 30 or 60°C. The cotton, polyester/cotton and polyester were laundered for 5, 10 or 20 cycles respectively for the evaluation of the influence on tensile strength and tearing strength. The tensile strength tests were conducted with the Instron Tensile Tester and ISO/SANS 13934-1:1999 test method. The tearing strength tests were conducted with the Elmendorf Tearing Strength tester as per ASTM Test Method D 1424 - 63. The results indicated that Anolyte destroyed all E. coli and Staph. aureus on all the fabrics regardless of the temperature. The effect of the other agents were enhanced by the increasing temperature, but after laundering at 60°C no survival was found as a result of the high temperature. The Anolyte did not influence the strength properties of the cotton, polyester and polyester/cotton fabrics to a larger extent than the detergent or sodium hypochlorite solution. An increase in maximum load required to break the fabric and displacement at maximum load was found for the cotton and polyester/cotton fabrics after laundering treatments, while a decrease was caused after laundering of the polyester fabric. A decrease in tearing strength of all the fabrics was found after laundering with the treatments. The Anolyte also did not affect the dimensional stability of the fabrics. It could be concluded that the Anolyte is a viable alternative to currently used sodium hypochlorite, while it is effective at low temperatures. The Anolyte do not affect the textile fabrics more negatively than the detergent and sodium hypochlorite combination, and could, therefore, be a successful alternative.
Open Access
Exploring food insecurity, food waste, and dietary diversity among rural and urban households of Lesotho
(University of the Free State, 2023) Molapo, Maletsie; Cronjé, Natasha; de Wit, Maryna
Lesotho is one of the sub-Saharan African countries that perpetually struggles with food insecurity. Consumers in Lesotho still waste food despite living in a low-income country. Most people live under the poverty line of US$1.00 per day and low-income households consume meals that are low in diversity, which elevates micronutrient deficiencies. Consequently, many children under five years of age experience stunting, obesity, and micronutrient deficiencies due to a lack of food or insufficient intake. The study sought to explore household food insecurity, estimate the quantity of household food waste, determine household dietary diversity, and identify food preservation techniques in rural and urban areas of Lesotho. The research was conducted in four of the 10 districts of Lesotho, namely Mafeteng, Thaba-Tseka, Leribe, and Qacha’s Nek. The sample size was 440 households, and stratified random sampling was used for the selection of participating households. A mixed-methods approach was utilised and an exploratory descriptive design was adopted. Both structured questionnaires and interviews were employed, which represented quantitative and qualitative elements. The questionnaire addressed socio-demographics, the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), food waste, the Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS), and food preservation. The consumers who participated in the study were 18 years and older. The analysis was conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, and Fisher’s exact test was used to compare variables. Food insecurity was significantly higher in the rural areas than the urban areas, where four categories were measured, namely food secure, mildly food insecure, moderately food insecure, and severely food insecure. Indicators of food insecurity were to be being a female, being unemployed, and cooking with open fire. Using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and electricity for cooking significantly were found to reduce food insecurity. Total food waste estimations were calculated at 190.9 kg (rural) and 156.2 kg (urban) per week, resulting in annual estimated food waste of 13 003.2 kg (rural) and 7 496.8 kg (urban), totalling 20, 500 kg of household food waste in Lesotho annually. The main ways that consumers discard food waste in both rural and urban areas are using compost heaps, discarding it in the garbage bin, and burying it. All these were significant predictors of food waste even though they had a weak correlation. It is also a common practice to give food waste to animals. The main reasons for food waste in both the rural and urban areas were that consumers like to eat fresh food, they are too busy to cook planned meals, food is left too long in the refrigerator/freezer, they buy too much food, they do not check the cupboard or refrigerator/freezer before going shopping, and some members of the household do not always finish eating their food. Food groups that are not wasted in large quantities in rural and urban are fruits, vegetables, milk and dairy products, legumes, and grains. The dietary diversity of the rural and urban areas differs significantly, with diversity in the urban areas being higher than in the rural areas. Food groups mostly consumed are cereals (soft/stiff porridge and bread) and leafy green vegetables (rape, cabbage, and spinach). Fruits are mostly consumed when they are in season because they are expensive otherwise. Factors that significantly contribute to increasing the HDDS are using electricity and LPG for cooking. Factors that significantly decrease the HDDS are being female, cooking with an open fire, and purchasing food every two weeks. More consumers preserve food in urban areas than in rural areas, and the prominent techniques for preserving food are sun drying and bottling, while fewer consumers in both rural and urban areas consider salting and freezing. Food insecurity is still high, even though diversity is promising. It is therefore recommended that the creation of awareness be established, through policies and other platforms regarding, household food waste, food security and eating patterns.
Open Access
Food preferences of international students at the University of the Free State
(University of the Free State, 2016) El Ogrban, Izdehar Emhemmed; Steyn, H. J. H.; Vermaas, J. F.
No abstract available
Open Access
Investigation of the food security situation and food consumption patterns in Grassland Phase 4 informal settlement in Mangaung, South Africa
(University of the Free State, 2022) Louw, Malessa; Du Toit, A.; Cronjé, N.; Van Niekerk, J. A.
The current food system must provide adequate access to nutritious food for people in poor communities. An inadequate food system can contribute to food insecurity and malnutrition affecting low-income households. Poverty in informal settlements (townships) is the main cause of the lack of physical and economic access to nutritious food. Challenges such as long distances to grocery shops, transport problems, increased inflation rates, low incomes, unemployment, and inadequate information about nutritious food mean that the food system needs to become more effective in distributing adequate food. Many low-income households rely on cheap and nutrientpoor cereals such as bread, maize flour, and rice without adding many other nutrientrich food groups to their meals. The objective of this study was to investigate the food security and consumption habits of households in Grassland Phase 4 informal settlement in Mangaung. The study looked at preparation and consumption patterns, coping strategies, access to water sources, location of food purchases, total household income, and household transport. Challenges in the food system prevent adequate access to food, making households in informal settlements such as Grassland Phase 4 vulnerable to food insecurity and poor consumption patterns. The research design is quantitative, with a descriptive and exploratory approach. The sample size was 300, with compensation for incomplete questionnaires. In this study, a structured questionnaire with closed and open-ended questions was used to collect the required data. In this study, the software program EvaSys© was used to compile and construct the questionnaire. The HFIAS score, HFIAP indicator, and CSI score were used to determine the level of food insecurity. In this study, the FCS method was used to determine dietary diversity and frequency of food groups consumed. SPSS version 25 was used for basic descriptive statistics. The data collected were presented as frequencies and percentages in tables and graphs for each categorical question. Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients were calculated in this study using the scaled data. The results of the study show that 54% of the respondent population was female, and 78.5% of the household heads were in a productive and economically active age group of 21 to 59 years. Only 27.9% of the respondents had tertiary education. Most (73.8%) of the respondents occupied a shack or informal dwelling. The main income of the household came from social benefits (51.4%) and old age pensions (45.5%). The results showed that 4.7% of the households had an income of less than R1000 per month. In addition, 19.4% of the households had no electricity and used a paraffin cooker to prepare meals. Many (66.8%) of the respondents used a minibus taxi for grocery shopping. The study found that 54.1% of households needed access to a water source for cooking. The HFIAS score of 3.32 showed that households had a medium level of food insecurity. The HFIAP category showed that 49.9% of households were food insecure, of which 17.8% were severely food insecure. These households went to bed hungry and sometimes had nothing to eat for a whole day. The CSI score of 41.8 indicates a moderate level of food insecurity. The FCS value of 31 indicates that the status of food security in Grassland Phase 4 is borderline (acceptable). This study thus shows that households are experiencing moderate to severe food insecurity and are consuming only certain major food groups. This study shows that the most consumed cereal was maize flour and the least consumed was whole grains. A process such as nixtamalization, which increases the nutritional value of maize, is essential for households where maize is consumed as a staple food, as maize contains little fibre and other nutritional components.
Open Access
Nutritional composition, descriptive sensory analysis and consumer acceptability of products developed from Agave americana flowers
(University of the Free State, 2014-02) Semuli, Makamohelo; Bothma, C.; Osthoff, G.
English: The nutritional composition of agave flowers was determined and the following nutrients were analysed: moisture (86.62%); energy (226 kJ/100 g); proteins (1.71 g/100 g); fat (0.46 g/100 g); dietary fibre (2.12 g/100 g); K (207.77 mg/100 g); Mg (53.06 mg/100 g); Ca (48.33 mg/100 g); P (32.12 mg/100 g); Na (1.27 mg/100 g); Fe (1.03 mg/100 g); Zn (0.66 mg/100 g); Cu (0.04 mg/100 g); and Mn (0.15 mg/100 g). In contrast to many vegetables, the flower samples contained sugars in the form of sucrose (0.52 g/100 g), glucose (0.77 g/100 g), fructose (1.06 g/100 g) and maltose (0.69 g/100 g). The vitamin C content was 1.03 mg /100 g, but no vitamin A was detected. When compared to other flower vegetables, the agave flower had the lowest contents for protein, P, K, Mn, Na, Cu and vitamin C, but the highest value for fat. The agave flower and artichoke had similar values for energy, moisture and Mg, while the cauliflower and agave compared well in regard to Ca and Zn contents. Broccoli had similar contents for protein, fibre, P and Cu. The agave had higher values for energy, and fat than cauliflower, and higher fat and Ca, Fe, Mg, P and Zn values than broccoli. Artichokes had lower contents for moisture, fat, Ca and Zn than the agave flowers. Broccoli and cauliflower were moister than the agaves. Descriptive sensory analysis was used to investigate how various treatments would influence the sensory properties of Agave americana flowers. Blanched and unblanched flowers, subjected to three treatment methods (steaming, stir frying and pickling), were analyzed by ten trained panelists, in three replications. The data was analyzed using principle component analysis. A lexicon of 20 attributes was generated, including 11 for the steamed treatment, an additional six for the stir fried treatment and another four for the pickled treatment. Of these, three descriptors were for the attribute aroma, six for mouthfeel, five for appearance, four for taste and one for aftertaste. The unblanched pickled agave flowers were characterized by crunchy, fibrous and chewy mouthfeel, bitter taste, green pepper colour and cactus appearance, and a cucumber odour. For the blanched pickled agave flowers, taste descriptors were prominent, namely sweet, sour and sweet-sour, followed by a sweet aftertaste, combined with a moist appearance. For all the unblanched flowers, regardless of treatment, some of the descriptors had negative connections, like fibrous, bitter, cactus and rancid. Descriptors for the blanched flowers, again regardless of treatment, were more favourable and included sweet, sour and sweet-sour taste, and green bean and nutty odour. Three panels of 50 members each participated in the consumer acceptance tests, one each for the steamed breads and chocolate cakes, and one for the stew and deep fried flowers. Apart from acceptability, aroma, taste and texture were also evaluated for the baked products. The breads, cakes and stews were defrosted at 4 ºC overnight. The breads and cakes were left at room temperature (22ºC) before serving, while the stews were served heated. The breads, fritters and stews were prepared with blanched flowers, while the cake was made with unblanched flour. All the products were acceptable, but in different degrees. The scores were lower for aroma and final acceptability of the bread, due to unfamiliar texture experienced by the consumer panel. The agave cake scored lower for aroma and taste, but higher than the bread on texture. The stews and battered agave fritters were liked by the consumer panels and scored between 6.92 and 7.26 on the hedonic scale.
Open Access
Selection, extraction, characterization and application of mucilage from cactus pear (Opuntia ficus-indica and Opuntia robusta) cladodes
(University of the Free State, 2016-08) Du Toit, Alba; De Wit, Maryna; Hugo, Arno; Fouché, Herman
English: Cactus pear plants (Opuntia ficus-indica and Opuntia robusta) are edible plants that grow and thrive in the semi-arid area of the Free State, South Africa, yet are unknown food sources. Cactus pear cladodes could be developed into a crop that could offer solutions in terms of food security, yet are ignored and underutilized in South Africa. Extensive research done abroad on the nutritional and therapeutic properties of cladodes and mucilage verified its high potential for human consumption. The development of mucilage into a commercial nutraceutical food product offers an opportunity to add value to the crop while providing a healthy product that could significantly enhance the well-being of the South African consumer. A successful, easy, inexpensive and chemical free extraction process was developed, yet cladodes were not equal in terms of the amount of quality of mucilage. Thus, the most appropriate cultivar for optimal mucilage yield and quality from forty-two local cultivars had to be selected and cladode harvesting time established. It was found that mucilage yield was not a consequence of cladode size or moisture content, but of cultivar and viscosity. Seven cultivars were selected that proved to have the lowest viscosity while commercially viable in South Africa (O. ficus-indica cultivars namely Algerian, Meyers, Morado, Ficus-Indica, Gymno-Carpo, Tormentosa, Turpin). The eighth cultivar represented a different species (O. robusta Robusta). Further morphological and rheological investigations revealed that the dormant stage (dormant months) would be the optimal harvesting time, while the selection of cultivars were narrowed down to four (O. ficus-indica Algerian, Morado, Gymno- Carpo and O. robusta Robusta). Mucilage (native and freeze-dried powders) from all cultivars showed non-Newtonian, pseudoplastic tendencies. Higher viscosity mucilage was time dependent, rheopectic and had yield stress tendencies. Fluctuations in temperature, pH, concentration and electrolytes influenced the mucilage viscosity that could affect product texture. In the analyses of the native mucilage, lower pH during summer was correlated to higher mucilage yields. The flow properties, water- and oil- related properties showed the high potential of mucilage powders as commercial nutraceutical product. The chemical analysis of freeze-dried mucilage powders showed high fibre and minerals, yet low fat and carbohydrates. Although the protein content was low, the presence of proteins was confirmed for the protein-lipid interaction necessary in the stabilization action of emulsions. The higher organic acids in summer concurred with the lower pH (as a consequence of CAM) that in turn affected the mucilage viscosity and yield. Mucilage was successfully applied to food products and is recommended for commercialization as a nutraceutical food product. In terms of cultivar selection, ‘Robusta’ had the highest contents of protein, total fats (beneficial fatty acids), starch, potassium and phosphorous, while ‘Algerian’ mucilage had the lowest energy and insoluble fibre, but highest calcium, iron and copper contents. ‘Gymno-Carpo’ had high linoleic acid, magnesium and manganese and good fat ratios. It is recommended that cladodes be harvested in the summer months, directly after the fruit had been harvested for optimal mucilage yield and quality. ‘Robusta’ emerged as the best cultivar for higher viscosity mucilage and Algerian for lower viscosity mucilage of the best quality. However, a careful selection of the most appropriate cultivar mucilage would be paramount for specific food applications.
Open Access
The water, energy and soil removal efficiency of a top and a front loader washing machine
(University of the Free State, 2011-11) Seiphetlheng, Kgalalelo; Steyn, H. J. H.
English: Water and energy are used in the domestic laundering processes for optimum soil and stain removal. Water and energy conservation are important issues in the quest for more environment friendly household practices. Washing machines have been invented as household gadgets making laundry easier and faster. Common types of washing machine include top loaders, front loaders and twin tubs. Literature indicate that top loaders use less electricity but more water and front loaders use less water but more electricity. However efficient soil removal is the main concern of the consumer. The purpose of the study was to determine water, energy and soil removal efficiency of a top loader and a front loader washing machine. A quantitative research strategy was used and controlled experiments were conducted in order to attain accurate data. An 8.0 kg capacity top loader and an 8.5 kg capacity front loader of the same manufacturer were purchased. The “daily wash program” and the “quick wash program” of both machines were selected as wash programs for the project. Cold wash (water at room temperature) was used for the top loader and cold wash, 30 °C, 40 °C and 60 °C for the front loader. A 5kg load of 3 samples of C-09 cotton (soiled with pigment oil, purchased from CFT) and cotton filler cloths were used for each wash cycle and each cycle repeated three times. The efficiency of the machines and programs to remove stains were tested on the following stains: CS-103 red wine, CS-12 blackcurrant, CS-BC-03 tea, C-BC-02 coffee, CS-28 rice starch, CS-26 corn starch, CS-6 dressing, CS-73 locust bean gum, CS-54 oatmeal/chocolate, CS-38 egg yolk/pigment, CS-01 blood, C-05 blood/milk/ink, CS-08 grass, CS-02 cocoa, C-10 pigment/oil/milk, C-02 olive oil/soot, CS-32 sebum bey, CS-17 make-up and CS-216 lipstick. 60g Non phosphate ECE reference detergent without optical brightener was used. Redeposition of soil was determined on CN-11 white cotton. The drained water was collected and measured in litres. The energy consumption was measured in watt-hour in every program. Soil removal was measured with a colorimeter in CIE L*a*b* colour scale (AATCC test method 61-2010) and an analysis of variance was used to aid in the interpretation of the data. The results of the study indicate that, the top loader used more water than the front loader. The daily wash used more water than the quick wash in both the top loader and front loader. The front loader used more energy than the top loader at cold wash. More energy was used in the daily wash than quick wash of the front loader. It was also evident that the daily wash program in both machines was more efficient in soil and stain removal than the quick wash. At cold wash the daily wash was more efficient in soil and stain removal than the quick wash program but at 60 °C there was no difference in the rate of stain removal in both the quick and daily wash programs. The best soil and stain removal was observed at 60 °C in both the quick and daily programs. The top loader machine used more water, less energy and removed less soil and stain. It was also evident that, the front loader washing machine is more efficient in soil and stain removal and it uses less water but it uses more energy than the top loader machine.

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